UNESCO-NIGERIA TECHNICAL &

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION
REVITALISATION PROJECT-PHASE II

NATIONAL DIPLOMA IN
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY

FOUNDRY AND FORGING OPERATIONS

COURSE CODE: MEC215

YEAR 2- SE MESTER 4
THEORY
Version

1: December 2008

THEORY 215
TABLE OF CONTENTS
WEEK 1
1.0
1.1

1.2
1.3

Safety precaution
Observation of workshop safety
The need for safety
Hazards
General rules for safety
Behavior
Personal safety
Safety rules for particular tools, machine tools and processes

WEEK 2
2.0
2.1
2.3
2.4

The principles of foundry production

Definition of alloy
Defination of flowability
Classification of foundries

WEEK 3
3.0
Pattern making
3.1
Pattern and pattern materials
3.2
Pattern materials
3.3
Pattern allowances
3.4 Functions of patterns

WEEK 4
4.0
Pattern Allowances
4.1 Functions of Patterns

WEEK 5
5.0
5.1

Moulding and core materials

General properties of moulding sands
1.1.
Clay
1.2.
Water
1.3.
Auxiliary materials (binders)
5.3
Cores:
5.3
5.4
5.5

Types of cores
Core binders
core making

WEEK 6
6.0
6.1
6.2

Molding And Core Making

Sand Preparation
Preparation of Mould and Cores

WEEK 7
7.0
Melting equipment
7.1.
Furnaces
Type of furnaces
Reverberatory
Rotary furnace
Crucibles
Oil and gas fired
Electric furnace
Direct arc
Indirect arc furnace
Induction furnace
Converters

WEEK 8
8.0
8.1

Melting of metals
Fuels
Types of fuels
Coking
Gasification

WEEK 9
9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4

Refractory materials
Properties
Non oxide refractories
Rare compounds
Tests

WEEK 10
10.0
10.1.
10.2

Melting And Treatment of Aluminuim Alloys

Melting Aluminium
De-Gassing Aluminium Alloys

WEEK 11
11.0
11.1
11.2
11.3

Petling operations
Cleaning and inspection
Cleaning operations and equipment
Principles of metal casting

WEEK 12
12.1
12.2
12.3

Moulds for processing plastic materials

From the heating cylinder of the injection machine.
Moulds for press moulding

WEEK 13
13.0
13.1
13.2

Fundamental of plastics
Properties applications and limitations of plastic materials
Basic types of equipment for making plastic products

WEEK 14
14.0
14.1
14.2
14.3

Moulds for processing plastic materials

Classification of moulds
From the heating cylinder of the injection machine.
Moulds for press moulding

WEEK 15
15.0
15.1
15.2
15.3
15.4

Raw materials requirement & availability:

Infrastructural facilities:
Manpower requirement:
Research and development facilities:
Prospects & recommendations:

WEEK 1
1.0

SAFETY PRECAUTION

1.1

OBSERVATION OF WORKSHOP SAFETY

The need for safety

Almost everyone working in a factory/school workshop has at some stage in his or her career
suffered an injury requiring some kind of treatment or first aid. It may have been a cut finger or
something more serious. He cause may have been carelessness by the victim or a colleague,
defective safety equipment, not using he safety equipment provided, the true cause was most
likely a failure to think ahead. You must learn to work safely. Your workplace will have its own
safety rule so obey them at all times. Ask if you dont understand any instruction and do report
anything which seems dangerous, damaged or faulty.

Hazards
Accidents result most commonly for the following reason:
Careless or hurried movement about the workshop causing collisions or knocking over of tools
or materials. Careless movement is particular dangerous near machinery.
Loose clothing or long hair becoming caught in revolving parts f machines, particularly the
drilling spindle.
Failing to secure work properly before commencing machining.
Lack of care in handling hot metal
1.2
GENERAL RULES FOR SAFETY
All injuries, no matter how slight, should be reported immediately.
Breakages and all damage to equipment should be reported.
A file should never be used without a handle.
The correct size and dye of smiths tongs should be used when foxing short work.
Hot work being transferred from forge to anvils should be held downwards close to the ground,
to minimize danger of burns resulting from accidental collisions with other students.
When preparing the pickle bath for cleaning copper and gilding metal, the acid must be added to
the water never vice versa.

Behavior
It is very important to study all the safety instructions and regulations for the work in hand, but
the craftsman should be aware of safe pratice all the time. He must study the work to be done,
the environment in which it is to be done, the tools to be used and the best method to be used. He
must realties what the dangers will be I he adopts a wrong and thoughtless approach. He must
always have a thoughtful and positive approach to safety for his own sake and the sake of his
workmate

Fig .1 The Correct Way of dressing in the Workshop.

1.3

PERSONAL SAFETY

To avoid injuries to yourself and your workmates on the shop floor, the following points must
form part of the general code of behavior:
1. Do not act foolishly on the shop floor.
2. Do not operate machines that you have not used before without learning about them.
3. Always tidy in the workshop
4. Always protect your eyes
5. Do not wear loose clothing
6. Do not lift heavy loads
7. Always protect your feet
8. Do not use hand tools that are not in good condition
9. Make sure all moving machinery is fenced
10. Do not run in workshops
11. Do not throw tools or materials about the shop floor
12. Remember to place warning notice on faulty machines

13. Always keep away from suspended loads

14. Always cooperate with your colleagues
15. Always protect your hands.

Fig. 1 The types of Safety goggles in the Workshop.

g. 1.2. Safety footwear and dangers in use of hand

tools.

Safety rules for particular tools, machine tools and processes

Files:- File must not be used without handles. The tang can cause injury to the wrist. Files
with chipped tips are also dangerous.
Spanners:- Spanners of the correct sizes must be used for nuts to avoid injury to the user
when the spanner slips. Over size spanner also round off the edges of the nuts. Do not extend
spanner with pieces of tube because this strains the spanner and the fastening.
Socket Wrenches:- Allen key of the correct size must be used for socket screws (allen
screws). Worn socket wrenches must never be used as they can slip and injure the user.
Hammer:- Hammers Must be securely fixed to the handles before use. Badly fixed head
can fly off while in use and injure co workers.
Chisels:- Chisel with mushroomed heads must not be used as the sharp edges can cause
injury to the user for the protection.

WEEK 2
2.0
2.1

THE PRINCIPLES OF FOUNDRY PRODUCTION

DEFINITION OF ALLOY

An alloy is a homogenous solute alloyed together on, mixture or component composed of two or
more metallicelement which do not separate naturally.Metals are alloyed together to enhance
corrosion resistance, tensile strength, magnetic properties and a host of other physical,
mechanical or chemical properties. Alloying is now so common that pure metals are the
exception rather than the rule as far as engineering materials are concerned.
A typical example of alloy are:
1. Ferrous alloys:- steel and cast iron
2. Non ferrous alloys: al-base, copper base, lead base, magnesium base, nickel base, etc
3. Each of the above can be further be divided into different group e.g steel, plan carbon,
low alloy, high alloy steel etc.
4. The advantages derived by alloying metals are numerous
Just as our industrial complexity enquires certain combination of properties to meet certain
requirement, so it is the selection can be made from a wide variety of available alloys above
to meet the necessary combination of properties to meet specified conditions. Each of the
above alloys or groups of alloys possesses certain foundry characteristics that necessitate
giving them special consideration beyond that possible. Hence when metals are alloys the
resulting structure leaves behind a product tat has an emproved, specialized kind of one or
move of the mechanical properties.

2.3

DEFINATION OF FLOWABILITY

Every metal (pure) or alloy should be able to flow to every nook and corners of the parity
produced by the pattern. It should flow freely unhindered in the cavity.
Flowability of molten metals and alloys can be defined as that property which permits the
movement of the molten metal into the cavity freely producing a defect free casting.
Foundryman, the term fluidity as used by the foundryman, does not mean the reciprocal of
viscosity. What is meant by fluidity in the foundry sense (is the ability to fill a mold)No
foundry bring the accumulation of the overall cost of running the foundry.

2.4

CLASSIFICATION OF FOUNDRIES

foundries all over the world can be classified according to the products obtained from them.
1. Cast iron foundries, specializes in the production only cast iron jobs.
2. Steel foundries:- this type of foundry accepts only steel jobs.
3. Non ferrous foundries deals with the induction of all metals with the exception the two
above, its major arrears of specialization is wide, Al, mg, copper etc.
Another classification of the foundries based on the nature of their work organizational frame
work can be achieve in the following.
i. Jobbing foundry:- this is a typical setting of foundry in the 3rd world countries,
where cheap labour is available and financial backing is usually poor or limited. It a
plant so established to contracts job (casting) or small number (usually) of casting of
a given kind.

ii. Production foundry:- A typical opposite established in the highly industrialize

countries, where the organizational framework is highly mechanized, control gadget,
Robots panel, use of convoy belts crane, pneumatic pumps and rammers etc the work
force of this type of establishment is grossly reduced may be around 300 men,
compared to the above 1000 men. The here is the cheapest. it should noted here that
ferrous, foundry, steel and non ferrous foundries can both jobbing, production semi
production or capture foundry.
iii. Semi production:- shops are those in which the establishment is a half cast, partly
jobbing and partly production. Some section of the organization has equipment that
are fully mechanized and partly the equipment are obsolete. This organization
employs labourers in some section while on the other part is mechanized. This work
force in this type can only beast of 500 men.
iv. Captive foundries:- big organization like NNPC, UNTL Kaduna, Arewa textiles may
be highly in need of spare parts to meet its growing internal demand. Foundries can
be set up to meet the spare part needs of the parent organization. Jobs are contracted
by other type of establishment above, but here are established mainly for the internal
consumption of the parent organization that establishes.
v. Independent foundrie:- this is another establishment a typical opposite of the
captive, cenario all the physical facilities and equipment are in place be it jobbing or
production it contract jobs to every thick tom and Harry. Established soley for
commercial purposes.

