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International Journal of Economy, Management and Social Sciences


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The Right to Clean and Safe Drinking Water: the Case of Bottled Water
Koumparou Dimitra *
Management Organization Unit of Development Programmes S.A, Greece.

Golfinopoulos Spyros
Department of Financial & Management Engineering, University of Aegean, 41 Kountourioti st., 82132, Chios, Greece
*Corresponding author: dkoumpa@mou.gr

Keywords

Abstract

Drinking water
Bottled water
Consumption
Environment
Social Fact

For a part of the world the access to safe drinking water is perceived as given. In the West there were
struggles from 19th century for the access to the water and the provision of clean, cheap and safe water as a
public service. Today for the neo-liberal economic policies the privatization of the water has become a
crucial issue. Water from a public good available in low cost it turns to be a commodity, like any other
product, available to be bought and be sold for a profit. In the Western societies, the houses have clean, safe
and cheap water in their taps. But the western citizens go out of their houses to buy the potable water in a
very high price, sometimes higher than fuels. In this paper the authors discuss about the quality of drinking
water, the treatment and the technology of the water. The water is not always safe for the human
consumption and this is the case for bottled water too. The authors try to trace how the bottled water
disguised to a product with social, cultural and economic value conceals a destructive environmental
behavior.

1.

Introduction

Water is one of the most important natural resource that has limits and boundaries to its availability and suitability for use.. The availability and
quality of water always have played an important part in determining not only where people can live, but also their quality of life and prosperity,
as water constitutes the key for economic development. Access to safe water and sanitation is very important for everyone. It is well known that
the water is an essential element for life for all human beings and all species on earth and a satisfactory supply must be available to all [1]. Its
lack causes many problems in health and it is necessary for the existence of life in any form, as it corresponds to basic needs and the living
beings cannot survive without water. Water is a clear, tasteless, odorless liquid. It is the greatest of all the necessary components in chemistry
and functions of living organisms. The water has not itself a nutritional value, but most of the remaining components of food that are necessary
for life can be used by the body only after their reaction with water.
Water is a key element, and everything depends upon the water fate and has certain specific characteristics, some properties that are extremely
important for the life on earth. Especially, it is the only element in nature being in three states of matter: liquid, solid and gas. It is also a very
good solvent and presents the greatest density at 4 C. Water is a basic component of blood and it performs very important function as the
removal of toxic and waste products from the human body.
The available water in each ecosystem determines, in combination with other factors such as temperature, nutrients etc., the species of organisms
that are going to be developed in each region.
The depletion of fresh water due to natural phenomena, but mainly because of human activity has a direct impact on living organisms that rely
on it for food, their survival and reproduction. Also, the construction of large engineering projects to provide water for irrigation, as dams, rivers
arrangements, can destroy natural ecosystems with adverse effects on the populations that live nearby.
Even though until last decades it was believed that there was a plenty of fresh water on earth. Water has not always been accessible when and
where it is needed, nor it is always of suitable quality for all uses. The expanding human population and the competition for the water cause the
decrease of worlds supply of groundwater, which is the main reserve of the water.

2.

Water storage and movement

Water is constantly in motion by the way of the hydrologic cycle. The hydrologic cycle includes water evaporation from the surface water
including oceans, lakes, and rivers, its transpiration from plants, the condensing in the air and the dropping as precipitation. Once the water
reaches the ground, some of it may evaporate back into the atmosphere or may penetrate the surface. In the last case it becomes groundwater.
Groundwater may be seeps its way to into the surface waters or it is released back into the atmosphere with the process of transpiration. Runoff
that consists of the water balance remains on the earth surface, empties into rivers, streams and lakes, and is passed back to the oceans. With this
way the water cycle begins again. The water moves from a source to two points, a point of use (industry, home etc.) and to a point of disposition
or reuse.
The human activity with the use of dams, reservoirs, canals, aqueducts, withdrawal pipes in rivers, and groundwater wells affects the
hydrological cycle. There are two ways for the used water to return to the environment, either directly or passed through a water treatment plant.
Looking at the global water cycle, the annual fresh water supply gives an average figure of about 7,000 m3 per capita, which should be enough to
fulfill the needs of the current population in the planet. However we face a global crisis and several factors are responsible for this. The most
important is the overmuch population growth, the increased per capita water consumption in areas with low fresh water resources, the pollution
of surface water and groundwater, as well as long-term changes in the hydrological cycle due to climate change [2].

