Electrostatic Precipitator

KnowledgeBase
The Neundorfer KnowledgeBase is an
industry-leading information resource about
electrostatic precipitators. The Introduction to
Precipitators is a great starting point for
background information, or proceed directly to
specific topic areas of interest.
The downloadable manuals at the right are
made available by the Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) at www.epa.gov and
provide detailed information about
electrostatic precipitator design, operation
and maintenance.
About Electrostatic Precipitators
Introduction to Precipitators
Basic Principles
About Precipitator Operating Theory
Design & Performance Requirements
Process Variables
About Precipitator Components
Discharge Electrodes
Collecting Plates
Power Supplies and Controls
Gas Distribution Systems
Rapping Systems
Hoppers and Dust Handling
Ductwork
Heaters and Purge Air Systems
Thermal Insulation
About Precipitator Performance
Gas Distribution
Re-entrainment
Corona Power
Performance Improvements
Equipment Improvements
Combustion Process Improvements (Power
Plants)
Flue Gas/Fly Ash Conditioning (Power Plants)

Available Documents

Precipitator Tutorial
1 - ESP Operation
2 - ESP Components
3 - ESP Design Parameters
4 - ESP Design Review
5 - Industrial Applications for ESPs
6 - ESP Operation & Maintenance
Product Manuals
Smart Purge Theory of Operation

Introduction to Precipitators (Back to top)

An electrostatic precipitator is a large,
industrial emission-control unit. It is designed
to trap and remove dust particles from the
exhaust gas stream of an industrial process.
Precipitators are used in these industries:

Power/Electric
Cement
Chemicals
Metals
Paper

In many industrial plants, particulate matter

created in the industrial process is carried as
dust in the hot exhaust gases. These dustladen gases pass through an electrostatic
precipitator that collects most of the dust.
Cleaned gas then passes out of the
precipitator and through a stack to the
atmosphere. Precipitators typically collect
99.9% or more of the dust from the gas
stream.
Precipitators function by electrostatically
charging the dust particles in the gas stream.
The charged particles are then attracted to
and deposited on plates or other collection
devices. When enough dust has
accumulated, the collectors are shaken to
dislodge the dust, causing it to fall with the
force of gravity to hoppers below. The dust is
then removed by a conveyor system for
disposal or recycling.
Depending upon dust characteristics and the
gas volume to be treated, there are many
different sizes, types and designs of
electrostatic precipitators. Very large power
plants may actually have multiple precipitators

for each unit.

Basic Principles

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Electrostatic precipitation removes particles

from the exhaust gas stream of an industrial
process. Often the process involves
combustion, but it can be any industrial
process that would otherwise emit particles to
the atmosphere. Six activities typically take
place:

Ionization - Charging of particles

Migration - Transporting the charged
particles to the collecting surfaces
Collection - Precipitation of the
charged particles onto the collecting
surfaces
Charge Dissipation - Neutralizing the
charged particles on the collecting
surfaces
Particle Dislodging - Removing the
particles from the collecting surface to
the hopper
Particle Removal - Conveying the
particles from the hopper to a
disposal point

The major precipitator components that

accomplish these activities are as follows:

Discharge Electrodes
Power Components
Precipitator Controls
Rapping Systems
Purge Air Systems
Flue Gas Conditioning

Design & Performance Requirements

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Designing a precipitator for optimum
performance requires proper sizing of the
precipitator in addition to optimizing
precipitator efficiency. While some users rely
on the precipitator manufacturer to determine
proper sizing and design parameters, others
choose to either take a more active role in this
process or hire outside engineering firms.
Precipitator performance depends on its size
and collecting efficiency. Important
parameters include the collecting area and
the gas volume to be treated. Other key
factors in precipitator performance include the

electrical power input and dust chemistry.

Precipitator sizing
The sizing process is complex as
each precipitator manufacturer has a
unique method of sizing, often
involving the use of computer models
and always involving a good dose of
judgment. No computer model on its
own can assess all the variables that
affect precipitator performance.
Collecting Efficiency
Based on specific gas volume and
dust load, calculations are used to
predict the required size of a
precipitator to achieve a desired
collecting efficiency.
Power Input
Power input is comprised of the
voltage and current in an electrical
field. Increasing the power input
improves precipitator collecting
efficiency under normal conditions.