WEEK 3
3.0
3.1

PATTERN MAKING
PATTERN AND PATTERN MATERIALS

DEFINITION
To make castings either permanent or temporary patterns are used permanent patterns are used to
form the mould cavity and are then removed and retained for further use.
Pattern can be defined as the replica of the original shape desired to be cast. It is the
foundermans mould forming tools. The mould cavity and therefore ultimately the casting is
made from the pattern. Even if only one casting is desired (required) it is necessary to have a
pattern, while so many castings may be made from a single pattern.
Several types of pattern are used in foundries depending on the casting requirements the pattern
may conform to one of the following types.
1. Single (loose pattern)
2. Haled pattern
3. Match plate pattern
4. Cope and drag pattern
5. Special pattern and devices

Loose pattern are single copies of the casting but incorporating the allowances a but metal can
also serve, plaster, plastics, wax or any other suitable material may be used. Handling moulding
is usually made for this pattern, this make the process to be slow and costly. Parting surface and
the gating system are hand formed and cut respectively. So also the withdrawal of the pattern
haled pattern.

FIG 3.O LOOSE PATTERN

FIG 3.1 GATED PATTERN
3.1.
PATTERN
MATERIALS

Pattern may be made from a wide variety of materials, but only the most common useful in the
foundry workshop will be discussed here. The pattern materials are wood, metal, plastics, wax
and plaster
I. WOOD
This type of pattern is associated generally with the casting of engineering components. A
wooden pattern is made for each engineering design and solution and therefore it is frequently
used. Wood has the following advantage as a pattern material.
2. It is cheap minimal cost
3. It is soft easily formable
4. It is readily available in Nigeria
5. It is also very hig
DISADVANTAGES
1. Being soft cannot withstand the aggressive wear and tear for everyday use.
2. Affected by weather condition, through buckling, swelling, sending etc.
3. Surface finish is poor.
II METAL
These type of pattern is generally associated with often aluminum alloy for weight reasons.
Metal has the following advantages as a pattern material.
1. Has limited use, with pattern stronger than wood.
2. It withstand hard wear.
DISADVANTAGES
1. Very rarely used if sand moulded, but could be used as master pattern for lost wax or
cuttlefish castings.

2. It is very expensive material for shaping in labour and tools.

ii. WAX
These type of pattern is generally associated with pattern material. It is modeled with warm
modeling tools cast in vinomould. The following type of pattern material has the following
advantages.
1. Centrifugal casting for mass production in engineering e.g. carburetter parts, jewellery
and silversmithing, such as rings and bracelets.
2. Excellent for creative work.
3. Simple and straight forward to use. Etc.
DISADVANTAGES
1. Wax pattern burnt out of mould material before pouring.
vi. EXPANDED POLYSTYRENE
These type of pattern is generally shaped by hand tools. E.g. sharp knives, saws or by hot wires.
Pattern built on by gluing and dwelling. The following type of pattern material has the following
advantages.
1. It serves as components for engineering industries.
2. Virtually eliminates need for cores.
3. Foam sprue and rise added to pattern for entry of molten metal.
DISADVANTAGES
1. It has a poor finishing production.
2. Surface texture of casting produce by expanded polystyrene may be exploited.
iii. AERATED CONCRETE
These type of pattern is generally associated with hand tools. E.g. old saws, files, rapes and
drills. Aerated concrete has the following advantages as a pattern material.
1. Usually old side pattern, but flat side patterns can be produced.
2. It can be used for sculptural work.
3. Care then requires in positioning riser gate.
DISADVANTAGES
1. Material crumbles and cracks if handle carelessly.
2. Negatives cut in pattern becomes positives when metal is cast.
3. Concretes core is chipped away after fettering.
iv. PLASTIC
These type of pattern is generally associated with a hand and a machine. These type of pattern
material has the following advantages with none disadvantages.
1. For vinomoulds.

2. For mass production.

3. For cire perdue process
3.3.
PATTERN ALLOWANCES
Although the pattern is used to produce a casting of the desired dimensions, it is not
dimensionally identical with the castinting. For metallurgical and mechanical reasons, a number
of allowances must be made on the pattern if the casting is to be dimensionally correct. These are
shrinkage machine finish, pattern draft size tolerance distortion allowances.

FIG 3.3. PATTERN ALLOWANCES

A. SHRINKAGE ALLOWANCE: On patterns is a correction for the solidification shrinkage

of the metal and its contraction during cooling to room temperature. The total
contraction is volumetric but the correction for it is usually expressed linearly. Pattern
shrinkage allowances is the amount the pattern must be made larger than the ca sting to
provide for total contraction. It may vary from negligible amount to 5/8 (inch) per feet
depending on the metal, and nature of the casting.
B. MACHINE MFINISH ALLOWANCE: is the amount the dimensions on a casting are
made over size to provide stick for machining. These is also influence by the metal,
casting and cleaning.
C. PATTERN DRAFT: is the taper allowed on a vertical faces of a pattern to permit its
removal from the sand or other molding medium in thout leaning the mold cavity
surfaces. A larger of 1/6% (inch) per feet is common for vertical walls of on patterns
drawn by hand.
D. SIZE TOLERANCE ALLOWANCE: The variation which may be permitted on a given
casting dimension is called its tolerance, and its equal the difference between the
minimum and the maximum limit for any specified dimension. A common rule state that
size tolerance should be at least half the shrinkage allowance.
E. DISTORTION ALLOWANCE: certain objects, such as large flat plates and dome, or U
shaped casting sometime distort when reproduced from a straight or perfect pattern. In

such case the pattern may be intentionally distorted, or faked, the distortion pattern then
produces a casting of the proper shape and size.
3.4.

FUNCTIONS OF PATTERNS

The main purpose of a pattern is it use in molding. However, to produce a casting successfully
and render it suitable for further processing, the pattern may be required to perform other
functions besides producing a mole cavity. These are:
1. Molding the gating system:
Good gating system practice for casting generally requires that the system of channel and
feeding reservoirs (gate and risers) for introducing metal in to the mold cavity be attached to the
pattern. The gating system may then obtain the benefit of machine molding.
2. Establishing the parting line:
On a flat pattern plate, the parting surface is a simple plans. Many castings, however
requires curve parting surfaces because of their shapes and these are established by the pattern
when match plates or cope and drag plate are used.
3. Making core print:
When casting requires cores, provision is made on the pattern for core prints. Core print
are portions of the pattern and cavity which serve to anchor the core in proper position in the
mold. The core print is added to the pattern, but does not appear on the casting because it is
block off by the core.
4. Establishing locating points.
The foundry, pattern shop or machine shops employes locating points or surfaces on the
casting to check the casting dimensions, machining operations may also be used the locating
point in establishing the position of machined surface, relative to the balance of the casting.
5. Minimizing casting defect to pattern:
Properly constructed, clean and smooth surface pattern are a necessity in making good
castings patterns with rough, nicked surfaces, and under cuts, loosely movated, and in a generally
to defectors castings containing sand inclusions and other imperfection.
6. Providing for ram-up cores:
Sometimes a part of a mold-cavity is made with cores which are positioned by the pattern
before the molding is rammed. The ram-up core then is held by the sand which has been packed
around it.
7.0 Providing economic in molding
The pattern should be constructed to achieve all possible savings in cost of the casting.
Here, such items may be considered as the number of casting in the mold, the proper size of the
pattern plate to fit available molding equipment, method of molding and other factors.

WEEK 4

4.0

PATTERN ALLOWANCES

Although the pattern is used to produce a casting of the desired dimensions, it is not
dimensionally identical with the castinting. For metallurgical and mechanical reasons, a number
of allowances must be made on the pattern if the casting is to be dimensionally correct. These are
shrinkage machine finish, pattern draft size tolerance distortion allowances.