Dimitra Koumparou *, Spyros Golfinopoulos

International Journal of Economy, Management and Social Sciences Vol(5), No (1), March, 2016.

3.

The potable water

The struggle for access to clean and safe water has been in the center of societys attention since the ancient years. Every era has its context and
its rules for the definition of the access to clean and safe water.
Indicatively in ancient Greece, on the island of Crete, during 3500-1200 B.C. a large distribution system transferred water from relatively large
distances to the palace of Knossos. In 530 B.C. with Eupalinean digging on the island of Samos water was transferred from the spring behind the
mountains to the capital of Samos. During the democracy in Athens, where there was a water scarcity, wells were the main supplier for water as
public and private projects [3]. In Roman Empire the aqueducts were built at a very easy slope and frequently around hills and valleys. In the
cities the water was carried into distributing reservoirs (castella), from which ran the street mains. Lead pipes carried the water into the houses.
The poor must have carried the water that they used from the public fountains placed at frequent intervals in the streets, where the water ran
constantly for all [4]. In 19th century citizens of London struggled to have clean and cheap water for domestic use as a public service.
The drinking water in order to be safe must be free from chemical substances and organisms. Unfortunately, nowadays the water quality all
around the world has been deteriorated due to increase use of chemicals. There are many organic and inorganic contaminants, microorganisms,
radionuclides (alpha, beta particles, radium, uranium). Iron, manganese, barium, fluoride, hydrogen sulfide, and salt may be present in water
resources at undesirable levels. Bacteria from sewage, and animal wastes are a common problem. Another issue is the high level contamination
form nitrate-nitrogen levels in agriculture areas.
The occurrence all of undesirable contaminants that may be pathogenic, in raw water, can affect the human health and influence the water
quality and their removal is necessary and obligatory in most of the cases and especially when the source water is surface. These harmful
microorganisms can lead to adverse health effects including gastrointestinal illness, reproductive problems, and neurological disorders, or
mortality of population.

4.

Water purification

The most effective way of reducing contaminants in drinking water is by controlling them at the source. Surface and ground water are two
separate entities, so they must be regarded as such. They are both important sources for water supply needs. Surface water is any source of water
that is open to the atmosphere and is subject to runoff from the land including lakes, rivers, streams, ponds and springs. Ground water supplies in
aquifers below the surface of the earth and in many cases are among the nations important nature resources. One of the primary differences
between surface and groundwater, except of location, is that groundwater moves much lower than surface water. The quality of ground and
surface water is not the same. Each source of water has a unique set of contaminants. There is no water source free from undesirable
contaminants. There is evidence of widespread contamination of water resources. Surface water is more easily contaminated than ground water.
Filtration through the soils helps cleaning of ground water. Groundwater contains pesticide chemicals and nitrate while surface water contains
micro-organisms, such as bacteria, viruses and other microorganisms.
In developed countries large funds have been invested in water distribution networks and treatment plants, in order all citizens to have in their
taps clean, safe and cheap water. In less developed countries citizens are obliged to buy water in containers, since their governments cannot
provide them with the basic public services, like safe water in their homes, as the development of water infrastructures requires states aid.
Various techniques are available for the treatment of water. Human treats water from ancient years. Water utilities implement, in many cases, a
combination of treatment processes in order to treat the contaminants found in the raw water. The goal is the removal of fine suspended particles,
turbidity and pathogen microorganisms. These processes can remove organic material from source water, depending on their operational
conditions and the specific characteristics of the Natural Organic Material (NOM) such as molecular weight distribution , carboxylic acidity,
and humic substances content [5].
For many years the provision of safe drinking-water was described as an application of the multiple barriers concept, which is the cornerstone of
the safe drinking-water production. The multiple barriers ensure that a failure of one barrier can be addressed by the effective operation of the
remaining barriers. According to this perception the likelihood that contaminants will pass through the treatment system and harm consumers is
eliminated. The first barrier includes the protection of source water. The most common applied processes include coagulation, flocculation,
sedimentation, filtration and disinfection. Some treatment trains also include ion exchange and adsorption. It is also very crucial the protection of
distribution networks to be provided [6].
Especially, during coagulation the interaction of small particles to form larger particles was occurred with the addition of a substance that will
form the hydrolysis products and will destabilize interparticle collisions. Alum and iron salts or synthetic organic polymers are generally used to
promote coagulation [6].
Coagulation is the process of decreasing or neutralizing the electric charge on suspended particles or zeta potential. The coagulation/flocculation
process neutralizes or reduces the negative charge on the particles. This allows the van der Waals force of attraction to encourage initial
aggregation of colloidal and fine suspended materials to form microfloc [7].
Flocculation is the process of bringing together the microfloc particles to form large agglomerations by physically mixing or through the binding
action of flocculants, such as long chain polymer [6], [7]. Flocculation is the physical process of producing interparticle contacts that lead to the
formation of large particles by physically mixing or through the binding action of flocculants, such as long chain polymer, which settle out of the
water as sediment, under the force of gravity. This process is named sedimentation. Together, coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation can
result in 12 log removals of bacteria, viruses and protozoa. Filtration clarifies water and enhances the effectiveness of disinfection. Various
filtration processes are used in drinking-water treatment. Granular media filtration is the most widely used filtration process in drinking water. It
removes microbes through a combination of physical hydrodynamic properties and surface and solution chemistry. During granular filtration
the water passes through a bed of granular materials. This process follows the coagulation pretreatment while the application of slow sand
filtration, in which water is passed slowly through a sand filter by gravity, was occurred without the use of coagulation pretreatment. The
combination of coagulation, flocculation, sedimentation and granular media filtration achieves better removal of protozoan pathogens. Activated
carbon is one of the most effective media for removing a wide range of these contaminants. It is used when both filtration of particles and
adsorption of organic compounds are desired. Ion exchange was also used for removal of inorganic contaminants that they cannot be removed

