Computers & Education 53 (2009) 484492

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Computers & Education

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/compedu

A constructivist computational tool to assist in learning

primary school mathematical equations
Aleandra da Silva Figueira-Sampaio *, Eliane Elias Ferreira dos Santos, Gilberto Arantes Carrijo
Universidade Federal de Uberlndia, Ps-Graduao em Engenharia Eltrica, Campus Santa Mnica, Bloco 3N, Caixa Postal 593, 38408-100 Uberlndia, MG, Brazil

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history:
Received 24 September 2008
Received in revised form 13 March 2009
Accepted 17 March 2009

Keywords:
Elementary education
Improving classroom teaching
Interactive learning environments
Virtual reality

a b s t r a c t
In constructivist principles, learning is a process in which individuals construct knowledge. Research in
Mathematics Education looks for ways to make mathematics education less dry and more attractive.
When solving polynomial equations of the rst degree, it is very common for teachers to work with
the mistaken idea of changing the sign when moving the member. To minimize this problem, a balance can be used to illustrate the idea of equilibrium and also properties of equality. The objectives of this
study were (1) develop a computational tool to replace a conventional balance in practical mathematics
exercises thereby solving two material challenges for Brazilian teachers: verifying the accuracy of balances and the lack of student physical and social activity through direct participation; (2) determine
how substituting the conventional balance with a computational tool for the solution of rst degree polynomial equations affected the aspects inherent in the learning process like motivation, cooperation, dialogue, discussion, reection, reciprocity, negotiation and responsibility. The results indicate that the
cognitive computational tool met the challenges of Brazilian teachers. First, because it lacks mechanisms
that need to be veried for accuracy in order to demonstrate equilibrium. Second, because it allows the
direct participation of students (physical experience) and the use of the tool in small groups (social experience). The hands on completion of the activity, realistic appearance, the interaction with the tool, visual
feedback on the panel, and two students using the same tool awakened motivation, responsibility for
completing the activity, dialogue, cooperation, discussion and reection. Doing the experiment with others aroused concern about the learning of others and reciprocity of knowledge for the improvement of the
procedure to be constructed for solving 1st degree equations.
2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Teaching methods have changed as a result of the evolution of pedagogic thought that has occurred throughout the 20th century. Until
the mid 1990s, different teachinglearning paradigms, originating from the main philosophicpedagogic trends, were centered sometimes
on teachers, sometimes on students and at other times on resources. Since the end of the 1990s, the socialization of the principal research
of various theoreticians like Jean Piaget, Lev Vygotsky, Henri Wallon, David Ausubel, George Kelly and Philip Johnson-Laird indicates that
knowledge is a cognitive construction.
Taking the theories of Piaget (1952, 1970a, 1970b, 1977) and Vygotsky (1962, 1978), learning is a process in which individuals construct
knowledge through experience, prior knowledge and social interaction in a constant relation between internal and external factors,
promoting cognitive development.
Among some of the principles of best educational practices proposed by constructivist theories are the following: (a) contact between
students, (b) reciprocity and cooperation, (c) active learning, (d) feedback, (e) time on task, (f) high expectations and (g) respecting learning
styles (Chickering & Gamson, 1987); (h) learner independence and choice, (i) intrinsic motivators and natural curiosity, (j) rich, timely,
usable feedback, (k) coupled with occasions for reection, (l) active involvement in real-world tasks, (m) emphasizing higher-order abilities, (n) done with other people, (o) in high-challenge, low-threat environments, (p) that provide for practice and reinforcement (Marchese, 1997), (q) learners are engaged in solving real-world problems, (r) existing knowledge is activated as a foundation for new

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +55 34 3239 4707; fax: +55 34 3239 4706.
E-mail addresses: aleandrasampaio@yahoo.com.br, aleandrasampaio@doutorado.ufu.br (A. S. Figueira-Sampaio), elianelias@yahoo.com.br (E.E.F. dos Santos), gilberto@
ufu.br (G.A. Carrijo).
0360-1315/$ - see front matter 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2009.03.012