FIG3.4. PATTERN ALLOWANCES

F. SHRINKAGE ALLOWANCE: On patterns is a correction for the solidification shrinkage

of the metal and its contraction during cooling to room temperature. The total
contraction is volumetric but the correction for it is usually expressed linearly. Pattern
shrinkage allowances is the amount the pattern must be made larger than the ca sting to
provide for total contraction. It may vary from negligible amount to 5/8 (inch) per feet
depending on the metal, and nature of the casting.
G. MACHINE MFINISH ALLOWANCE: is the amount the dimensions on a casting are
made over size to provide stick for machining. These is also influence by the metal,
casting and cleaning.
H. PATTERN DRAFT: is the taper allowed on a vertical faces of a pattern to permit its
removal from the sand or other molding medium in thout leaning the mold
I. cavity surfaces. A larger of 1/6% (inch) per feet is common for vertical walls of on
patterns drawn by hand.
J. SIZE TOLERANCE ALLOWANCE: The variation which may be permitted on a given
casting dimension is called its tolerance, and its equal the difference between the
minimum and the maximum limit for any specified dimension. A common rule state that
size tolerance should be at least half the shrinkage allowance.

K. DISTORTION ALLOWANCE: certain objects, such as large flat plates and dome, or U
shaped casting sometime distort when reproduced from a straight or perfect pattern. In
such case the pattern may be intentionally distorted, or faked, the distortion pattern then
produces a casting of the proper shape and size.

4.1

FUNCTIONS OF PATTERNS

The main purpose of a pattern is it use in molding. However, to produce a casting successfully
and render it suitable for further processing, the pattern may be required to perform other
functions besides producing a mole cavity. These are:
7. Molding the gating system:
Good gating system practice for casting generally requires that the system of channel and
feeding reservoirs (gate and risers) for introducing metal in to the mold cavity be attached to the
pattern. The gating system may then obtain the benefit of machine molding.
8. Establishing the parting line:
On a flat pattern plate, the parting surface is a simple plans. Many castings, however
requires curve parting surfaces because of their shapes and these are established by the pattern
when match plates or cope and drag plate are used.
9. Making core print:
When casting requires cores, provision is made on the pattern for core prints. Core print are
portions of the pattern and cavity which serve to anchor the core in proper
position in the mold. The core print is added to the pattern, but does not appear on the casting
because it is block off by the core.
10. Establishing locating points.
The foundry, pattern shop or machine shops employes locating points or surfaces on the
casting to check the casting dimensions, machining operations may also be used the locating
point in establishing the position of machined surface, relative to the balance of the casting.
11. Minimizing casting defect to pattern:
Properly constructed, clean and smooth surface pattern are a necessity in making good
castings patterns with rough, nicked surfaces, and under cuts, loosely movated, and in a generally
to defectors castings containing sand inclusions and other imperfection.
12. Providing for ram-up cores:
Sometimes a part of a mold-cavity is made with cores which are positioned by the pattern
before the molding is rammed. The ram-up core then is held by the sand which has been packed
around it.
13. Providing economic in molding:
The pattern should be constructed to achieve all possible savings in cost of the casting.
Here, such items may be considered as the number of casting in the mold, the proper size of the
pattern plate to fit available molding equipment, method of molding and other factors.

WEEK 5
5.0

MOULDING AND CORE MATERIALS

The following are the moulding materials. The major production of casting mixing sand mould.
Mold for making a ton of casting may require 4-5tons of molding sand metal ratio, .may vary
from b10:1 to 25:1 depending on the type and size of castings and moulding method employed.
Several different types of sand are used for moulding, sand casting processes involving
mould made of green sand, dry sand, core sand, cement-bonded sand, shell moulding sand and
others.

FIG 5.0 FOUNDRY TOOLS

5.1

GENERAL PROPERTIES OF MOULDING SANDS

From a general view point, the moulding sand must be readily moldable and produce
defect free casting if it is to qualify as a good one. Certain specific properties have been
identified, which include:
1. GREEN STRENGTH: The green Sand after water has been mixed in to it, must have
adequate strength and plasticity for making and handling of the mould.
2. DRY STRENGTH: As a casting is poured, sand adjacent to the hot metal quickly loses
its water as steam, the dry sand must have strength to resist erosion, also the
metallostatic pressure of the molten metal or else the mold may enlarge.
3. HOT STRENGTH: After the moisture has evaporated, the sand may be required to
posses strength as some elevated temperature. Metallostatic pressure of the liquid. Metal

bearing against the mould walls, may cause enlargement, or if the metal is still flowing,
erosion, cracks or breakage may occur unless the sand is possesses adequate hot strength.
4. PERMEABILITY: Heat from the casting cause a green sand mould to evolve a grest deal
of steam and other gases. The mould must be permeable bas prons, to permit the gases to
pass off, or the casting will contain gas holes.
5. THERMAL STABILITY: Heat from the casting cause rapid expansion of the sand
surface at the mold metal-under face. The mold surface may then crack, buckle, or flake
off (scab) may unless the molding sand is relatively stable dimensionally under rapid
heating.
6. REFRACTORINESS: Higher powering temperature such as those for terrous alloy at
2400degree F to 3200degree F required greater refractoriness of the sand.
7. FLOWABILITY: The sand should respond to moulding processes.
8. PRODUCES GOOD CASRTING FINISH
9. COLLAPSIBILITY: Heated sand which become hard and rock like is difficult to remove
from a casting and may cause the contracting metal to tear or crack.
10. IS RSVERSABLE
11. OFFERS EARSE OF SAND PREPARATIONS AND CONTROLS
12. REMOVE HEAT FROM THE COOLING CASTING.
This lift by no means includes all the properties which might be desirable. Obviously, the
most important characteristic of a moulding sand is that it facilitates the economic productions of
good castings.
All materials used for the manufacture of sand mould and cores are termed as moulding
materials and are divided in to the initial materials and moulding mixture, moulding materials
and most posses the above properties. The main main initial materials are sand, clay and water.
While the auxiliary ones are the binders. Etc.
5.1.
SANDS
Sand suitable for use in the foundry practice mostly occur in nature as sedimentary rocks
composed of grains of high melting strong and hard minerals, quartz sand are referred in metal
casting. Quartz, one of the allotropic forms of silica (sw2) has high characteristics of
refractoriner 1713degree c strength, and hardness, and low chemical activities. It may 50 to 95%
of the total material in a moulding sand. These sand particles may differ in the following ways.
1. Average green size, grain size distribution and grain shape.
i.
Chemical composition
ii.
Refractoriness and thermal stability.
The presence of excessive amount of iron oxide, alkali oxide, and lime can cause
objectionable lowering of the fusion point in sand. Average finesses of the sand grain establishes
the finesses of the molding sand as a whole, and the grain size distribution affect many of the
sand properties, the shape of the sand grain may be rounded angular, or sub-angular depending
on their geologic history.
For repeated initialization of used (sand) moulding mixture, (i.e. restoration of their
process properties 3-15% of new quartz sand is added after each production circle.

Enriched quartz have reduced concentration of clay and harmful sand with 2-50% clay
sand, while with the component more than 50% the materials is referred to as clay.
5.2.
CLAY
Moulding sand may contain about 2-50% of clay, with a suitable water content, it is the
principle source of the strength and plasticity of the moulding sand. Clay is thus, the bonder
binding of moulding sands. In some minerals deposits clay and sand occur mixed in proper
proportions, so that the sand can be mined and used directly ,for moulding, this is then referred to
as a natural moulding sands. While in other clays has to be added to develop the proper strength
and elasticity.
Moulding clays used for bonding of sand grains are a kind of rocks which have a high
plasticity when moistened.
The amounts of water that can be retained by a kind of clay depend on the main clay
minerals. The size of its particles, and the presence of adhered substances. Clay capable of
retaining more water on the surface of particles, have a higher binding capacity and better plastic
properties.
Depending on their minerals composition, clay are divided in to kaolinite(K),
bentonite(B), and polyminerals clays(P).
5.3.

WATER

Water, present in amount of about 1.5 to 8% activates the clay in the sand, causing the aggregate
to develop plasticity and strength. Water in moulding sands is often referred to as leinpering
water. The water is absorbed by the clay up to a limiting amount. Only that water rigidly held
(absorbed) by the clay appears to be effective in developing strength the rigid clay coatings of
the grains may be forced together causing a wedging action and thus developing strength.
Additional water, however, can act as a lubricant, and make the sand move plastic and move
mouldable, through the strength may be lowered.
5.4.