The Right to Clean and Safe Drinking Water: the Case of Bottled Water
International Journal of Economy, Management and Social Sciences Vol(5), No (1), March, 2016.

adequately by filtration or sedimentation. It can be used to treat hard water and to remove calcium, magnesium, arsenic, nitrates, and some
radionuclides [6].
Activated carbon has a tremendous adsorptive capacity, an affinity for a wide variety of dissolved organics and chlorine and an ability to be
custom-tailored to suit specific applications. Organic contaminants, unwanted coloring, and taste - and odor - causing compounds are removed
as they stick to the surface of granular or powder activated carbon.
When the water pass from the water treatment plant to the distribution system it is important to ensure that this water does not become
contaminated through water main breaks, pressure problems, or growth of microorganisms.
In many cases it is needed to add chlorine or additional treatment to satisfy all national requirements. However during chlorination, chlorine
reacts with natural organic materials and forms a large category of organic compounds, named Disinfection By - Products (DBPs) as a result of
reaction of disinfectant with NOM which is a precursor of DBPs. The most abundant DBPs species are trihalomethanes (THMs) and especially
chloroform. The toxicity of these compounds is very well recognized. This contamination is one of the main problems that the water supplier has
to solve or at least to control. Ozone, ultra violet (UV), chlorine dioxide are the main alternative disinfectants [8], [9], [10].

5.

Water quality standards

The quality parameters set for drinking water described by drinking water quality standards. National drinking water laws and standards are
established to ensure that the consumer enjoys safe water [1]. Every effort should be made to achieve a drinking-water quality as safe as
possible. The safe water is this that cannot harm the consumer according to the regulations and conditions that applied for water in contemporary
western societies. This does not necessarily mean that simultaneously this water is pleasant to drink. However, all contaminants do not pose a
threat to human health.
Many developed countries specify standards to be applied in their own country. In Europe, this includes the European Drinking Water Directive
(DWD) Council Directive 98/83/EC which controls the member states policies. Generally, the guidelines are intended to support the
development and implementation of risk management strategies that will ensure the safety of drinking water supplies through the control of
hazardous constituents of water. Effective control of drinking water quality is supported ideally by adequate legislation, standards and codes and
their enforcement.
The states have to adopt this policy and their drinking water standards have to fulfill the standards of the EU's directive. The DWD concerns the
quality of water intended for human consumption. The objective of the DWD is to protect the health of the consumers in the European Union
(EU) and to make sure the water is wholesome and clean. In the DWD a total of 48 microbiological and chemical parameters must be monitored
and tested regularly [11].
In the USA the Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) establishes standards according to the Safe Drinking Water Act. In countries without
a legislative or administrative framework for such standards, the World Health Organization (WHO) publishes guidelines on the standards that
should be achieved [1]. In the most western countries, the water supplied to households, commerce and industry meets these standards. The
limits have been set to protect human health and ensure that the water is of excellent quality.