Process Variables

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Gas characteristics and particle properties

define how well a precipitator will work in a
given application. The main process variables
to consider are:

Gas flow rate

The gas flow rate in a power plant is
defined by coal quality, boiler load,
excess air rate and boiler design.
Where there is no combustion, the
gas flow rate will have processspecific determinants.
Particle size and size distribution
The size distribution in a power plant
is defined by coal quality, the coal mill
settings and burner design. Particle
size for non-combustion processes
will have similar determinants.
Particle resistivity
The resistivity of fly ash or other
particles is influenced by the chemical
composition and the gas temperature.
Gas temperature

Following are details of these process

variables:
1. Gas Flow Rate
A precipitator operates best with a
gas velocity of 3.5 - 5.5 ft/sec. At

2.

3.

4.

5.

higher velocity, particle reentrainment increases rapidly. If

velocity is too low, performance may
suffer from poor gas flow distribution
or from particle dropout in the
ductwork.
Particle Size
A precipitator collects particles most
easily when the particle size is
coarse. The generation of the
charging corona in the inlet field may
be suppressed if the gas stream has
too many small particles (less than 1
m).
Very small particles (0.2 - 0.4m) are
the most difficult to collect because
the fundamental field-charging
mechanism is overwhelmed by
diffusion charging due to random
collisions with free ions.
Particle Resistivity
Resistivity is resistance to electrical
conduction. The higher the resistivity,
the harder it is for a particle to
transfer its electrical charge.
Resistivity is influenced by the
chemical composition of the gas
stream, particle temperature and gas
temperature. Resistivity should be
kept in the range of 108 - 1010 ohmcm.
High resistivity can reduce
precipitator performance. For
example, in combustion processes,
burning reduced-sulfur coal increases
resistivity and reduces the collecting
efficiency of the precipitator. Sodium
and iron oxides in the fly ash can
reduce resistivity and improve
performance, especially at higher
operating temperatures.
On the other hand, low resistivity can
also be a problem. For example (in
combustion processes), unburned
carbon reduces precipitator
performance because it is so
conductive and loses its electrical
charge so quickly that it is easily reentrained from the collecting plate.
Gas Temperature
The effect of gas temperature on
precipitator collecting efficiency, given
its influence on particle resistivity, can
be significant.
Interactions to Consider
Particle size distribution and particle

resistivity affect the cohesiveness of

the layer of precipitated material on
the collecting plates and the ability of
the rapping system to dislodge this
layer for transport into the precipitator
hopper without excessive reentrainment.
About Discharge Electrodes

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Discharge electrodes emit charging current

and provide voltage that generates an
electrical field between the discharge
electrodes and the collecting plates. The
electrical field forces dust particles in the gas
stream to migrate toward the collecting plates.
The particles then precipitate onto the
collecting plates. Common types of discharge
electrodes include:

Straight round wires

Twisted wire pairs
Barbed discharge wires
Rigid masts
Rigid frames
Rigid spiked pipes
Spiral wires

Discharge electrodes are typically supported

from the upper discharge frame and are held
in alignment between the upper and lower
discharge frames. The upper discharge frame
is in turn supported from the roof of the
precipitator casing. High-voltage insulators
are incorporated into the support system. In
weighted wire systems, the discharge
electrodes are held taut by weights at the
lower end of the wires.
About Collecting Plates

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Collecting plates are designed to receive and

retain the precipitated particles until they are
intentionally removed into the hopper.
Collecting plates are also part of the electrical
power circuit of the precipitator. These
collecting plate functions are incorporated into
the precipitator design. Plate baffles shield
the precipitated particles from the gas flow
while smooth surfaces provide for high
operating voltage.
Collecting plates are suspended from the
precipitator casing and form the gas
passages within the precipitator. While the
design of the collecting plates varies by

manufacturer, there are two common designs:

Plates supported from anvil beams at

either end
The anvil beam is also the point of
impact for the collecting rapper
Plates supported with hooks directly
from the precipitator casing
Two or more collecting plates are
connected at or near the center by
rapper beams, which then serve as
impact points for the rapping system