AUXILIARY MATERIALS (BINDERS)

Moulding materials or core mixture with clays used as binder have a number of draw
backs in order to obtain a high strength of mixture, one has to add large quantities of clay and
water, which worsen substantially the gas permeability of burnt on sand defects on castings.
Such mixture usually have poor yield ability and collapsibility, for improving the properties of
moulding mixture, clay often replaced by special activities (binders). They are called on to
ensure the following characteristics of moulding and core mixture.
i. High total and surface strength after drying or another treatment.
ii. High flowability, good gas permeability and low gas evolution capacity.
iii. High yield ability and collapsibility, a mixture should lose much of its strength to the
moment, when the casting start to shrink.
iv. Avoiding of sticking to pattern and core boxes.
These additional properties (requirements) should be satisfied on addition of relatively
small quantities of binders (0.5-6%)
These are the following:-

a. Cereals; cereals binders, as used in the found is finely ground corn flow, or gelatinized
and ground starch from corn, cereals may be used in moulding sands for increased green
or dry strength or collapsibility in amount up to 2%.
b. Ground pitch; pitch is a by product of coke making, being distilled from soft coals at
about 600degree F, and above. Pitch is used in amounts up to 3% to improve hot strength
or casting finish on terrous casting.
c. Asphalt; is a by product of the distillation of petroleum. It is used for for the same
purposes at pitch.
d. Sea coal; is a finely ground soft coal used in moulding sands for cast irons principally for
the purpose of improving the surface finish and ease of cleaning the casting used in
amount from 2-8%.
e. Graphite; synthetic or natural graphite may be used in percentage of 0.2 to 2% for the
purpose of improving the modability of the sand and the surface finish of the casting.
f. Fuel oil; is sometime used in very small percentage of 0.01 to 0.1% and seems to conter
improve modability to the sand.
g. Wood flour; ground wood flow or other cellulose material such as cob flow, cereal hiils
and carbonized cellulose may be added in amount 0.5 to 2% to molding sands to control
the expansion of the sand by burning art at elevated temperature. They also improve
collapsibility of the sand.
h. Silica flow; finer than 200 mesh called silica flow. It may be used in amount up to 35%
for the purpose of increasing hot strength of the sand. It also increases the density of the
sand for resisting metal penetration.
i. Iron oxide; fine iron oxide is used in small percentage in some sands to obtain added hot
strength.
j. Partite; is an expanded aluminium silicate material, useful in small percentages 0.5 to
1.5% to obtain better thermal stability of the sand. It may be used as a riser insulator.
k. Molasses; dextrim; cane black strap molasses unrefined and containing 60-70% sugar
solid may be used for increased dry strength of the sand and edge hardness of molds.
Dextrim ,may be used for the same purpose.
The above list of sand activities is by no means complete and a number of others may be
used.
5.2

CORES:

The cores are defined as sand bodies used to form the hollow portion of cavities of
desired shape and size in casting. These are not moulded with the pattern, but separately in a core
box. In order to achieve the utmost of intricacy in casting, cores must be collapsible after the
metal is poured. The sands cores processes these properties and therefore most frequently used to
produce almost any desired degree of casting intricacy. In addition to forming internal cavity in
the casting, the cores serve a number of purposes as follows:
1. The cores may be used to construct a complete mould as in pit moulding.

2. The cores may be used to a form a part of a green sand mould. The pattern having
projections, which cannot be moulded, may be form by placing a core in the mould after
the pattern is drawn.
3. The cores strengthen or improve a mould surface.

FIG. 5.3. WOODEN CORE BOXES

4. The core may be used as a part of the gating system. The strainer core to prevent foreign
matter in the molten metal, pouring basing core to provide a cup or basin on the top of the
mould and splash core to prevent metal erosion in gate and runners are the example of
core used in gating system.
Since the core are subjected to intense heat of a molten metal when it is poured in to the
mould, therefore a good core should have high strength, good permeability, high refractoriness,
and sufficient to collapsibility.
When cores are made of moulding sands in the moist state, they are called green-sand
cores. When cores are made with a mixture of sand and special binders which develop strength
when baked, they are called dry sand cores. The types of sand used depend upon the size of core
and temperature of molten metal poured in to the mould. The cores made up smaller grain size of
sand will give smother surface of casting in contact with the cores.

5.3

TYPES OF CORES

We have discussed in the previous article that the cores are made in core boxes and placed in the
seating moulds formed by core prints. A core print is an extra projection on a pattern and for seal
support and hold the core in the mould. The various types of cores depending upon their position
are as follows:

FIG 5.4TYPES CORES

1. Horizontal cores. These cores are placed horizontally in the core prints at the parting line
of the mould such that one half remains in the cope and the other half in the drag, as
shown in the following diagram.
2. Vertical cores. These cores are placed vertically in the mould. The core print is provided
on the cope and drag sides of the pattern. The upper end of core requires a considerable
taper so as not to tear the sand in cope when the flask is assembled.
3. Balanced cores. These are similar to horizontal cores are supported at one end only.
Therefore the core print be made of sufficient length in order to prevent the core from
falling in to the mould. The balanced cores are used to produce blind holes along a
horizontal axis in a casting.
4. Drop cores. The drop cores also known as (wing core or stop off core) are used when a
hole or cavity to be cored is not in line with the parting surface, it is either above or
below the parting line.
5. Cover core or hanging core. The cover core are used when the entire pattern is rammed in
the drag and the core is required to be supported from top of the mould. These type of
core usually requires a hole through the upper part to permit the metal to reach the mould.
If the core hangs from the cope and does not have any support at the bottom in the drag,
6. Then it is called hanging core.

5.4 CORE BINDERS

The core sand may be simply defined as sand mixtures suitable for cores. The core sand
mixtures consist of sand grains, binders for green and cured strength and other addictives
used for special purposes.
The core binders serve to hold the sand grains together and impact strength, resistance to
erosion and to breakage and degree of collapsibility. They may be classified as organic and
inorganic binders. The organic binders are combustible and are destroyed by heat. Hence, they
contribute a degree of collapsibility of the core and mixture. The inorganic binders are not
combustible and may have considerable strength at high temperatures, may have resistance to
erosion and may be relatively non-collapsible, depending upon their nature.
The inorganic binders include core oils, resins, cereals binders, pitch, wood, flow and
plastics. The core oils such as linseed oil, from 0.5 to 3 percent by weight, it is used in many
core-sand mixtures (also called oil sand for cores). A common mixture used 40 part of river sand
and 1 part of linsed oil. A core oils contribute little to the green strength of core sands, but are
must commonly used for baked strength. The oil sand core should be baked for 2 hours at
170degree c to 190degree c. The desires such as ammonium nitrate (0.01 percent or more) are
used in core oil bonded sands to hasten the curing process. The baking time may be reduced by
20-80 percent by dries.
The cereal binders starches, molasses, dextrin, casein), soluble in water, are commonly
used for green strength. The percentage of cereals binders must be less than times the percentage
of core oil in the mixture.
The sulphite binders (lignin) are water soluble compounds of wood sugars produce as a
by product of paper making. They provide strength on evaporation of water and produce very
high hard surface hardness during baking. These binders are used up to 1.5 percent and are useful
in green sands and dry sand core mixtures.
The pitch is a solid-coal-tar by product of making of coke. It is used as a ground powder
(also called rosin) up to 3 percent or some time more. It develop hot strength to resist metal.
The wood flow (ground hard wood cellulose) usually less than 1 percent is used in core
sand for degreasing cracking and increasing collapsibility of cores.
The thermosetting plastics including urea and phenol formaldehyde are being
successfully used as core binders. These are mixed with other ingredients like silica flour, cereal
binders, water, kerosene and a parting liquid. The urea resin binders are baked at 160 degree to
170 degree C and the phenolic binders at 180degree to 200degre C. Both this binders respond to
dielectric heating and are completely combustible under the heat of the heat of the metal. The
binders have high adhesive strength, moisture resistance, burn out characteristics and ability to
provide a smooth surface to the core.
The in organic binders include fireclay, bentonites, silica flour, and iron oxide. They are
used to obtain green strength, baked strength, hot strength or a smooth finish. Since they are all
finely pulverized materials, therefore they greatly increased the amount of oil which is necessary
in oil-sand mixtures.
The simplest core-sand mixture commonly used comprises sand, 1 percent core oil, 1
percent cereal and 2.5 to 6 percent water.

5.5 CORE MAKING

The cores are mostly made of core sand mixture consisting of sand grain and organic
binders which provide green strength and collapsibility. The green strength is required so that the
core sand may be moulded to shape for core making. The core obtain its real strength and
hardness when its cured to develop the bonded strength. The simplest core sand mixture
commonly used comprises sand, 1 percentage core oil, 1 percentage cereal and 2.5 to 6 percent
water. The other ingredients like kerosene oil, parting liquid and inorganic binders varies
according to the type of metal being cast and its temperature, size and shape of the casting,
making the core etc.
The core making procedure consist of the following steps:
1. Mixing of core sand. The first consideration in making the dry sand cores is to mixed
prepare the sand properly in order to obtain best cores. If the binders is dry, should be
thoroughly mixed with the sand before any moisture is added. The moisture must be
homogeneous so that the core will be of uniform strength throughout. The mixing of sand
is perform in paddled mixers or mullers.
2. Ramming of core sand. The core are usually made in core boxes. The core box is filled
with core sand, rammed and struck off. The ramming may be done manually or with
machines. Small cores are usually made at core benches.
3. Venting of core. Since the cores are often surrounded by hot metal after the casting is
poured, therefore the cores are required to be sufficiently permeable to allow core gases
to pass through the core and in the core and to the mould or atmosphere. The vent holes
are provided for the escape of gases. These vent holes are usually made with wires or
rods.
4. Reinforcing of core. Some cores required internal reinforcing to prevent breakage or
shifting when casting is poured. The wires or arbors within the sand serve this purpose.
5. Baking of core. The cope is transfer to a cope plate or drier for baking. This is done by
placing the plate over the core box, inverting both and removing the core box away from
the core. The core which is to be baked on a core plate, must have a flat surface resting
on it. The core with on flat surfaces must be supported on a core drier until they are
baked. Its baked at temperature over 260degree C . the moisture is driven off first,
holding the temperature at 100degree C. the core oil changes chemically from liquid to
solid by oxygen risen from 200-260degree C. These baking may be done in a ovens,
dielectric bakers etc.
6. Cleaning of cores. The cleaning of cores consist of trimming, coating and muddling. The
trimming is done to remove fins arising from loose joints or loose piece in the core box or
other sand projections by rubbing them or filling with an emery stone, core file or other
abrasive.