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knowledge, (s) new knowledge is demonstrated to the learner, (t) new knowledge is applied by the learner and (u) new knowledge is integrated into the learners world (Merrill, 2002).
During the last few years, the number of cognitive computational tools based on constructivist principles has increased because they
offer greater scope in achieving potential learning benets than do traditional modes of instruction (Duffy, Lowyck, & Jonassen, 1993;
Mayes & Fowler, 1999; Steffe & Gale, 1995; Wilson, 1996). The integration of new information and communication technologies has made
transformations in teaching methods (Haddad, 2007).
Research in Mathematics Education in Brazil and other countries indicates the need to review pedagogic practices and to look for ways
to make mathematics education less dry and more attractive. A signicant part of unsatisfactory performance among students occurs because of pedagogical practices that are based on the transmission of content, skills training and mechanical memorization of process without understanding (Brasil, 1998). In a scale of very critical, critical, intermediate, adequate and advanced, 57% of Brazilian students who had
nished middle school, were in the two lowest levels of the mathematic learning performance measure: critical and very critical (Arajo &
Luzio, 2005). Therefore, it is necessary, among other things, that educators know the best educational strategies that are based on the
knowledge of how mathematical concepts are constructed (Arajo & Luzio, 2005; Dourado, 2004).
In dealing with solving rst degree polynomial equations in mathematics education in Brazil, it is very common for teachers to work
with the idea of moving terms from one side of the equation to the other which is associated with the mistaken idea of changing sign
when changing side. To illustrate the error committed by students that work with this perspective, consider the equation
5x + 50 = 3x + 290 and follow how a student would solve it (Table 1).
To minimize the problem detected above, a balance can be used to illustrate the idea of equilibrium and also properties of equality (Aczel, 1998; Carpenter, Franke, & Levi, 2003; Filloy & Sutherland, 1996; Saenz-Ludlow & Walgamuth, 1998; Warren & Cooper, 2005). To illustrate equality for addition, add algebraically equal quantities to both sides of an equation, and for multiplication, multiply both sides by the
same value, maintaining equality (Table 2).
Using a balance has been very useful. It is the most popular tool for teaching the procedure of solving rst degree equations (Lins, 1992).
Even with its limitations, such as the difculty in viewing the manipulating negative quantities and decimal coefcients (Aczel, 1998), students have demonstrated better understanding using this procedure which has been reected in better results in the construction of algebraic thinking (Warren & Cooper, 2005).
Besides the didacticpedagogic limitations presented in the balance based model, this research shows other signicant challenges faced
by teachers in Brazil. Because the balances used in schools are already outdated, teachers have two main challenges. The rst of these is to
check the balances to make sure that they actually demonstrate the idea of equilibrium expressed in the equality (equation). Most of the
time, the teacher needs to prepare the balance the day before mathematics practice. The second is the difculty to maintain the equilibrium
of the balances throughout the entire experiment. Exploration of the environment (the balance) and the objects (the weights) by students is
not permitted because this can affect the equilibrium of the balance and make it difcult to present the idea of equilibrium.
Combining the balance as a pedagogical strategy of the balance in teaching rst degree equations with new technologies to solve the
two material challenges Brazilian teachers is a challenge. It is therefore essential to develop a cognitive computational tool to replace conventional balances in practical mathematics exercises. This tool can modernize education and at the same time motivate students and awaken their desire for knowledge. Furthermore, using teaching resources to build knowledge involves concepts inherent in the learning
process. Therefore, using the cognitive computational tool developed to solve rst degree equations also affects these issues. Although
the conventional balance does bring benets, it relegates students to the role of mere spectators during the learning process. With a computational tool, students can participate as active members in the educational process. So, it is important to know how replacing a conventional balance with a cognitive computational tool can affect aspects of the learning process.
Thus, the objectives of this study were: (1) develop a computational tool to replace the conventional balance for practical mathematics
exercises and thereby solve two material challenges of Brazilian teachers: checking the accuracy of the balance and the lack of physical,
logicalmathematical and social student involvement through direct participation, (2) checking how the replacement of the conventional
balance with a computational tool for the solution of 1st degree equations affects aspects of the learning process such as motivation, cooperation, dialogue, discussion, reection, reciprocity, negotiation and responsibility.