Top, center, or bottom spacer bars may be

used to maintain collecting plate alignment
and sustain electrical clearances to the
discharge system.
About Power Supplies and Controls
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The power supply system is designed to
provide voltage to the electrical field (or bus
section) at the highest possible level. The
voltage must be controlled to avoid causing
sustained arcing or sparking between the
electrodes and the collecting plates.
Click here to view a precipitator power system
animated schematic showing representative
components.
Electrically, a precipitator is divided into a
grid, with electrical fields in series (in the
direction of the gas flow) and one or more bus
sections in parallel (cross-wise to the gas
flow). When electrical fields are in series, the
power supply for each field can be adjusted to
optimize operation of that field. Likewise,
having more than one electrical bus section in
parallel allows adjustments to compensate for
their differences, so that power input can be
optimized. The power supply system has four
basic components:

Automatic voltage control

Step-up transformer
High-voltage rectifier
Sensing device

1. Voltage control
Automatic voltage control varies the
power to the transformer-rectifier in
response to signals received from
sensors in the precipitator and the
transformer-rectifier itself. It monitors
the electrical conditions inside the
precipitator, protects the internal
components from arc-over damages,
and protects the transformer-rectifier
and other components in the primary
circuit.
The ideal automatic voltage control
would produce the maximum
collecting efficiency by holding the
operating voltage of the precipitator at
a level just below the spark-over
voltage. However, this level cannot be
achieved given that conditions
change from moment to moment.
Instead, the automatic voltage control
increases output from the
transformer-rectifier until a spark
occurs. Then the control resets to a
lower power level, and the power
increases again until the next spark
occurs.
Automatic Voltage Controllers (for Electrostatic
Precipitators)
An electronic device used to control the application of
D.C. power into a field of an electrostatic precipitator.
(PIC OF MVC4 FACE PANEL AND PIC OF
INTERFACE BOARD)
Theory

 Optimize power application The primary purpose

of a voltage controller is to deliver as much useful
electrical power to the corresponding electrostatic
precipitator field(s) as possible. This is not an easy
job; electrical characteristics in the field(s) are
constantly changing, which is why a voltage controller
is required.
Spark reaction When the voltage applied to the
electrostatic precipitator field is too high for the
conditions at the time, a spark over (or corona
discharge) will occur. Detrimentally high amounts of
current can occur during a spark over if not properly
controlled, which could damage the fields. A voltage
controller will monitor the primary and secondary
voltage and current of the circuit, and detect a spark
over condition. Once detected, the power applied to
the field will be immediately cut off or reduced, which
will stop the spark. After a short amount of time the
power will be ramped back up, and the process will
start over.
Protect system components by adhering to
component limitations The Transformer Rectifier set
(TR set) can be damaged by excessive amounts of
current or voltage flowing through it. Each TR set has
voltage and current limits established by the
manufacturer, which are labeled on an attached
nameplate (PIC OF A NAMEPLATE). These
nameplate limit values (typically primary and
secondary current, and voltage) are programmed into
the voltage controller. Through metering circuits, the
voltage controller will monitor these values, and
ensure these limits are not exceeded.
Tripping When a condition occurs that the voltage
controller cannot control, often times the voltage
controller will trip. A trip means the voltage controller
(by way of the contactor) will shut off the individual
precipitator power circuit. A short inside the
electrostatic precipitator field caused by a fallen
discharge electrode (wire), or a shorted out Silicone
Controlled Rectifier are examples of conditions that a
voltage controller cannot control. (PIC OF CLOSE-UP
OF TRIP LIGHT ON MVC4 FACE PANEL)
Operation
To maximize electrostatic precipitator efficiency a
voltage controller usually attempts to increase the
electrical power delivered to the field. However in
some conditions a voltage controller must just
maintain power at a constant level. Increased
electrical power into the electrostatic precipitator
directly correlates with better precipitator
performance, but there is a limit. If too much voltages
is applied for a given condition (as mentioned in the
spark reaction section), a spark over will occur. During
a spark over precipitator performance in that field will
drop to zero, rendering that field temporarily
ineffective.
To overcome the crippling effect that spark over has to
increasing the electrical power in the precipitator field,
spark response algorithms have been developed that
will interrupt power upon detection of a spark, then
ramp power back up to a high level. These response
algorithms can greatly influence overall precipitator

performance.