WEEK 6
7.0
6.1

MOLDING AND CORE MAKING

SAND PRERATION

The entails the preparation of initial moulding materials and reclaimed sands and the preparation
of mixture proper.
CROSSPIECE

CRANKARMS

VERTICALSHAFT
WALL PAN

HATCH

PLOWS

WHEELS

HINGES

.
Sand delivered to the stores .of a foundry shop are dried at a temperature of 260degree c
in drum type fluidized bed dries. The initial sand is fed in to a screen and a flue of a gas at a
temperature of 1000 degree c and at elevated pressure are supplied under the screen and raise the
sand layer to form a fluidized bed. The intensive motion of the sand layer (particles) in the bed
insures affective heat exchange between the sand particles and the gases which result in effective
drying. Then, the dried sand is cooled to room temperature and screened through the 3-5 mm
screens to separate the lumbs pebbles and foreign inclusions. While screening can be done
cereal, drum type or flat serves.
Clay are dried in rotary kilns at a temperature of 200-250degree c and are then grounded
in 2 step operations.
a. To a lump of 15-25mm in crushers (jaw-rotter or hammer type) and then in ball mill or
hammer mills to a particles size less than 0.1mm and after that are screened on sieves.
It is more expedient to add clay to moulding mixtures in the form of suspension, rather
than in clay powdered form. The suspensions (40% of clay and 60% water) are made in
mullers or paddle mixers and fed through the pipelines to working places for moulding
mixture proper ration. This method reduces the use of clay by 30% and make it possible
FIG. 6.0. HORIZONTAL WHEEL MULLER

to dispense in the drying, grinding and screening equipment and substance improve the
labour conditions by eliminating the sources of dust and heat.
Used sands, as knocked out from month is reclaimed and then fed to the mixture
preparation dept. the used mixture knocked out from dry type mould often contain hard lumps
which are crushed between smooyh surface rollers.
Metal inclusion (metal beads, pins, core frames etc.) are remove from used mixture by means of
magnetic separators. Metal particles are attracted by the electromagnetic and pressed against the
conveyor belt, they fall off only when the belt has run away from the pulley. Non-magnetic
materials, is used moulding mixture falls off the belt ahead of metal particles, the later are
collected in container.
After magnetic separation the used mixture is screen through cylindrical or conical sieres
with the 6-10 mm mesh size to separate large non magnetic inclusions. The mixture is then
cooled to 35% and supplied to the mixture preparation dept for making unified and Facing
mixtures.
The preparation of moulding mixtures include the following steps, matering of materials,
intermixing of components. Moistening, curing and loosening. The preparation of moulding
mixture include the following steps: metering of materials, intermixing of components
moisturing, casting and loosening.
The component should be intermixed thoroughly to obtain a homogeneous mixture in
which all sand grain are enveloped by uniform than layers of a moisture clay or another binder.
Among various type of machine for mixture intermixing. The most popular ones are mullers in
the vertical or horizontal wheels.
1. Walls of pan
2. plow
3. suspended wheels
4. hinges
5. hatch
6. vertical shaft
7. crank arm
8. cross piece
A muller is illustrated above with horizontal wheel cross piece is mounted on a vertical
shaft and carries crack arms with suspended wheel. The crack arm are connected to cross piece
by hinge. As the shaft rotates, the wheels are pressed by centrifugal force against the pan. The
mixture is picked up from the pan bottom by flows which rotate together with the cross piece,
and is crushed by rotating wheel. The crushed mixture is removed from the pan through hatch.
The through port capacity of mollers may be up to 20m/h or even more. The line of preparation
of a batch is 1.5-2.0 mm.

6.2

PREPARATION OF MOULD AND CORES

The preparation of casting mould, or moulding is a labour consuming and critical stage of
the casting process which largely determines the quality of final casting moulding includes the
following procedures,

a. Ramming (canpaction) of moulding sand in a flax around a pattern so as to form an

accurate impression of the pattern in the mould and make the pattern sufficiently strong
but yieldable and permeable for gases.
b. Picking of vents (thin passages) in the mould which allows the escape of gases forming
on metal pouring from the mould cavity.
c. Withdrawal of the mould cavity.
d. Finishing and assembling of mould including the setting of cores.
NOTE: casting of practically any shape and mass can be made in expendable casting moulds.
Casting can be in to wet (green), dry or chemically setting moulds, which is decided by the size,
shape and wall thickness of casting and the grade of metal. Green mould are used for making
small and medium size casting. In cases the prepared half moulds are dried completely or to a
depth of 20-30mm below the surface or chemically setting moulding mixtures are employed.
Casting mould can be made by hand moulding, in moulding machines and semi automatic
moulding line.
6.1.
HAND MOLDING
Hand moulding is used in individual and sometimes in small lot production of castings,
method of hand moulnding are numerous, the most popular one being the moulding in two part
flask with split pattern. Split pattern are used as a rule in the cases when the casting to be made
has no flat surface.
a. drag flsk
b. drag pattern
c. pattern plate
d. sprouts
e. riser
f. the cope pattern
g. the cope flask
In this method, drag pattern and drag flask are placed on to pattern plate, with their
working surfaces down ward (above). The facing sand is poured in to the drag flask and removed
slightly around the pattern to form a layer 40100mm thick. Backing sand is then poured in to the
flask and rammed by hand or a pneumatic rammer, the surface of mouldig sand is art off by a
rule flush with flask edge and pricks are made in the in the mould in order to improve its gas
permeability. The moulded drag flask together with the pattern is turned over and placed again
on to the pattern plate. The cope of the pattern is fixed to drag in the turned over flask and the
pattern of sprout riser and others element of the gating system are put in the place. The parting
plane of the half mould is dusted with parting sand and cope flask is placed on top of drag flask.
The pattern and the element of gating system are covered with the facing sand which is rammed
slightly to from a layer 40-100mm thick, and the top flask is filled with the backing sand mixture
after ramming, the surplus of sand is cut off, rent are pricked and the sprue and riser patterns are
withdrawn. The cope flask is taken off, turned over, and the half pattern of the casting and the
gating system elements are extracted. Core is then set in to the drag to form the cavity and the
two mould flask (halves) are connected by pins, the cope being placed on top of the drag. Finally
the two halves are fastened by brackets or a weight is placed on top and the mould is readily for
metal pouring. Some intricate shape casting cannot be moulded mso as to separate the mould

halves at a single parting plane (surface) for extracting the pattern. In such cases, moulding is
done in three or more flask, i.e. with two or more parting surfaces.
6.2.
NOTE:
A. Facing sand: this is the sand grain usually spread next to the pattern. It is about 40m100mm thick . it is usually used to improve the surface finish of the casting and also
serves to stif gumming action between the pattern and the moulding mixture.
B. Backing sand: this is the sand aggregate that is used to fill both the drag and cop flask, it
contains all the ingredient of the moulding mixture, i.e. sands, clay, water (achrator) and
addictive. It is the source of strength both green and dry of the mould and well as fill the
properties of the moulding mixture.
C. Parting sands: these is the sand grain spread between the halves of the flask at the
boundary of function to stip the stickey up (gumming together)of the drag and cope
halves of the flask, it impact easy removal at the parting surfaces.
D. Silica sand: white washed and dried silica sand grain of high purity 99.8%+s102.
E. System sand: any sand employed in a mechanical sand preparation and handling system.
F. Heap sand: sand thought of as being heap on the floor when it is prepared for use.
G. Sharp sand: a sand substantially free of bond. The term has no reference to grain shape.
H. Bonding sand: sand high in clay content used to add clay to a moulding.
I. Sand additive: any material added to moulding sands for special effect.

