Transmission and Distribution

EEE-471
Flexible AC Transmission System (FACTs):
FACTs is an acronym for flexible ac transmission system. FACT uses solid
state switching devices to control power flow through a transmission
network, so that the transmission network is loaded to its full capacity. The
concept of FACTs as a total network control philosophy was introduced in
1988 by Dr. N. R. Hingorani of Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI), USA.
The three parameters that control transmission line power flow are:
a. Line impedance
b. Magnitude of voltages at two ends and
c. Phase angle between the voltages.
As,
V V
Pe = 1 2 sin
X
Conventional controls of these parameters are adequate during steady state
and slow changing load conditions, but for dynamic system conditions
cannot be achieved so quickly. FACTs technology helps to stabilize a system
during dynamic load conditions.
Advantage of FACTs:
a. Increase of transfer of power without adding new transmission line.
b. Transmission cost is minimized
c. Smooth steady state & dynamic control
d. Active damping of power oscillations
e. Increase of reliability
f. Improvement of system stability and voltage control.
Basic of FACTs:
The main idea of FACTs can be explained with the help of basic equation on
power transfers.

sin ( 90 ) =cos =

AB
AC

AB=IXCos
Again,
sin =

AB
V1

AB=V 1 sin
Also,
cos ( 90 )=sin =

BC
IX

BC =IXSin

P=

V 1V 2
V V
sin ( 1 2) 1 2 Sin
X
X

Again OB=
BC=

V 1 Cos =V 2 + IXSin

IXsin=V 1 Cos V 2

Isin=

V 1 Cos V 2
X

Real Power

P=3 V 2 ICos=

3 V 1V 2
sin
X

Reactive Power
V 1=V 2

If

Q=3 V 2 ISin =

3 V 2 (V 1 CosV 2 )
X

; then
P=

3V2
Sin
X

Q=

As

3V
(Cos 1)
X

is very small, active power mainly depends on

and reactive

power on voltage magnitude. It can be seen that both active reactive power
can be increased by reducing X. for efficient transfer of power reduction in X
is normally done by inserting capacitor in series with the line. This is
commonly known as series compensation. Reducing inductive reaction of the
line virtually shortens the line and as a result, transmission angle is reduced
and these power transfers can be increased without reduce of system
stability.
For series compensation,
3V2
P=
Sin
X X c
And

Q=

3V2
(Cos1)
X X c

Fig: before compensation

Fig: After Compensation

Semiconducting Switches Used for FACTs:
Thyristors are mainly used as switching device for FACTs. Presently,
Thyristors up to rating of 10 MW, 500 KV are available for power system
applications. The major problem with firing of Thyristors by high common
made voltages. This problem can be overcome by optical fiber or optically
isolated devices. Another major limitation of Thyristors is that it can be
turned off at the next zero crossing.

Fig: SCR
The only turn on , turn off device currently available in sizes large enough to
be used in FACTs devices is the gate turn off Thyristors (GTO). GTO can be
turned on by providing positive pulse at the gate and turned off by negative
pulse applied at the gate.

Fig: Two transistor model

Fig: GTO symbol

Other fast acting high power switching devices are:

a. Giant transistor or GTR.
b. Static induction Thyristors (SIT).
c. MOS controlled Thyristors (MCT).
Thyristors Controlled Series Compensation:
The basic conception TCSC module comprises of a series capacitor C, in
parallel with a Thyristors controlled reactor Ls. However, a practical TCSC
module also includes protective equipment normally installed with series
capacitor. A metal oxide varistor (MOV), essentially a non linear resistor is
connected across the series capacitor to prevent occurrence of high
capacitor over-voltages.