Table 1
Incorrect solution of an equation using the idea of changing sign.
Equation
(a) 5x + 50 = 3x + 290
(b) 5x 3x = 290 50
(c) 2x = 240
(d) x = 240/ 2

Solution
(b) Terms are separated by those that have a variable on one side and those that do not on the other. In addition, the student inverts
the sign of the terms that changed side
(c) Operations are carried out
(d) The student continues with the incorrect idea that changing sides means inverting the sign

Table 2
Solving an equation using the equivalence principle.
Equation

Solution

(a) 5x + 50 = 3x + 290
(b) 5x + 50 3x = 3x + 290 3x
(c) 5x 3x + 50 = 3x 3x + 290
(d) 2x + 50 = 290
(e) 2x + 50 50 = 290 50
(f) 2x = 240
(g) 2x/2 = 240/2

(b) Add 3x to both sides of the equation (addition property of equality)

(c) Group similar terms together.
(d) Carry out operations with terms of the same type
(e) Add ( 50) to both sides of the equation (addition property of equality)
(f) Carry out operations
(g) Multiply both sides of the equation by 1/2 (multiplicative property of equality)

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2. Theoretical research model

The theoretical research model (Fig. 1) is based on knowledge built through student explorations and experiences with objects. The
characteristics of these objects and negotiation with other subjects establish a means to guide students to independent problem solving
through interaction. Given that the construction of knowledge is a process that involves two basic types of interaction: one, between
the learner and the objects of learning and another social one between the learner, teacher and other students (Bates, 1991), characterizing
the cognitive constructivism of Piaget (1952, 1970a, 1970b, 1977) and the social constructivism of Vygotsky (1962, 1978), respectively.
The computational tool, developed to solve the problems occurring with the use of the traditional balance, also attempts to satisfy the
need to promote effective teaching through pedagogical strategies that are based on the concept of knowledge construction.
Following the principles of the constructivist theory, the tool was developed to help construct knowledge through physical, logical
mathematical and social experiences. The knowledge to be constructed refers to a procedure to solve 1st degree polynomial equations.
The tool used as a pedagogical resource will be a virtual balance, inspired by a conventional balance. The weights are virtual objects that
correspond to known values represented by numerical constants and unknown values represented by the variable x. It is presupposed
that both physical and logicalmathematical actions will be guided by the additive and multiplicative principles of equivalence.
Physical experiences will be characterized when a student places a weight on or removes a weight from the virtual balance. The
result will be of a physical action on a virtual object. The equilibrium between the two plates will represent the equation. From a psychological point of view, a system is in equilibrium when a disturbance that modies the systems state has an opposite and spontaneous action that compensates for it (Inhelder & Piaget, 1955). In the same way, the placement or removal of an object from the balance creates
disequilibrium in the system. When students see (in the tools information panel or red light device) that the balance is not in equilibrium,
their compensatory action to reestablish equilibrium has a meaning that is much more theoretical than concrete. This is much more a
hypothetical action or a statement about possibilities than a concrete and real action which is characteristic of a logicalmathematical
experience.
The social experience is comprised of the computational tool which functions as a cultural mediator with the idea of balanced or unbalanced, by the teachers interventions as a knowledge facilitator and through the social exchanges or dialogues among students. Social interaction is human nature (Hull & Saxon, 2009) and dialogue between students occurs even when the tool is used individually. However, in
this study, it will be used in pairs.

Fig. 1. Theoretical research model.

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In planning the experiments, the researchers were concerned about pre-establishing a problem and then clearly providing the task required to solve the problem (through the manipulation of objects), helping identify the operations that comprise the tasks and the actions
that comprise the operations (through partial visualization of the results). When students are involved at all four levels of performance
(problem level, task level, operation level and action level) it is possible for them to complete proposed activities (Merrill, 2002). It was
also taken into consideration that each state of the virtual balance is the result of a transformation caused by a student. Thus, each specic
situation of the virtual balance is understood as a result of the previous additions and subtractions of weights or equalities and inequalities introduced on the two plates of the balance. Initially, the student will have a balance in equilibrium which represents an equation to
be solved by means of physical and logicalmathematical experimentation. In this proposal, students will also have to consider social experiences. The solution to an equation is the virtual balance in a state of equilibrium where in one of the two plates there is a weight corresponding to the variable x and in the other, a weight corresponding to a numerical constant. This nal balanced state indicates
the value of the variable of the equation that was initially given to the student.
Thus, the procedure built into the solution of a 1st degree polynomial equation is the result of an abstract process performed by a student. In the process of solving an equation, a students actions will not be physical and as a consequence, will no longer depend on the
virtual balance. These actions, which are now essentially logicalmathematical, are interpreted as the results of hypothetical-deductive
thinking built with the aid of a virtual balance. In this way, the principles of the procedure differ from those described in the introduction
where the student is given the information that terms change sign when they change side.