6.

The bottled water and its meaning

If we try to define bottled water, we could argue that bottled water is the drinking water sold in sealed bottles. Perhaps the term packaged is
better than bottled. Whether we take water from our taps or from a package in order to drink both of them waters come from similar resources
and should meet the basics of the safe drinking water. That means that bottled water is in a proper container, there are not added ingredients in it
- with the exception of certain disinfectants and in some cases specified amounts of fluoride - and meets the quality standards [12], [13].
In the USA, Food and Drug Administration (FDA) set standards for bottled water based on USEPA and regulates it as a packaged food. It has
prescribed standard regulations and terms to describe the waters characteristics, sources and methods of treatment. There are the following
categories of bottled water in the USA [12], [13]:

Artesian, ground, spring, well water water from an underground confined aquifer in which maybe or maybe not treated. Spring water
flows to the surface.

Mineral water is ground water that naturally contains at least 250 milligram per litre (ppm) of total dissolved solids.

Drinking water may contain safe and suitable disinfectants or/and added fluoride and it is packaged or bottled.

Purified water comes from any source and meets the U.S. Pharmacopeia definition of purified water. This category includes
demineralized water, deionized water, distilled water, and reverses osmosis water.

Distilled water steams from boiling water, has no minerals and flat taste.

Sterile water meets the U.S. Pharmacopeia standards for sterilization.

Sparkling, tonic, carbonated, seltzer water are not considered as bottled water. They are treated like soft drinks.
In literature for bottled water someone can meet that spring water is an identified type of bottled water. For example the International Bottled
Water Association (IBWA) identifies five types of bottled water [14]:

Spring water

Purified water

Mineral water

Sparkling Bottled water

Artesian Water/Artesian Well Water


In Europe there is not specific regulation for bottled water. It is mentioned that there are different categories of waters intended for human
consumption and natural mineral waters are just one of them. It is given attention to natural mineral water by Directive 2009/54/EC and
Commission Directive 2003/40/EC. Again in the literature it is mentioned that in Europe there are 3 main categories of bottled water [15], [16]:

Natural Mineral water that is a specific product cannot be treated or added other substances of any kind.

Dimitra Koumparou *, Spyros Golfinopoulos

International Journal of Economy, Management and Social Sciences Vol(5), No (1), March, 2016.