Fig: basic module of TCSC

Fig: practical module of TCSC

Not only MOV limit the voltage across capacitor but it allows the capacitors
to remain in circuit during fault conditions & helps to improve transient
stability, also installed across capacitor a circuit breaker CB for controlling its
insertion in line. CB by-passes the capacitor if severe fault or malfunction of
equipment occurs. A current limiting inductor L d is incorporated in the circuit
to restrict both magnitude and frequency of capacitor current during
capacitor by-pass operation.
Fixed series compensation (FSC) is widely used to improve the stability and
to improve transmission capacity. In more complicated system TCSC is used
if first control of line impedance is required.
Example of series compensation:
TCSC: Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor
TCSR: Thyristor Controlled Series reactor

An actual TCSC system usually comprises a cascaded combination of many

TCSC modules as shown in the above fig. fixed capacitor C F is provided
primarily to minimize the cost. Capacitors C1, C2.. Cn in the different TCSC
modules have different values to provide a wider range of reactance control.
The inductor in series with anti parallel Thyristors is split into two halves to
protect the Thyristors valves in case of inductor short circuits.
With the help of diagram, discuss the principle of
operation of TCSC for series compensation.
Shunt Compensation:
In shunt compensation, power system is connected in shunt with the FACTs. It
works as a controllable current source. Shunt compensation is of two types:
Shunt capacitive compensation:
This method is used to improve the p.f whenever inductive load is connected
to the transmission line, p.f lags. To compensate, a shunt capacitor is
connected which draws current leading the source voltage.

Shunt Inductive Compensation:

This method is used either when charging the transmission line, or, when
there is a very low load at the receiving end. Due to low or no load, low
current flows through the line. Due to shunt capacitance, Ferranti effect
occurs and receiving end voltage may become double the sending end
voltage in case of very long line.
To compensate, shunt inductors are connected across the line. Some
operating conditions such as non-simultaneous tripping of circuit breaker of
both ends of the line, the other end for a short period may remain energized
from one end while leaving the other end as open. Situation like this may
cause power frequency over-voltage on the open end of the line. These over
voltages can be controlled by shunt reactor compensation in the line. An
identical reactor will have to be mounted at the sending end of the line for
the same reason for which it is required at the receiving end.
In order to avoid the phenomenon of SSR, some utilities have considered the
use of shunt capacitive compensation as an alternative means of increasing
transmission capacity. One advantage of shunt capacitive compensation is
that it is possible to maintain nodal voltage at nominal value through
injection if reactive VAR along the line. Another advantage is its capability to
extend the steady state stability and improve damping when used in
conjunction with static VAR controllers. Capacitors are connected either
directly to a bus or to the tertiary winding of a main transformer and are
distributed along the line to minimize the losses and voltage drops.
Parallel Compensation:
Parallel compensation is defined as a particular type of reactive
compensation employing either switched or controlled devices which are
shunt connected at a selected node of transmission system. The shunt
controller support voltage and provides reactive power balance in the
transmission system. Controlled shunt compensation prevent voltage
instability, provides dynamic voltage control and provides damping for power
oscillations.

Fig: system before shunt compensation

Fig: system after shunt compensation

Static VAR Compensator (SVC):
Increasing power demand and limitation for power system extensions cause
bottlenecks in power transmission systems resulting from reactive power
unbalance. Lack of surplus reactive may cause severe voltage variations or
even system voltage collapse after system faults thus reducing power supply
reliability. A SVC can provide necessary reactive power balance for the
system.

Figure shows a basic single line diagram of an SVC including the main
components.

Step-down transformer

 L.V. bus-bar
Thyristor Controlled reactor
Thyristor Controlled capacitor
Fixed filter circuit
Inductive Shunt Compensation:
This method is used either when charging a transmission line when there is a
very low load at the receiving end. Under this condition shunt capacitance of
the transmission line causes voltages amplification (Ferranti effect).
Receiving end voltage may become double specially for a long transmission
line. To compensate this shunt inductors are connected across the line.
FACTs (contd): synchronous resonance (SSR):
X e = XX c
Series compensation reduces the line reactance given by
this
results improvement of the performance of the system as below(i)
Voltage drop in line reduces i.e. minimization of end voltage
variations.
(ii)
Prevents voltage collapse i.e. transient stability limit increases.
(iii)
Steady state power transfer increases.
The benefits of series capacitor compensation are associated with a problem.
Xc
forms a series resonant circuit with total series reactance.
i.e.