3. The environment and architecture of the computational tool

The computational tool was developed using the Virtual Reality Modelling Language (VRML) which permitted the creation of high quality three-dimensional objects. With the help of the JavaScript language, it was possible to create a more complex level of interactivity between students and objects which resulted in a more realistic scenario.
The tool can be utilized using a web browser like Internet Explorer and a plugin like Cortona VRML Client that permits the browser to
interpret VRML code. Both tools were used in this experiment and are both available to download for free from the Internet.
The proposed architecture is composed of two principle modules: Graphical User Interface and Equations. The Equations module is divided into three sub-modules: Virtual Objects, Behavior Control and Visual Control (Fig. 2).
The Graphical User Interface Module GUI allows access to the virtual environment. There are tasks in this module that can be executed
using virtual learning objects and visual results of the actions taken while solving rst degree polynomial equations.
A non-immersive virtual environment was developed in the Virtual Objects sub-module which consists of grouping geometrical shapes
(box, cylinder and sphere).
Computer graphics, like textures were used on some objects to create an environment as close as possible to the conventional, mathematical laboratory environment.
Consequently, when students entered the virtual environment, they encountered a balance in equilibrium with pre-placed objects and a
rst degree polynomial equation to be solved (Fig. 3). To solve the problem, students needed to remove objects from the balance and place
them on side tables. Students needed to consider the equilibrium of the balance in order to nd the value of x. An illuminated sphere,
placed strategically at the center of the balance, aided students by displaying different colors depending on the state of equilibrium of
the balance.
Object behavior was determined in the Behavior Control sub-module. Object control was achieved through JavaScript scripts in conjunction with VRML.
Each virtual object had a numeric value representing its mass and for each plate on the balance there was another number representing
the sum of the masses of the objects on each side. Every time an object was removed from the balance, a logical position test was executed
to determine from which plate the object was removed. A value of zero, representing mass, was assigned to each object removed form the
scale which consequently modied the weight sum of the plate. Afterwards, various logical tests were performed to verify the sums on the
right and left sides of the balance (Fig. 4).
For positive results to the conditional tests, the resulting data were shown in the display panel. The luminous sphere turned green when
the balance was in equilibrium and red when it was not. The spheres color system substituted the movement of a balance to indicate the
heavier side.
Visualization of virtual object behavior was achieved by the Visual Control sub-module. The visual panel was positioned in the upper
part of the tool where the effects of student interactions could be seen in real time. When the balance was not in equilibrium the sphere
turned red and students saw the message Balance not in equilibrium. . . This information guided students to remove another object in
order to put the balance back into equilibrium (Fig. 5), which helped develop understanding of the concept of equivalence.

Fig. 2. Architecture of the computational tool.

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Fig. 3. Initial screen with a pre-established problem and the balance in equilibrium.

While manipulating another object, trying to put the balance in equilibrium, students could visualize the addition property of equality
and the partial solution of the rst degree equation (Fig. 6). With this partial solution, students were guided to the next action in solving the
equation. Through this process students were given the opportunity to build knowledge through action and reection.
The architecture of the computational tool was used to model various equations of increasing levels of difculty in different environments giving students opportunities to deal with different situations. To improve the tool, the next step would be to develop various balances with different levels of problems in the same virtual environment. Students could advance at the rate proposed equations were
solved.
There were some programming limitations in the development of this tool. The mobility of a balance was substituted by the green and
red lighted sphere. This device, with the aid of the visual panel, indicated the equilibrium and disequilibrium of the balance. It was ascertained that this substitution did not compromise the use of the tool or the results obtained.

Fig. 4. Part of algorithm for the manipulation of objects on the balance.