Spring water cannot be treated either but it has no the minimum level of 250 mg/l dissolved solids.
Purified water comes from underground and surface sources and it is treated in any way in order to be safe for the consumer. It has the
same quality with tap water. Its difference is its package. Consumers do not drink it from taps but they buy it in bottles.
In Europe, water is bottled directly from the source without any treatment process for removal of microorganisms. In the USA water may be
subjected to a number of different disinfection methods, as UV irradiation. During this process where a wavelength between 220 and 330 nm is
applied, the destruction of bacteria formation is occurred. Ozonation is also used as it doesnt leave residual in the finished water. Another
alternative technique applied is reverse osmosis which forces the water through a semi-permeable membrane, removing constituents having a
molecular mass in excess of 150 to 250 daltons. In the case where the water originates from a municipal source, dechlorination may precede
other treatment [17].
A microbiological approach and the monitoring of certain organic compounds are needed to ensure the good quality of bottled water. Significant
factor is also the storage conditions that must be checked to avoid the microbial growth after the bottling of water.
There are many reasons why people prefer to buy and to consume packaging water instead of tap water. These reasons have to do with the health
perceptions, esthetics, social status, emergency or easiness to find it and to consume it. It is also worldwide known that people did not drink
enough water and in some cases bottled water was the solution to lack of hydration. It is difficult to give a clear answer to the most common
question, what type of bottled water is the best for consumption. Carbonized waters seem slightly safer for consumption than mineral. However,
the quality of carbonized waters degrades more easily, especially regarding Halocetic Acids (HAAs) than in the case of mineral waters,
throughout the time.
The differences between glass and plastic brands were negligible, maybe due to the limited time. Compared to the water from local distribution
network, tap drinking water presents higher concentrations of DBPs than bottled waters, due to chlorine that is used as disinfectant. Bottled
waters contain not only DBPs concentrations, but also diethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) and some unknown organic substances for which their
characteristics and effects on human organism are not known. It is remarkable that the majority of THMs were formed after the 3 months
storage, while the concentrations of HAAs mainly decreased in bottled waters. Furthermore, the plasticizer DEHP was detected only at bottled
waters and its highest concentrations presented at the recommended conditions, with temperature at 24 C [18].
The Natural Resources Defense Council [19] in USA conducted a four-year study of the bottled water for the bacterial and chemical
contamination problems. It is revealed that the one third of the bottled water samples was infected by bacterial or other chemical pollutants in
levels higher than the regulatory limits.
Bottled water for some scholars is seen as a symbol of the privatization of the water and reflects how users turned into consumers. But despite
of the twofold use of the water either as an essential good or a commercial good, the water remains a necessity for health and sanitations
conditions for the citizens that they are consumers too [20]. The financialization of the water in the form of bottled water is connected with the
market and the control of water reservoirs all over the world by large companies. In the past 30 years where neo-liberal economic theories and
philosophy are more powerful the privatization of water has become a political issue and it has sparkled protest waves and the appearance of
social movements in developing countries like Bolivia, and rich liberal democracies like Canada [21], [22], [23].
Even though for Savenije [24] water is not an ordinary economic good, and he underlines it with the quaint title why the girl is special. For
Crook et al [25] bottled water is product with social symbolism in its packaging and not the product itself and for Ferrier [15] bottled water can
been seen as a social phenomenon.
Maybe bottled water is a total social fact according to Mauss theory [26]. Orlove and Caton [27] in their work for water sustainability approach
the water adopting the Marcel Mauss idea about total social fact. According to Mauss total social facts are social phenomena that intersect all
domains of society. Under this approach the bottled water is a total social fact too. In this prospect essentiality of water is the base and on this
essentiality other domains or institutions of society like economic, political, social, religious, cultural and environmental are developed.
Water is an issue that affects both rich and poor citizens in developed and developing world. For example in 2003 in UK the 20% of the
households are in debt to the water company [20]. The situation in Greece during the last 5 years, where the economic crisis has flourished and
the austerity dominates there is not known the percentage of the household that are in debt to the Athens Water Supply and Sewerage Company
but it has to be mentioned the company has adapt social prices for social groups that are considered vulnerable.
A review of the relative literature demonstrates not only that bottled water is a certain way of life style, but it also bears a strong cultural power.
In human cultures water bears attributes and meanings. In Europe there is a strong tradition about the superficial power of the water. Pagan and
Christian traditions have it as part of their rituals. Modernism implies the human conquest on wild nature, where water is one of its elements. So
bottled water on one hand symbolizes the magic and power of nature and on the other hand the achievements of modern technology and
innovation [28].
Trends in the consumption of bottled water rise steadily. Researches in UK, Canada, France and USA indicate that bottled water is a thriving
industry that shares the same characteristics with the rest of the food and beverage industries [29], [30]. The increasing consumption of bottled
water highlights the mistrust to tap water suppliers that appeared during the last three decades. This mistrust reflects perceptions about the low
quality of tap water. The trust among users, suppliers and state is very crucial for the drinking water. Users are obliged to connect to supplier that
state has chosen for them. In a broader context the mistrust in drinking water reflects a wider mistrust in effectiveness and efficiency in all kinds
of governmental institutions [29], [31]. The consumers as citizens had the right to demand water as a final product in their taps and services from
their governments [20].

7.