1. Transformer-Rectifiers
The transformer-rectifier rating should
be matched to the load imposed by
the electrical field or bus section. The
power supply will perform best when
the transformer-rectifiers operate at
70 - 90% of the rated capacity,
without excessive sparking. This
reduces the maximum continuousload voltage and corona power
inputs. Practical operating voltages
for transformer-rectifiers depend on:
o Collecting plate spacing
o Gas and dust conditions
o Collecting plate and
discharge electrode geometry
At secondary current levels over 1500
mA, internal impedance of a
transformer-rectifier is low, which
makes stable automatic voltage
control more difficult to achieve. The
design of the transformer-rectifier
should call for the highest possible
impedance that is commensurate with
the application and performance
requirements. Often, this limits the
size of the electrical field or bus
section.
It is general practice to add additional
impedance in the form of a currentlimiting reactor in the primary circuit.
This reactor will limit the primary
current during arcing and also
improve the wave shape of the
voltage/current fed into the
transformer-rectifier.
2. Corona current density
Corona current density should be in
the range of 10 - 100 mA/1000 ft2 of
plate area. (Calculate this using
secondary current divided by
collecting area of the electrical field or
bus section.) The actual level
depends upon:
o Location of electrical field or
bus section to be energized
o Collecting plate area
o Gas and dust conditions
o Collecting electrode and
discharge wire geometry

About Gas Distribution Systems

top)

(Back to

One electrical field or bus section of an

electrostatic precipitator is by itself an
independent precipitator. Its operation is
governed by the inlet gas and dust conditions,
as well as the collecting plate and discharge
electrode geometries.
Within this electrical field or bus section, one
gas passage is also an independent
precipitator - governed by the same factors.
(Note that the gas passage shares the
voltage level with the adjacent gas passages
of the same electrical field or bus section, but
not the corona current level, which can be
different in each gas passage.)
This points to the importance of creating
similar gas and dust conditions 1) at the inlet
of each electrical field or bus section, and 2)
further at the inlet of each gas passage of the
electrical field or bus section. Ideally,
uniformity is desired in:
Gas velocity
Gas temperature
Dust loading
Gas velocity distribution can be most
effectively influenced by the use of gas
distribution devices.
The quality of gas velocity distribution can be
measured in a scaled-down model of the
precipitator and its ductwork, and also in the
precipitator itself. Typical criteria are based on
ICAC (Institute of Clean Air Companies)
recommendations using average gas
velocities or on a calculated RMS statistical
representation of the gas velocity pattern.
In general, gas distribution devices consist of
turning vanes in the inlet ductwork, and
perforated gas distribution plates in the inlet
and/or outlet fields of the precipitator.
About Rapping Systems

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Rappers are time-controlled systems provided

for removing dust from the collecting plates
and the discharge electrodes as well as for
gas distribution devices (optional) and for
hopper walls (optional). Rapping systems
may be actuated by electrical or pneumatic
power, or by mechanical means. Tumbling
hammers may also be used to dislodge ash.

Rapping methods include:

Electric vibrators
Electric solenoid piston drop rappers
Pneumatic vibrating rappers
Tumbling hammers
Sonic horns (do not require
transmission assemblies)

1. Discharge Electrode Rapping

In general, discharge electrodes
should be kept as free as possible of
accumulated particulate. The rapping
system for the discharge electrodes
should be operated on a continuous
schedule with repeat times in the 2 4 minute range, depending on the
size and inlet particulate loading of
the precipitator.
2. Collecting Plate Rapping
Collecting plate rapping must remove
the bulk of the precipitated dust. The
collecting plates are supported from
anvil beams or directly with hooks
from the precipitator casing. With
anvil beam support, the impact of the
rapping system is directed into the
beams located at the leading and/or
trailing edge of the collecting plates.
For direct casing support, the impact
is directed into the rapper beams
located at or near the center of the
top of the collecting plates.
The first electrical field generally
collects about 60-80% of the inlet
dust load. The first field plates should
be rapped often enough so that their
precipitated layer of particulate is
about 3/8 - 1/2" thick. There is no
advantage in rapping more often
since the precipitated dust has not yet
agglomerated to a sheet which
requires a minimum layer thickness.
Sheet formation is essential to make
the dust drop into the precipitator
hopper without re-entrainment into
the gas stream. Rapping less
frequently typically results in a
deterioration of the electrical power
input by adding an additional
resistance into the power circuit.
Once an optimum rapping cycle has
been found for the first electrical field
(which may vary across the face of a
large precipitator), the optimum