WEEK 7
7.0 MELTING EQUIPMENT
7.1. FURNACES
In foundry practice milling and casting ranks second in importance. Only to mould making,
melting practice is an extensive subject in itself. The meller should not only understand the
operation of the equipment he is required to use, but he must also have a thorough knowledge of
the nature and metallurgy of various cast metals and alloys their behaviour during solidification
and cooling and their physical and mechanical properties. Further, he must be acquainted with
the specification and equipment of different raw materials used during melling so that sound
cashing of consistently good quality can be produced.
Generally, the metals obtained from the steel making furnaces, blast furnace, or from other --furnaces in cases of non-ferrons metals are not cast directly into the desired shapes of
components or articles mainly for two reasons.
The metal so obtained is not always in a sufficient, sufficiently refined state to be directly cats
and secondly it is difficult from a practical point of view to pour a huge quantity of mollen metal
in moulds of different sized and shapes.
Furnaces can be divided into the following category; hearth furnaces, shaft furnaces converters,
electric furnaces etc. One may also decides to classify melting pots into the followings; cast iron
furnace, steel furnaces and the non-ferrono furnaces so are electric furnaces.
The main requirements of a mollen metal just prior to casting are;i.

That its chemical composition and purity shall have been maintained during melling.

ii.

That it should be at the correct casting temperature.

NB
Attainment of the correct casting temperature is most important, if a metal or alloy is cast at too
low a temperature it may not flow adequately to fill all the recesses of the mould and at best a
casting riddled with shrinkage cavities may result.
Furnaces used for the melling of metals and alloys vary widely in capacity and design. The type
of furnace used for a melling process will be largely dedicated by the following factors.
a. The necessity of melling the alloy as rapidly as possibly and raising it to the required
casting temperature.
b. The need for maintaining both the purely of the charge and the accuracy of its
composition.
c. The output required from the furnace.
d. The cost of running the furnace.
Hence, another school of though further classify furnaces into four main groups according to the
degree of contact which takes place between the charge and the fuel or its products of
combustion.
1.

Furnaces in which the charge is in intimate contact with the furl and the product of
combustion.

2.

Furnaces in which the charge is isolated from the fuel but is in contact with the
product of combustion.

3.

Furnaces in which the charge is isolated from both the fuel and products of
combustion.

4.

Electric furnaces

GROUP 1
The most important furnace in this group is of course the foundry cupota in which the
iron being mellid is charged to the furnace along with the coke. The thermal efficiency of such a
furnace will obviously be high since. In addition to the direct heat transfer from the burning fuel
to charge, heat losses will be small because of the continues nature of the process.
The main disadvantage of the copola is that the charge, being in direct contact with both the fuel
and the product of combustion, can prick up considerable amount of impurities-particularly
sulphur. The chemcil conditions in the cupola cannot be controlled, since the presence of carbon
in the form of coke will ensure an atmosphere which is very strongly reducing and consequently
suitable for the melling of only a very limited number of alloys. On this score alone the utility of
cupola is strictly limited.

TYPE OF FURNACES
Are those in which the charge passes progressively downwards under gravity and so meets a
flow of hot gasses passing upwards. A high thermal efficiency results from the dose contact
between charge and burning furl and the fact that such a furnace is continuous in operation.

Cupola; consist of vertical steel shell lined with fire-bricks or rammed refractory material and
mounted on a base-plate which is supported by four steel columns. Modern cupolas are usually
of the drop-bottom type that is, they are fitted with hinged doors in the base-plate which can be
lowered allow residue from the furnace to be removed at the end of the melt.
The air blast is admitted to the cupola through hiyeres situated at a height of about 1 meter above
the drop bottom and connected to the air blower by means of wind-belt or blast-box which
encircles the furnace. The number of hiyeres will be depend upon the size of the furnace, and
generally one hiyere ballowed for every 0.15m of the internal diameter at the hiyeres.

FIG 7.1. CUPOLA FURNACE

Before the cupolas charged ahead of sand about 0.15m thick is bbuild up on the drop bottom and
made to slope towards the metal lap-hole. In addition, a slag hole is provided about 0.15m below
the hiyeres for the removals of slag at suitable intervals during the melt. A plat form and
charging hole are provided at a height of between 4 5m above the hiyeres, and here coke, pig
iron, scrap and limestone are charged to the furnace.
Both cold-and hot-blast are in use. In latter, the in-going air is preheated in some form of
recuperated which is heated by the gases from the cupola the recuperate may be an external unit
or it may consist of vertical lubes built into the cupola itself. These tubes enter the furnace about
2m above the thyeres and extend to within a foot of the charging door. The tubes and is thus
heated before it reaches the hiyers. Other examples of this cype of furnaces are the blast furnace,
and tower melting furnace etc.

GROUP 2
A furnace of this type which the reader may already be familiar is the open-hearth
furnace for the manufacture of steel. The fuel being used in either lump coal, pulverized coal,
coke oil or gas. Some of these furnace are quite small, and few, other than the steel furnaces, use
a regenerative system of heat transfer. The fuel efficiency will obviously be lower than that in
the previous group since there is a bigger heat loss in the outgoing products of combustion
actually pass amongst the incoming charge and give up their heat to it, whereas in a
reverberating furnace they merely pass across its surface and give up a correspondingly smaller
amount of their heat). The pick up of impurities from the fuels, however, will depend be limited
to those of a gaseous nature. These may still cause trouble, and unless they can be eliminated by
further treatment before the alloy is cast such a furnace may prove unsuitable.
One important advantage that the reverse vatory furnace may have over the cupila is in
the move effective control which can be exercise over the furnace atmosphere. By regulating the
amount of secondary air admitted to the hearth of the reverseratory furnace the atmosphere can
be made reducing, neutial, or oxidizing at will. Other examples of this type of furnaces are
Rolairy, Air. Furnace.

GROUP 3
The principal example of this group is the furnace employing a crucible which may be
heated by either coke, gas or oil. The charge may be almost completely irolated from the
products of combustion. If the crucible is fitted with a lid, a more convenient, and often charge
with a layer of flux, the pick-up of imprities during melting is thus reduced to zero.
The main disadvantage of the crucible furnace are that both fuel efficiency and output are
low. While the crucible may be ideal for melting small amounts of an alloy his a slow method of
melting where large scale production (out put) is concerned.

REVERBERATORY
Furnace of this type range is size from small units used for melting non-ferrons metals,
and holding 50kg or so, to large furnaces capable of holding 50 lonees.

ROTARY FURNACE
Are some what similar in principle to orthodox reverberatory. So will be discussed here.
The furnace consists essentially of a cylindrical shell (steel) tapered at each end and lived with a

refractory materials. A burner is sturited at one end and a flue system at the other the fuel may
gas, oil or pulverrised fuel, and this is carvied in an air blast supplied by a rotary blower.
These furnaces can be rocked or completely rotated during melting, the shell being
mounted enrollers for this purpose in this way rapid heat transfer from the heated refractories to
the charge is effected both during melting and subsequent superheating stage. In addition to rapid
melting, complete mixing of the molten charge is assured by the rotary motion. During rotation
the tap hole is stopped with ganister the furnace is generally charged through Q1c end, and to
facilitate this a removable exhaust box which connects the furnace to the flue system is fitted.
This can be moved aside on rail and a charge carrier brought into position on the same set of rail
to top the change into the furnace chambers.

CRUCIBLES
A crucible furnace is very convenient for small foundries where the operation is
intermittent and a variety of alloys are handled in small quantities. The metal to be melted is put
in a heated crucible which acts as a melting pot in a heated crucible made of day and graphite by
moulding these materials into a standard shape, and it is produced in sizes from number to 400.
The crucible number represents its approximate melting capacity in kg of copper. The capacity
of a crucible for other metals may be determined by mw to plying with the B/W of densities. The
fuel used may be coke, oil or gas for heating the charge.

COKE FIRED; is commonly used for melting non ferrous metals such as Brass, Bronze and
Aluminium owing to its 10w cost of installations ww fuel cost, and ease in operation. Generally
this furnace is installed in a pit and so is referred to as the pit type. The furnace has a cylindrical
shell, lined on the inner side with a grade and covered at the bottom with a grade and covered at
the top with a removable lid. The metal to be melted is contained in the crucible which is
embedded in the burning coke.
Preparation of the furnace involves kindling a deep bed of coke and allowing it to burn
until a state of maximum combustion is attained some coke is removed from the top and the
crucible is lowered into the furnace. The coke is added on all sides of the crucible. The metal is
then charged in the crucible and the cid is replaced to facilitate the chimney draft if forced draft
is available from a blower, it is used to help in rapid combustion of the coke. When the metal

reaches, the desired temperature, the crucible is drawn out with special long handled tongs and
carried away for pouring.
OIL AND GAS FIRED
Some furnace uses oil or gas as fuel for heating the crucible. The furnace is cylindrical in
shape and the flame produced by the combustion of oil or gas with air is allowed to sweep
around the crucible and uniformly heat it.
Gas or atomized fuel oil is fed through a manifold. It enter the furnace tangentially where
it ignites and swirls upwards between the crucible and the refractory living. The metal is charged
through the opening in the centre of the head. Modern oil-and gas fired furnaces are equipped for
axiomatic proportioning they produce a neutral flame by regulating the fuel and air ration. The
temperature is also controlled thermostatically.
The oil and gas fired furnaces are generally the tilling or the bale-out type. The tilling
type of furnace is raised above the floor level. Mounted on two pedestals, and rotated by mean of
a geared hand wheel. The tilling gear is customarily so designed that the furnace like on a
centrals axis. The bale-out or lift out furnace is fixed, but unlike the pit type, is installed on the
floor, for extracting the molten metal the crucible has to be lifted out of the furnace with the of
wings.