Environmental Unreasonableness

Bottled water just like any other industrial activities has an environmental impact, at both local and global level in all stages of its production.
In a 2009 study about health beliefs of bottled water [29] interviewers expressed their concern about the carbon footprint of imported bottled
water. Furthermore they uttered the environmental impact of the plastic bottles that have in both stages of construction and disposal.
Gleick and Cooley [31] in their work for the energy implications of bottled water estimated that 17 million barrels of oil a year are used to make
the plastic bottles. This amount could fuel 1.3 million cars of one year. The water is packaged mainly in plastic bottles made either PVC
(polyvinyl chloride) or PET (polyethylene terephthalate). It is considered that PET is most environmentally friendly than PVC because it is

The Right to Clean and Safe Drinking Water: the Case of Bottled Water
International Journal of Economy, Management and Social Sciences Vol(5), No (1), March, 2016.

recycled easier and does not release chlorine when burnt. While the emissions of nickel ethyl benzene and benzene from the manufacturing
process, create negative externalities in the form of air pollution. Ironically the virgin PET is cheaper than recycled [32].
Energy is needed not only in manufacturing plastic bottles but also in preparation of water for bottling. Energy is also needed in treatment of
water, to clean, fill, seal and label bottles [31]. The making of bottle needs energy consumption just like transportation which contributes to gas
emissions into the atmosphere. Transportation of bottled water to stores by road, rail, or ship has an additional environmental impact, with air
shipments being the most intense mode of transportation. The total energy required for every bottles production, transport and disposal is equal
more or less to a filling a quarter of that bottle with oil [33].
Transportation also contributes to gas emissions into the atmosphere. In 2003 WHO stated that 22 billion liters of bottled water travel thousands
kilometers all over the world. The odd in this bottle water trade is, for example, that USA import and export bottled water in Sweden, where
water quality consider very high, and the same time import water from Mexico and India. Fiji Island which presents itself as a virgin
ecosystem, sells its water, and gains more than 35 million $ [34], [35] or for some scholars 90 million $ [31].
In addition the use of bottled water creates solid waste as the water plastic containers are a small fraction of the solid waste stream. Plastic
produced from petroleum, which is a non-renewable natural resource. The plastics that discarded contaminate a wide range of natural terrestrial,
freshwater and marine habitats [36]. Especially these containers make up less than one third of one percent of municipal waste.
The disposal of the tones of plastic waste represents a new addition to the waste stream which is growing rapidly, while at the same time landfills
are disappearing. 80 % ends up to landfills for thousands years, or in incinerators where they burned releasing toxic pollution. In USA only 29 %
of plastic bottles are recycled while the rest end up in landfills and the oceans. There are 315 billion pounds of plastic in the oceans. In limited
circumstances the recycling is possible as only PET bottles can be recycled. The other bottles are discarded. As a result only 1 out of 5 bottles
are sent to the recycle bin. In USA the landfills are overflowing with 2 million tons of discarded water bottles alone [37], [38].
The Pacific Institute [39] estimated that 3 liters of water needed for 1 liter of bottled water. An average 60-70 % of the water used ends up to the
final product. The rest is wasted, as bottle machines are cooled by water or for other processes. Furthermore the environmental impact of ground
water depletion because of the industry of bottled water has only been recorded in the USA. Case studies from Michigan, New Hampshire
indicate the destructive effects of a bottling plant on ground water [40], [41].

8.

Conclusions

Taking water and putting in a bottle is a way to meet the need of thirst in a world that good and clean water is not available, where people travel
and have anxiety of their health. Bottled water has a place in our lives. But it is also an absurdity. In a world with acknowledged environmental
problems, rising energy prices and global climate change, large amounts of energy and materials for its production and transportation are used in
order to be sold in places where they have a plenty of cheap, clean and safe water. Then the same countries that consume bottled water are
confronted with the problem of the disposal of the plastic and the littering of land and ocean.
The most intense political controversy of bottled water is whether or not the industry should be able to commodify a basic human right. We all
have right to clean water .
And this controversy brings to light the unclear division of responsibility between private sector and state institutions. In many cases people do
not trust either of them. The mistrust opens the third path, the involvement of independent third parties like non-governmental organizations
(NGOs).
Their involvement to reassure the tap water quality, with the sound and visible support of government institutions can change the publics
perception of tap water and to inform people about the environmental impact of bottled water. All over the developed world tap water is
underfunded and in case of USA this amount is calculated about 24 billion $.
The human right to clean and safe water is not a matter of branding and labeling. The social and political meaning of the water broadens the
discussion about fundamental concepts like human development, citizenship, social exclusion and sustainability. These make bottled water a
total social fact.

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