rapping cycles for the downstream

electrical fields can be established.
The collecting plate rapping system of
the first field has a repeat time T
equal to the time it takes to build a
3/8 - 1/2"layer on the collecting
plates. The plates in the second field
should have a repeat time of about
5T, and the plates in the third field
should have a repeat time of 25T.
Ideally, these repeat times yield a
deposited layer of 3/8-1/2" for the
plates in all three fields. Adjustment
may be required for factors such as
dust resistivity, dust layer
cohesiveness, gas temperature
effects, electrical field height and
length, and the collecting area served
by one rapper.
3. Gas Distribution Plate and Hopper
Wall Rapping
The gas distribution plates should
also be kept free of excessive
particulate buildup and may require
rapping on a continuous base with a
cycle time in the 10-20 minute range,
depending on the inlet particulate
loading of the precipitator and the
nature of the particulate. Gas
distribution plates in the outlet of the
precipitator may be rapped less often
(every 30 - 60 minutes).
4. Improving Rapping System
Performance
All precipitator rapping systems allow
adjustment of rapping frequency,
normally starting with the highest
frequency (the least time between
raps), progressing to the lowest
frequency. The times that are actually
available may be limited. Rapping
systems with pneumatic or electric
actuators allow variations of the
rapping intensity. Pneumatic or
electric vibrators allow adjustments of
the rapping time. State-of-the-art
rapper controls allow selection of
rapping sequences, selection of
individual rappers, and provide anticoincidence schemes which allow
only one rapper to operate at a given
time.
Rapping systems can be optimized for top
precipitator performance using precipitator
power input and stack opacity as criteria.

Optimization of the rapping system starts with

the discharge electrode rapping system
operating on its own time schedule, for
example with repeat times of 2 - 4 minutes.
The rapping system for the gas distribution
screens in the inlet and outlet of the
precipitator should then be operated with
repeat times of 2-3 minutes for the inlet and 2
- 3 hours for the outlet screens.
The only rapping system requiring
optimization is the collecting plate rapping
system. The optimization should start with the
Collecting Plate Rapping Schedule
determined above. Next, the rapping
frequency of the inlet field should be
increased or decreased until the electrical
power input of the inlet field remains constant.
Next, the rapping frequency of the other fields
should be adjusted in sequence until their
electrical power inputs remain constant. If the
stack opacity trace shows rapping spikes, the
rapping intensity should be reduced while
observing the electrical power input of the
precipitator.
The adjustment of the rapping system for
optimum precipitator performance is a slow
process. It requires a substantial amount of
time for stabilization after each adjustment.
About Hoppers

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Precipitator hoppers are designed to

completely discharge dust load on demand.
Typically, precipitator hoppers are rectangular
in cross-section with sides of at least 60degree slope. These hoppers are insulated
from the neck above the discharge flange with
the insulation covering the entire hopper area.
In addition, the lower 1/4- 1/3 of the hopper
wall may be heated. Discharge diameters are
generally 8" - 12".
1. Insulation
Insulation provides protection for
facility personnel as well as working
to retain as much hopper wall
temperature as possible. Hopper wall
temperature retention discourages
condensation on the inside of the
hopper. Heaters are added to ensure
hot metal surfaces immediately above
the fly ash discharge.
2. Facilitating hopper discharge
Hopper discharge problems are
caused by compaction of the fly ash

in the hopper. Compaction

characteristics are affected by
moisture content, particle size and
shape, head of material, and
vibration. The flow of fly ash out of the
hopper can be facilitated by the use
of external vibrators. These can
operate on the outside wall of the
hopper or on an internal hopper
baffle.
3. Hopper fluidizers
Hopper fluidizers have a membrane
that permits air flow to the fly ash
directly above. This air flow fills the
voids between the fly ash particles at
a slight pressure, changes the repose
angle of the particles, and promotes
gravity flow.
4. Ash handling system
The fly ash handling system
evacuates the fly ash from the
hoppers, and transports the fly ash to
reprocessing or to disposal. The ash
handling system should be designed
and operated to remove the collected
fly ash from the hoppers without
causing re-entrainment into the gas
flow through the precipitator. The
design of the ash handling system
should allow for flexibility of
scheduling the hopper discharges
according to the fly ash being
collected in these hoppers.
Either the precipitator hopper or the feeder
hopper is used for temporarily storing material
prior to discharge. Three types of handling
systems are in use:

Negative pressure or vacuum system

Connects to the hopper by a simple
discharge valve
Positive pressure dilute phase system
Uses an airlock-type feeder; the
feeder is separated from the hopper
by an inlet gate and from the
conveying line by a discharge gate
Positive pressure dense phase
system
Connects to the hopper with an
airlock type feeder.