ELECTRIC FURNACE
Electric melting is one of the major methods of melting in from and steel foundries.
Electric furnace have proved a big asset in the production of high quality metal as they attain
high melting efficiency with minimum loss. Unlike the above furnace, electric furnace posses
greater adaptability and flexibility and provide precise control over the temperature of molten
metal. The high cost of electric power is a limitation, but this is out weighted by several
advantages.
The are used for melting and refining all kinds of steel, including stainless steel, and
other alloy steels. They are sometimes employed for melting plain and alloy cast irons.
They are thus classified into the following
i.

Direction are furnace

ii.

Indirection and furnace

iii.

Electric induction furnace

DIRECT ARC
This furnace is used for melting refining both melting and refining merely holding the
molten at a constant temp.
This type of furnace the are is struck from the carbon electrodes on to the charge itself,
the electrodes are three or four in number and are connected in series so that the current flows
through the charge is bow/shaped and is fitted with a domed roof which carries the electrodes.
The roof is mounted on rail so that it can moved aside whilst the furnace is being charged.
Alternatively, a charging door is fitted in that side of the furnace opposites to the spont.
The associated electrical equipment consists essentially of a step-down transformer which
reduces the mains supply voltage to that required. The voltage applied to the electrode system
can be varied and is usually over 100 rolls at the beginning of the melt. Reduced to about 40
volts when melting is complete.

INDIRECT ARC FURNACE

The indirect are furnace may be used to melt all types of metals, but is specially designed
for non-terms metals. The furnace is made up faberrel shaped drum, mounted horizontally and so
geared that it can be rotated back and for 15 through 1800C angle the shell is lined with
insulating and refractory materials.

Two electrodes are used, each one entering the furnace from either end and commanding
with the horizontal axis of the cylinder. As the electrodes are brought near each other an arc is
struck between the two ends and tremendous heat is generated. The electrodes are then
automatically separated from each other to maintain proper are length the heat of the are is
radiated and reflected in all directions. Thus a part of the heat is directly absorbed by the metal
and the remainder by the living. As the shell rotates back forth, metal flows over the heated
surfacely and absorbs the heat energy from the walls by conduction.

INDUCTION FURNACE
Melting of metal in an induction furnace differs from that in the are furnace in that
instead of the bulk of the heat being generated in an are and radiated to the charge, all the heat is
generated in the charge itself. The furnace contains a crucible or a monolithic living surrounded
by a water cooled copper coil.

Very high temperature can be obtained by this method of melting, the only limitation
being the ability of the furnace living to with stand the temp developed.
Induction furnaces are of two types coved and coveless the coved furnace carries an induction
coil which is immersed within the metal bath and acts as a cove for the eddy currents to flow.
The electro magnetic including effects cause the liquid metal to flow (move) through the
channel, around the coil and simultaneous, secondary current, which cause heating are induced in
the liquid metal around the cove. This type of furnace, though most efficient requires a liquid
metal charge while starting and therefore cannot be used for internullent operation.
The coved furnace is largely used for melting non ferrous metals on a relatively long run
basis. Modern channel furnaces are the fore runners of conventional coved-type induction
furnace, which are non need for mixing, super heating melting and storing of molten metals for
grey, malleable and S.G. Iron caslings. Can be used during period of erralic power supply.
Iduction furnace a flet lapping stiring action is also better in there furnace.

CONVERTERS
The converter is not primarily a melting furnace, although used in the production of steel
for the manufacture of casting. In a plant designed for the production of steel mgts by one of the
L.D processes the melten pig iron is invariable transferred from the blast furnace to a mixer a
large furnace for the storage of molter pig iron however, generally functions as a self-contained
unit; the pig iron being melted in a curpola and then currented into steel by using a conceited of
the two peens type. It is of relatively small capacity 1 to 2 tone and is side blown, that is the
loyers are situated in the side of the converter so that blast impinges on the surface of the molten
iron instead of passing through of as in the old Bessemer converter, which is now generally
obsolete.

WEEK 8

8.0

MELTING OF METALS

8.1

FUELS

Energy is an idea, a concept developed by the human mind or group together a large number of
actions. It includes things known to humanity since its earliest times. Hence by the above
definition, electricity is a source of energy in an idea or concept, because it involves such things
as muscle power in man, animal or wind power in a sail, or the burning of animal fat as a source
of light, in the order usage energy means the use of common source of power nuclear power,
hydropower, electricity solar energy e.t.c

TYPES OF FUELS
Coal, coke, oil and gas represent important raw materials for metallurgical processes.
They are used as fuels and also as reducing agents, chemically coal, mineral oil, and natural gas
are made up of carbon and hydrogen with miner amounts of other elements nitrogen sulphur and
oxygen.
Fossil Tuels (coal, oil, natural gas) are all ancient remaints (remnants) of photosynthesis
from the earths early life. Crude oil is a mixture of hydrocarbon chemical, the basic similarity
amount the different oil is the importance of carbon hydrogen at the absence of oxygen. Natural
gas consist primarily of methane. Methane is one of the simplest and highest hydrocarbons and
this vaporizes liquid into a gas at -238%. This explains why natural
NCP = 81C + 340 (H-0/8) F225-5.24 (9HTM)
Proximate Analysis

Ultimate Analysis

Moisture

12.08%

Carbon

76.55%

Ash

13.28%

Hydrogen

5.26%

Volatile

30.50%

Oxygen

10.92%

Fixed carbon 43.85%

100.00%

Nitrogen

1.11%

Sulphur

5.95%

Chlorine

0.21%
100.00%

The heat of combustion of the fuel may be estimated from the ultimate analysis by the dylong
formula.
NCP = 81C + 340 (H-0/8) F225-5.24 (9HTM)
NCP = Means net calorific power in kcal/kg
The symbols, C, H, O, S, and M represent the weight percentage of the four elements and
moisture on the fuel.
COKING
Coking is a process where coal is heated in the absence of air in such a way that the volatile
constituents are expelled. Low temperature coking is carried out at temperature up to about
5000C. Low temperature coke is produced which contain considerable amount of hydrogen.
High temperature coking is carried out at around 10000C, the gas is rich in hydrogen and
methane whereas higher hydrocarbons and lavs to a great extent have been decomposed
(Gacked) under the influence of the high temperature. The resulting coke is 10w in volatile
compound about 1-2%. Gas is frequently found in associated with oil. Coal is primarily carbon
the result of decomposition form is bitunimus coal, which still retain significant fractions of
hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur on association with carbon. Table below shows the
molecular bases for heptance and other fuels.

1.

Source

Type

Component

Form

Human

Carbohydrate Carbon, H2 and Beef fat

C3 H5 (Mc

animal

and fats

H35Co2)3

oxygen

Frequency

wites
2.

3.

Plant

Oils

Carbohydrate Carbon, H2 and Cellulose

Hydrocarbon

oxygen

and sugar

Carbohydrate

Octane,

C12 H22 011

paraffin

C8 H18

heptane
bityen
4.

Hydrocarbon Carbon

nahinralgas

carbon

coal

carbon

C6 H10 05

H2 Methane
arthricity

CH4

Based on classification fuels can be divided in solid liquid and gases.

i.

solid fuels are woody coal or coke,

ii.

liquid fuels, are kerosene, petroleum diesel etc.

iii.

gaseous fuels endued API natural gases.

Disadvantages of liquid fuel near solid fuel

a. it soils hand
b. it is very soft
c. heat realized is low compared to liquid fuels.
d. It produces ashes after combustion

Advantages of liquid fuels

It leaves no ashes after burning
It easily vaporizes
Heat produced is always high compound to solid fuel
Coals and to a lesser extent oil contain varying amounts of ash, consisting of metal oxide and
silicates when the coal or oil is burned the ash remain behind unreacted. Ashes are usually
regarded as a burden on the fuel and lower its economic value. Most coals contain sulphure
which may partly occur as morganic sulphides as pyrite and partly chemically bonded to the
hydrocarbons. When the coal is burned sulphur enters the combustion gases as SO2. when coal or
coke is used as a reducing agent sulphur may contaminate the metal. Hence regarded as harmful.
The composition of coal, coke or oil may be expressed by their proximate analysis on the
other hand gives the percentage of the individual elements carbon, hydrogen nrlozen sulphur and
oxygen as well as the ash content all expressed in moleture free basis drying; As the moist coal
increases in temperature, water is the first constituents to involve moist coal dry coal + H2O
Devolatilization: when the temperature of the dry coal encreases pylolysis occure dry coal char
+ volatiles
The coking process is usually carried ant in retorts by the so called by product method
the retorts are narrow, vertical chambers which are heated from the outside.
A coke oven consist of a battery of a large number of retorts separated by combustion
chambers. The chamber walls are made by of highly refractory bricks usually silica.
Not all coals are sintable for coking, even though the volatile constituents may be
expelled, the product may be weak and fall into powder. In order to obtain a mechanically strong

coke it is necessary to use so called coking coal on heating, there first go through a partly though
state. On further heating the gases are expelled and the mushy state thud state solidities into solid
coke. Even in this case the coke may be of varying mechanical strength depending on the
composition of the coal. By mixing different coal qualities various cokes may be obtained.
Anthracite bituminous sub bituminous lignits
Frignite is the lowest quality of commercial coal, high in moisture, and low an carbon content
and heat content.
The ashes in the coal are retained exclusively in the coke of other constituents the sulphur
content is of particular interest of the total sulphur content in the coal about one third is expelled
in the gas and iro-third is retained in the coke. Since the weight of the cike is about two-third of
the weight of the coal this means that the sulphur percentage in the coke is about the same as in
coal.
Note also after coking the carbon has not reached its stable graplante form.