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Fig. 5. Visual panel indicates that the balance is not in equilibrium after a students interaction.

4. Materials and methods

This research is of an exploratory and descriptive character. Exploratory research helps develop a general vision with certain phenomena in perspective, with the goal of identifying relevant variables that should be considered in the research. Whereas descriptive research
seeks, based on well dened objectives, to expose the characteristics of the phenomena or establish relationships between variables.
A qualitative technique was chosen because of the nature of the variables and in function of a need for a deeper analysis of the phenomenon under study within an integrated perspective (Denzin & Lincoln, 2000; LeCompte, Millroy, & Preissle, 1992). Because the scope of this
research is a deep study of the phenomena observed in their natural environment, the research t with the method of a case study (Yin,
2002). The use of a case study has the following limitations: the research consists of only one case and the results cannot be generalized.
The units of analysis were taken from the 6th year of a public elementary school. For convenience, the sampling method was not probabilistic and the sample consisted of two groups (denominated A and B). The mathematics teacher was the same for both groups.
In the 6th grade, students have their rst contact with, heretofore unknown, concepts, denitions and examples related to rst degree
equations. Therefore, to compose the sample, a basic condition was established requiring classes to have constructed preliminary concepts
in previous theoretical classes like open or closed sentences, true or false, unknowns, equality and rst degree equations. Only after the
development of these concepts in the classroom were students taken to the laboratories.
The units of observation consisted of 46 (forty-six) students total or 23 (twenty-three) in each group. Group A was taken to the computer laboratory to use the virtual balance. Group B was taken to the mathematics laboratory to use the conventional balance. In the computer lab, two students were placed at each computer in order to analyze interpersonal skills. Because of the pedagogicdidactic principles
of the school, it was not possible to have another group that only participated in the classroom but not in a laboratory.
In the laboratories, students were presented with ve rst degree polynomial equation problems of various levels of difculty
(x + 4 = 10 + 4; 5x + 1 = 35 + 1; 2x + 5 = 10 + x; 3x + 12 = 12 + 13 + 2x; 5x + 50 = 3x + 290). They were also provided with a balance and a teacher was present. In the computer laboratory, the equations were presented and solved in the computational tool. While, in the mathematics laboratory, the professor wrote the equations on the blackboard so that the students could follow the solution with the conventional
balance.

Fig. 6. The visual panel indicates the addition property of equality.

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Data collection was accomplished through non-participatory observation while the students executed tasks, with the intention of identifying the possible contribution of the computational tool on the learning process. Observations of what was seen and sensed during the
activities were recorded as detailed eld notes. Practical classes in both the computational laboratory and the mathematical laboratory
lasted 50 min.