About Ductwork

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Ductwork connects the precipitator with

upstream and downstream equipment. The
design of the ductwork takes into
consideration the following:

Low resistance to gas flow

Achieved by selecting a suitable
cross-section for the ductwork and by
installing gas flow control devices,
such as turning valves and flow
straighteners
Gas velocity distribution
Gas flow control devices are used to
maintain good gas velocity
distribution
Minimal fallout of fly ash
Fallout can be minimized by using a
suitable transport velocity
Minimal stratification of the fly ash
A suitable transport velocity also
reduces fly ash stratification in the
gas stream
Low heat loss
The goal is to reduce the heat loss of
the flue gas to a level that will prevent
acid or moisture condensation in the
downstream equipment, requiring the
use of thermal insulation protected by
external siding.
Structural integrity
Ductwork structure supports its total
load, including wind and snow loads.
The design also allows for
accumulated fly ash,
negative/positive operating pressure,
and gas temperature. Expansion
joints are used to accommodate
thermal growth.

About Gas Velocity Distribution

top)

(Back to

Efficient precipitator performance depends

heavily upon having similar gas conditions at
the inlet of each electrical field or bus section
and at the inlet of each gas passage of the
electrical field or bus section. Uniformity of
gas velocity is also desirable - good gas
velocity distribution through a precipitator
meets these requirements:
85% of all measured gas velocities < 1.15
times the average gas velocity
99% of all measured gas velocities < 1.40
times the average gas velocity

1. Improving Gas Velocity Distribution

The gas velocity distribution in a
precipitator can be customized
according to the design of the
precipitator and the characteristics of
the dust particles. Traditionally,
precipitators have been designed with
uniform gas velocity distribution
through the electrical fields, to avoid
high-velocity areas that would cause
re-entrainment. While this is still a
recommended practice, there is an
advantage in some cases to
developing a velocity profile that
brings more particles closer to the
hopper.
Both of these schemes have applications in
site-specific conditions. Gas velocity
distribution can be controlled by the following:

Adding/improving gas flow control

devices in the inlet ductwork
Adding/improving flow control devices
in the inlet of the precipitator
Adding/improving flow control devices
in the outlet of the precipitator
Adding a rapping system to the flow
control devices (where applicable)
Adding/improving anti-sneak baffles
at the peripheries of the electrical
fields
Adding/improving hopper baffles
Eliminating air leakages into the
precipitator

About Re-entrainment

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Reducing rapping re-entrainment to an

acceptable level generally requires a
substantial improvement of the gas velocity
distribution and the electrical power density
and uniformity, as well as an extended
optimization program for the collecting-plate
rapping system.
Factors Affecting Re-entrainment
Re-entrainment of collected particles is the
major contributor to particulate emissions of
the precipitator. In some cases, reentrainment accounts for 60 - 80% of the
residual. The major causes of re-entrainment
are as follows:

Particles:

Low cohesiveness
Low adhesion to
collecting plates
Particle size

Low resistivity

Voltage
Controls:

Spark rate setting

Design:

Collecting plate
design
Discharge electrode
design

Rapping
System:

Electrical
Field:

Plate spacing

Frequency
Intensity

Duration (if
applicable)

Collecting plate and

discharge electrode
rapping
Sparking
Saltation
Erosion (localized
high gas velocity)

Hopper:

Sneakage

Hopper design
Leakage (hopper
valve)

Hopper gas flow

About Corona Power

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Precipitator corona power is the useful

electrical power applied to the flue gas stream
to precipitate particles. Either precipitator
collecting efficiency or outlet residual can be
expressed as a function of corona power in
Watts/1000 acfm of flue gas, or in Watts/1000
ft of collection area.
The separation of particles from the gas flow
in an electrostatic precipitator depends on the

applied corona power. Corona power is the

product of corona current and voltage.
Current is needed to charge the particles.
Voltage is needed to support an electrical
field, which in turn transports the particles to
the collecting plates.
In the lower range of collecting efficiencies,
relatively small increases in corona power
result in substantial increases in collecting
efficiency. On the other hand, in the upper
ranges, even large increases in corona power
will result in only small efficiency increases.
Equally, in the lower range of the corona
power levels, a small increase in the corona
power results in a substantial reduction in the
gas stream particle content. In the upper
range of the corona power level, a large
increase is required to reduce the particle
content.
Optimizing Corona Power
Optimum conditions depend upon the location
of the field (inlet, center and outlet), fly ash
characteristics (resistivity) and physical
conditions (collecting plates and discharge
wires). Corona power levels can be optimized
by adjusting or optimizing the following:
Gas
velocity:

Uniformity

Particle size
Resistivity

Spark rate setting

Current & voltage

limits

Plate spacing

Collecting plate &

discharge electrode
design

Rapping
System:

Frequency &
intensity

Support
Insulator:

Purge air system

operation

Fly Ash:
Voltage
Controls:

Design:

About Performance Improvements

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to top)
Improvement or optimization of precipitator
operation can result in significant savings.
Many specific situations encourage a review
of precipitator operation:

Deterioration of existing equipment

Tightening of air pollution emission
regulations
Changes in products and/or
production rates
Frequent forced outages
De-rating of production

To learn more about performance

improvement programs, refer to the
appropriate section:
Gas Velocity Distribution
Corona Power
Re-entrainment
Process Improvements
Flue Gas/Fly Ash Conditioning
Equipment Improvements
Equipment Improvements

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The objectives of equipment improvements

are to optimize corona power, reduce reentrainment, and optimize gas velocity
distribution inside the precipitator. Some
important topics to consider when planning
equipment improvements include:
1. Precipitator Size
When sizing the precipitator, it is
important to provide a cross-section
that will maintain an acceptable gas
velocity. It is also important to provide
for enough total discharge wire length
and collecting plate area, so that the
desired specific corona current and
electrical field can be applied.
2. Gas Velocity Distribution
Improving gas velocity distribution in
the precipitator reduces particle reentrainment and boosts precipitator
efficiency. Typically, a uniform gas
velocity is desired, but there are sitespecific exceptions. Gas velocity
distribution can be modified by using
flow control devices and baffles.
Refer to the special section on gas
velocity distribution.
3. Corona Power

4.

5.

6.

7.

The separation of dust particles from

the gas flow in an electrostatic
precipitator depends on the applied
corona power. Corona power is the
product of corona current and
voltage. Current is needed to charge
the particles. Voltage is needed to
support an electrical field, which in
turn transports the particles to the
collecting plates. For additional
information, refer to Corona Power.
Sectionalization
The precipitator is divided into
electrical sections that are cross-wise
and parallel to the gas flow to
accommodate spatial differences in
gas and dust conditions. Optimization
of corona power involves adjusting
the corona power (secondary voltage
and current) in each electrical section
for optimum conditions.
Particle Re-entrainment
Minimizing re-entrainment of dust
particles is important to improvement
of precipitator efficiency. Most
precipitator equipment affects the reentrainment level. For a detailed
discussion, visit the special section
on re-entrainment.
Additional Equipment
Performance improvement options
include the installation of a second
precipitator in series with the existing
precipitator; using fabric filters
downstream of the precipitator; and
adding a second particle collector in
parallel with the existing collector.
Other possibilities include sonic or
electrostatic particle agglomerators
upstream of the precipitator; a
mechanical upstream collector; or an
electrostatically-enhanced or
mechanical collector, or a filter
downstream of the precipitator.
Review the General Equipment
Requirements
Reviewing the Neundorfer Knowledge
Base sections on equipment will
provide additional insight into
performance improvements.