X =X G + X l+ X

Natural frequency of oscillation is

f c=

1
1
=
=f
X 2 fC 2 X
2
2 f 2 f
2 f X c

f c=

1
2 LC

X
Xc

Where f is the system frequency.

X
X c represents degree of compensation. The recommended compensation
is 25-75%. For this compensation, fc f . Though series compensation has
often been found cost effective compared to shunt compensation, sustained
oscillation below fundamental frequency can cause phenomenon referred to
as sub-synchronous resonance (SSR). S.S.R may cause serious shaft fault of
generators. Some of the corrective measures against SSR is to detect low
level sub-harmonic current and to by-pass the series capacitor.

As the line load and in particular reactive power floe varies, there is need to
vary the compensation for an acceptable voltage profile.

Shunt Compensation (contd):

Compensation by Capacitors: shunt capacitors are relatively inexpensive to
install and maintain. Installing shunt capacitor in the load area will increase
the voltage stability. However shunt capacitors have the problem of poor
voltage regulation and beyond a certain level of compensation stable
operating point is unattainable. Furthermore, reactive power delivered by
shunt capacitor is proportional to the square of the voltage. During low
voltage VAR support drops.
STATCOM:
STATCOM is a voltage source converter which converts a dc input voltage
into an ac outputs in order to compensate the active and reactive needs of
the system. It is composed of a coupling transformer that serves link
between electrical power system and voltage synchronous controller (VSC)

that generate voltage wave comparing it to the electrical system to realize

the exchange of electric power. The converter or controller may be a voltage
source shunted by a battery or a capacitor or a current source shunted by an
inductor.

I=

V V 0
X

Reactive
Q=VI =

power

V (V V 0)
X

The switching circuit is capable of adjusting

converter. If

V 0 <V 1

drawn from the bus. If

V0

, the output voltage of the

, Q is positive and reactive (inductive) and power is

V 0 >V 1

, Q is negative. Capacitive VAR is injected in

the line. Thus the converter acts like a static synchronous condenser or VAR
generator.
Comparison Between SVC & STATCOM:
STATCOM basically operates as a shunt connected synchronous voltage
source where SVC is a shunt connected controlled reactive admittance.
STATCOM has a better performance, greater applicable flexibility as

compared to SVC. The ability of STATCOM to maintain full capacitive output

current at low system voltage makes it more effective than SVC.
UPFC-Undefined Power Flow Controller:
It consists of two basic power switching converters namely shunt & series
converters connected to each other through a dc link a capacitor. Shunt
converter operates exactly as STATCOM & series converter acts as S.S.S.C.
S.S.S.C - Static Synchronous Series Compensator.

Voltage Control:
Practically all equipments in a power system are designed to operate
satisfactorily when the voltage levels vary within 5%. Keeping sending end
voltage constant, receiving end voltage depends on the reactive power in the
system. If the reactive power generated is greater than consumed, the
voltage goes up and vice-versa. To understand the problems refer to the
following figure:

V 2=V 1IZ
Again
I=
If
Or,

V1

V 1 I =P jQ
P jQ

V1
is the reference then

V 1=V 1

V 2=V 1

P jQ
Q
P
jX = V 1 X j
X
V1
V1
V1

For the vector diagram it is evident that

V2

is not affected much due to

real component of load P as it is normal to

V1

, but drop due to Q is directly

subtracted from
drop

Q
X
V1

V1

. In order to keep

fixed for a particular

must remain constant. Since only variable is Q;

adjusted by adjusting Q or VAR.

Methods of Voltage Control:
(i)
Series capacitor
(ii)
Shunt capacitor
(iii)
SVC
(iv)
STATCOM
(v)
Tap changing transformer
Series Capacitor:

X X
IRCos+ I ( c) Sin
V 1 Cos =
Xc

V2

can be so chosen that

X X
I ( c )=IRCos

V2

V1

the

can be

In that case

V 1 V 2