5. Results and discussion

Having the cognitive computational tool as a replacement for the conventional balance, Brazilian teachers did not have problems installing the tool on the computers of the mathematics laboratory and, most importantly, didnt have to worry about the need to check and verify the conventional balances before being used by students. While in the mathematics laboratory, the teacher had to prepare a
conventional balance, on the day before the class, to demonstrate the concept of equilibrium. This procedure was necessary to ensure
the completion of the activity within the time allotted for the class.
Because of its user friendly interface and realistic appearance, students in the computer laboratory (Group A) did not require explicit
instruction on the use of the tool. Immediately after opening the tool the students heard: The equation is represented on the balance,
The balance is in equilibrium, Click and drag with the mouse, Notice what is written in the visual panel, The balance is not in equilibrium. The computational tool changed the behavior of the students by providing direct contact with problems and allowing interaction
with objects. Students changed from a position of observation to one of participation. Direct participation in the activity, through physical
actions, helped the students develop an active and interactive role in learning. Furthermore, this increased participation did not affect the
conclusion of the activity in the time allotted for the class. According to Piaget(1952, 1970a, 1970b, 1977), interaction helps students transform from passive agents for knowledge reception to active agents, responsible for their own development.
While in the mathematics laboratory (Group B), students could not explore the balance and the objects on the balance because it needed
to remain accurate for the completion of the activity. Only the teacher had direct contact with the educational activity, since there is only
one balance for classes that have an average of 24 students. The teacher had to carefully manipulate objects on the balance and try not to
affect the accuracy of the balance while trying to re-establish equilibrium. The students observed the equilibrium and disequilibrium of the
balance and recorded what happened in their notebooks. There was a lot of unrelated conversation among the students because they were
not participating directly in the experiment. This dialogue among students, far from being useful in terms of achieving goals, was a deviation since the students were not actually involved in the activity. This resulted in constant interruptions during the class as the teacher
requested attention and silence.
In Group A, through socializing, each pair of students was responsible for their own learning and pace of learning. The students had to
organize and manage their time to complete the activity. Using the computational tool, each pair of students solved each of the ve proposed equations in different time intervals. The pairs started the activity at the same time in the computer laboratory. However, it was
observed by the monitors of the computers that the pairs were solving different equations or at different stages of the same equation. Despite the fact some pairs were solving equations ahead of other pairs, all the pairs worked at the activity for the 50 min permitted for the
completion of the ve equations. In the research of Klein and Pridemore (1992), Simsek and Hooper (1992) and Lou (2004) it was also observed that students studying with computers in small groups spend more time on task completion than students using computers individually. The fact that the student pairs utilized all the available time for an activity does not invalidate the fact that the progress in an
activity was based on the students own learning rates. In Group B, the activity ended at the time estimated by the teacher since the practice and the pace of equation solving were set by him or her.
Through experimentation provided by the computational tool, students began to take in what they had learned. This was observed as
the students progressed through the different levels of complexity of the equations. The actions taken to solve each subsequent equation
were more condent. In most cases, the discussions and questions between the students in each pair were different from those observed
during the solution of the previous equation. Previously observed errors ceased to happen. Such as the withdrawal of two consecutive
weights from only the left side of the balance so that the balance continued to be in disequilibrium. In some pairs, it was also observed
that after solving the rst two or three equations the students were able to solve subsequent equations by means of mathematicallogical
actions before manipulating the virtual objects. For example, in the equation 2x + 5 = 10 + x, the students ignored the steps of removing x
(2x x + 5 = 10 + x
x) or the elimination of the weight 5 (2x + 5 5 = 10 + x 5) and came up with the following partial result:
x + 5 = 10 or 2x = 5 + x. And thus arrived at the end result of: x = 5. Only then did they solve the equation using the virtual balance to conrm
the result. This maturation is for Piaget (1977) what determines the pace of knowledge construction. This pace made the student more selfregulated in the activity and allows the use of knowledge in future contexts. For Vygotsky (1978), the use of this knowledge is possible
because of the internalization of meanings and action structures previously built by the students.
In examining how aspects of the learning process were affected by the replacement of the conventional balance, it was observed that in
the mathematics library (Group B), the lack of interaction with the problem (physical experience) and the lack of interaction between
students (social experiences) made the activity tedious and consequently aspects associated with motivation, dialogue and cooperation
were not apparent.
In Group A, it was observed that the interaction permitted by the tool and students working together in pairs at a computer brought the
students together during the activity and created an environment for mediation between them encouraged by the teamwork and dual
responsibility of completing the activity. Students took turns solving the equation: one student would address the disequilibrium from
the right side of the balance and the other student from the left. Attempting to solve the equation alone was not observed in any of the
pairs. Differences between students did not impede completion of the activity. Differences were accepted in a positive way. The students
began to communicate by listening to suggestions or posing questions to their partners. Cooperative work awakened concern about the
learning of others. Students with greater ability served as direct guides for less able students while solving equations and even while operating the computational tool. Faced with a misstep, it was common to hear one student asking another: You removed x from the left side
of the balance and now the balance is not in equilibrium, Click here, The balance is in disequilibrium, The equation in the visual panel
shows that we removed weight from the right side. What should we do now?, The light on the balance is green. Can we continue?, Do
you want me to explain again?.