For more information, see these related

topics:
Gas Velocity Distribution
Corona Power

Re-entrainment
Discharge Electrodes
Collecting Plates
Power Supplies
Gas Distribution
Rapping Systems
Hoppers and Dust Handling
Ductwork
Combustion Process Improvements for
Power Plants (Back to top)
Combustion process conditions mainly affect
the corona power level. The primary
contributors to combustion process conditions
and their effects include:
Coal
Flue gas flow rate
Flue gas moisture content
Fly ash resistivity
Fly ash inlet loading
Fly ash particle size
Coal mills
Fly ash particle size
Unburned carbon (LOI)
Furnace
Base load/swing load operation
Flue gas flow rate
Burners
Flue gas temperature
Fly ash resistivity
Unburned carbon (LOI)
Air pre-heaters
Rotation
Gas flow pattern
Gas temperature pattern
SO3 distribution pattern
Coal
Bituminous coals from Eastern mines, subbituminous and lignite coals from Western
mines, and lignites from Texas mines are
substantially different from each other in the
combustion process. Coal blending is now
used for operational and financial benefits.
This results in a wide range of boiler and
precipitator operating conditions.
Precipitating fly ash from difficult coals can be
improved with conditioning systems.
However, the furnace and its associated
equipment can still cause problems in the
precipitator, particularly coal mills, burners,
and air pre-heaters.
Coal Mills

The setting of the coal mills and classifiers

defines the coal particle size which in turn
impacts the fly ash particle size. Larger coal
particles are more difficult to combust, but
larger fly ash particles are easier to collect in
the precipitator.
Furnace
Base-load operation of the boiler is usually
better for precipitator operation than swingload operation due to more stable operating
conditions. Boiler operation at low loads may
be as problematic for the precipitator as
operating the boiler at its maximum load level,
due to fallout of fly ash in the ductwork, low
gas temperatures, and deterioration of the
quality of the gas velocity distribution.
If low load operation cannot be avoided, the
installation of additional gas flow control
devices in the inlet and outlet of the
precipitator may prove beneficial.
Coal Burner
The operation of coal burners, together with
the setting of the coal mills and their
classifiers, affects the percentage of
unburned carbon (LOI or UBC) in the fly ash.
The use of Lo-NOx burners increases this
percentage, and causes re-entrainment and
increased sparking in the precipitator. Further,
the UBC tends to absorb SO3, which in turn
increases the fly ash resistivity. Over-fire air
optimization or coal-reburn systems may
reduce UBC in the fly ash.
Air Pre-heater
Regenerative air pre-heaters cause
temperature and SO3 stratification in the
downstream gas flow. This problem is more
severe in closely coupled systems, where the
precipitator is located close to the air preheater. Depending upon site-specific
conditions, flow mixing devices may be
installed in the ductwork to the precipitator, or
flue gas conditioning systems may be used to
equalize the gas flow characteristics.
Fly Ash and Flue Gas Conditioning
to top)

(Back

Flue gas and fly ash characteristics at the

inlet define precipitator operation. The

combination of flue gas analysis, flue gas
temperature and fly ash chemistry provides
the base for fly ash resistivity. Typically, fly
ash resistivity involves both surface and
volume resistivity. As gas temperature
increases, surface conductivity decreases
and volume resistivity increases.
In lower gas temperature ranges, surface
conductivity predominates. The current
passing through the precipitated fly ash layer
is conducted in a film of weak sulfuric acid on
the surface of the particles. Formation of the
acid film (from SO3 and H2O) is influenced by
the surface chemistry of the fly ash particles.
In higher gas temperature ranges, volume
conductivity predominates. Current
conduction through the bodies (volume) of the
precipitated fly ash particles is governed by
the total chemistry of the particles.
Fly ash resistivity can be modified (generally
with the intent to reduce it) by injecting one or
more of the following upstream of the
precipitator:

Sulfur trioxide (SO3)

Ammonia (NH3)
Water

Sulfur Trioxide and Ammonia Conditioning

Systems
In most cases, a sulfur trioxide conditioning
system is sufficient to reduce fly ash resistivity
to an acceptable level. The source of sulfur
trioxide can be liquid sulfur dioxide, molten
elemental sulfur, or granulated sulfur. It is also
possible to convert native flue gas SO2 to
SO3.
In some instances, ammonia alone has been
proven a suitable conditioning agent. It forms
an ammonia-based particulate to increase the
space charge. The source of ammonia may
be liquid anhydrous or aqueous ammonia, or
solid urea.
Finally, sulfur trioxide and ammonia may be
used in combination. This solution has been
successful because it can lower fly ash
resistivity and also form ammonia bisulfate.
The latter increases the adhesion of particles,

and thus reduces re-entrainment losses.

Water Injection
The injection of water upstream of the
precipitator lowers the gas temperature and
adds moisture to the flue gas. Both are
beneficial in cold-side precipitator
applications. However, care must be taken
that all of the water is evaporated and that the
walls in the ductwork or gas distribution
devices do not get wet.