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According to Biggs (1999), the activities that have a signicant and positive impact on learning include talking things through with others, and teaching others. In these cases students are active in their learning. Most people learn 70% of what they talk over with others, 80%
of what they use and do in real life, and 90% of what they teach someone else. The teacher was questioned only after the completion of an
equation to verify the result. The teacher was rarely questioned during the process of solving the equation. Portuguese research has also
detected that implementing more collaboration in mathematics classrooms encouraged acceptance of differences among students (Csar,
2000a, 2000b, 2000c, 1998; Csar & Oliveira, 2000) with the result that students did not feel as much need to validate their actions with the
teacher (Gardete & Csar, 2006).
Experimentation combined with manipulation, visualization and reasoning using the computational tool to solve a real world problem
allow an exchange of opinions and integration of different points of view. Since students from Group A were able to use the monitor to
follow each executed action and the effect of this action in real time. Therefore, for each manipulation, it was possible for students to immediately see the effect on the balance and on the equation. For each action, students reected on and discussed the next action to be executed. Piaget (1952, 1970a) had action or more specically interaction as the key word of his theory. For him, cognitive growth only comes
from a subjects concrete or abstract action on an object. This is different from what happens when students solve problems on paper.
Although students can work in small groups and discuss what to put on paper, they cannot manipulate and visualize through experimentation. This also happened in the mathematics laboratory (Group B) where, despite experimentation, students were only able to watch the
actions executed by the teacher which did not encourage reection and discussion among students and even less between students and the
teacher.
Feedback in the visual panel, which shows partial results at each step of the solution of the equation, allowed the students of Group A to
detect errors and reect on the subsequent action. This resulted in different pairs of students taking different paths to solve an equation.
Decisions made about subsequent actions were different among the pairs. Some pairs started their solution by manipulating weights
while others started with the variable x. Some manipulated objects on the left side and others on the right side of the balance. There
wasnt always consensus between the students in a pair about subsequent decisions. However, just one of their actions could be executed.
Consequently, through reciprocity it was possible for the students to perfect the procedure to be constructed for the solution of rst degree
polynomial equations. For Piaget (1977), feedback in practical education results in the mental restructuring of the subject which increases
knowledge and modies the way students think.
Direct experimentation provided for the students by the computational tool as educational process, awakened motivation, responsibility and activity coordination. Two students using the same computer contributed to the proximity between them and awakened qualities
such as communication, negotiation, cooperation, reection, discussion and reciprocity. These aspects are identied in the constructivist
theories of Piaget and Vygotsky. This lets the teacher take on the role of facilitator of mathematics education.

6. Conclusion
Replacing the conventional balance with the cognitive computational tool made it possible to solve the two material challenges of Brazilian teachers. The computation tool does not have mechanisms that require calibration in order to represent the concept of equilibrium.
And because of easy installation, teachers have no difculty installing it on computers. Direct student participation contributed to their
proximity to the problem, manipulation of objects and observation of the effect of their actions without the accuracy of the balance being
affected. These factors guaranteed student involvement which permitted the conclusion of the practical mathematic exercise. The direct
completion of the activity stimulated active and effective student participation that was dynamic and which revealed the limitations
and possibilities of each student.
Students stopped being observers and transformed from listeners to participants in the practical educational exercise. The familiar
appearance of the tool and realistic level of the exercise allowed physical interactions which brought the students closer to the problem.
Using the tool in pairs encouraged social exchanges between students. Because the tool makes physical and social interactions possible, it
encouraged some students to solve the last equations using logicalmathematical processes without having to manipulate the virtual objects on the balance.
Direct participation in the activity, interaction allowed by the tool, the didactic sequence of the equations and realistic appearance contributed to student motivation and involvement in the activity. The real-time feedback in the visual panel with its representation of student
actions encouraged reection, discussion and negotiation about the action performed and subsequent actions needed to solve the equation.
Students no longer solved equations through trial and error. Consequently, teaching became more dynamic.
Using the tool in pairs brought students together in an environment of mediation which encouraged dialogue and cooperation and made
them aware of the responsibility of concluding the activity in the allotted time. The combination of experimentation, manipulation, visualization and reasoning awakened concern about the learning of the other person. The improvement of the procedure to be built for the
resolution of 1st degree equation was possible through the reciprocity of knowledge among the students.
Acknowledgments
The authors sincerely thank professors from the Mathematics and Computer Science areas of the School of Elementary Education at the
Federal University of Uberlndia, for availability during the use of the computational tool. The authors would also like to thank FAPEMIG
the Foundation for Research Growth in the State of Minas Gerais, for the scholarship grant provided for the rst author.
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