Gasification
Whereas during the coking process, gas is produced only to the extent that coal contains
votalite compounds, it is also possible to converts the entire carbon content of the coal into
gaseous products. This may be done by partial combustion with air, oxygen, steam, or even with
carbon dioxide. Gasification is represented by the following reactions.
Coal + H2O co. + H2
Char + Co2 2Co
Char + 2H2 CH4
CO + H2O CO2 + H2
CO + 3H2 CH4 + H2O
Combustion: The thermal energy which drives the reaction is provided by combustion of
the

WEEK 9
9.0

REFRACTORY MATERIALS

DEFINATION:
A refractory is a manufactured article consisting usually of a mixture of high
melting point oxide such as S1 O2 Al2 O3, MgO, CaO Cr2 O3 etc. obtained from naturally
occurring minerals and capable of moderate wads at high temperature. Heat resistant
materials which are used in furnace livings in roofs and gas ducts or as checkers works in
regenerators are known as refractories in other words refractories are materials that can
attained high temperature without fusion. High quality refractories are also used for tubes
in crucibles. Like stags refractories are usually composed of oxides of the less noble
metals (as above. The composition is such as to give the highest possible melting points).
Certain how oxides such as carbon and silicon carbide are also used as refeclories.
In the same as the metal theurgist wants his stages to be low melting and fluid he wants
his refractories to be high melting and strong a high melting point aware is not good
enough for a good refractory.
9.1

PROPERTIES

The following are some of the properties

1. High melting point
2. Strength at high temperature
3. Thermal shock resistance
4. Resistance towards molten stags metals
5. Resistance to oxidation and reduction
6. Storage stability
7. cost (cheap).
Refractories may be classified into the followings:
95% balance imprintes 16000C

a. Silica

S1 O 2

b. Fireclay

S1 O2 Al20 (60-75 So2 balance Al2O1,) 17000C

c. High Alumina Al2O, - S1O2 (50% cach)

d. Chromite mainly Fe. Mg (Cr.Al)2 O4 and megnisia chromito (mainly MgCr2 O4 +

MgO)
e. Burned Magnesite MgO and detonate (MgO + Cad)
f. forsterite Mg2 S1O4.
Silica and freday (a and b) are often called acidic refractories whereas magnesite and
dolomite (e.f and g)and festerite are called basic. While Alumina and chromite (c and d)
are sometimes referred to as neutral refractories.
For industrial uses refractories are mostly made from natural raw materials, silica
sand fireclay, silinanity rock, bauxite, chromite ore, magensite and dolomite rocks etc,.
For faloratory refractories specially purified raw materials are used.
In molding the bricks a sintable binder is added. Silica bricks are made from silica
sand with addition of small amount of line or Iron powder.
Silica carbide bricks are made from silica grain and day.
Fireclay bricks are made from a mixture of previously burned and crushed bricks
and raw fireclay whereas excessive shrinkage during firing is avoided the final firing of
most bricks is made at thin Between 12000C - 15000C.
The furnace living refractory are made bonded together with a mortar, usually of
the same composition as the brick an exception to this rule is the use of sheet iron
between magnesite bricks, here when the furnace is heated the iron oxidizes to fe O
which enters into solid solution in MgO.
Refractory can also be prepared as a plastic mix which is rammed directly into the
furnace shell and is fire in place. This method is used mainly for silica and basic masses
and for carbon. Recently fireclay and high aluming material embraces this method with
the addition of calcium aluminium cement added.
Insulating refractories on the other hand special porons bricks are used, they are
prepared by addition of saw dust, to the raw mixture or by the addition of compound,
which envolve gases during firing of the bricks. Insulating bricks and are less resistant
towards stags. Hence use in the other layers of a furnace living and are covered on the
inside by denser and move refractory material.

9.3

NON OXIDE REFRACTORIES

Carbon is the most common non-oxide refractories, and is used either as

amorphous carbon or as graphite. Carbon remain solid up to temperature above 30000C.

Also it has low thermal expansion coefficient, it is strong and very resistant towards
thermal shock its main limitation is that it burns readily in air and can only be used under
reducing conditions, in vacuum or in a protective atmosphere. Carbon and graphite are
not attacked by white blast furnace type stags below 17000-1800C but react readily with
ferrons stags.
Because of its high resistance to stag attack, carbon either as blocks or as a
monolithic living, is frequently used in the iron blast furnace hearth where the metal
already is carbon saturated.
A mixture of carbon or graphite with fireclay gives a refractory which combines
the best properties of both materials good resistance to oxidation and stag attack and good
thermal shock resistance. This materials is often used for crucibles in non ferrous melting
and casting.
Silicon carbide; is used in boilers, around lapping holes, and in places where
strength high temperature and shock and stag resistance are required. Because of its high
thermal conductivity it is also used for retorts with carbon thermic production and
distillation of zinc. Silicon carbide decomposes in throw melting above 22000C. It is
fairly resistant towards oxidation below 15000C being protected by a layers of silica. At
higher temperatures it oxidizes slowly to silica and carbon dioxide. The protective silica
layer is attacked by basic stags and particularly by alkali oxides whereas it is fairly
resistant towards acid stags. Silicon carbide is readily attacked and dissidred by ferrous
metals.
Silicon carbide is also used for electrical heating elements either directly (Globar,
silit) or indirectly as material for channels filled with anther cite coke, these materials
acting as the electrical resistor.

9.4

RARE COMPOUNDS
These are particularly used for laboratory crucibles etc. some compounds which

have been used are T1 C, T1B, BN and Ces. T1B. (titanium povide) is very resistant
towards fluoride Belths. Boron nitride show similar chemical resistant but used as an
minlalor. Ceriving sulfide combined a high melting with low volatity but it is readily
oxidesed in air. The main limitation in the use of these rare refractories is there high cost.
METALS:- Have limited applications as refractories being readily oxidized in air an
exception are the platinum group metals which are used for laboratory crucibles unit but
are very expensive. Under reducing conditions or protective atmospheres crucible of
molybdenum or tingsten have been for laboratory studies on stags (mother). So also,
crucibles of iron and Nickel may be used for electrical hesting elements, provided the
atmosphere is free from oxygen.
Finally the need of water-croted metal which bused on under conditions where no
other refractories are feasible should be mentioned this in the copper or lead b last
furnace the stag in highly corrosive and minld attack all known refractories. The furnace
is here lined with water-cooled steel plates , water jackets. A crust of stag solidifies on
the steel sheet, and a thermal balance is established between the heat conducted from the
furnace and that removed by the cooling water. In that way a stag layer of constant
thickness is maintained the temperature of which does not exceed the melting point of the
stag.
A similar principle is employed in the melting of highly reactive metals such as
titanium or (niobium. Here the crucibles is made of water cooled copper. The heat is
generated by an electric and between an electrode and the molten metal bath and only a
thin solidified metal crust separates the melts from the water-croled crucible.
TESTS
Tests applied to refractories depend on the hygen and form of the materials. Only
lests on bricks manufacture above will be considered here. Bricks are inspected visually
for signs of colouration and lexture by which the trained eye can recognized defective
materials. They are tested for dimensions/accuracy, flatness of surface and straightness of

edges in tapered bricks (as for ladle livings) the angles must be correct. The brick is also
tested for dimensions stability at the working temperature. All these is to satisfy the user
that a stable furnace can be built and operated cement is often not used on between bricks
which are expected to fit together close enough to be almost gas tight. The material is
tested for density and porosity.
1.

Refractories is determined an effective melting temp obtained by comparing

the collapse of a sample of brick cut to a cone with that together through the
melting range. The (PCE) parametric cone equivalent temperature is rear ded and
should not be very different from the standard value for the type of brick.

2.

Refractories under load (RUL) measures the not strength and give a good
indication of maximum working temperature for the brick. It is a creep test under
compressive loading. As the brick sample is heated up its expansion curve is
recorded. This is a hear relationship initially but eventually the expansion
rate/alls.
Off, first to zero and then shows contraction as the brick soften =s and then
collapses. Three temp are recorded corresponding to initial softening (curves
goes horizontal) rapid collapse (contraction rate = 0:00 75mm per 0C) and total
collapse (beyond 10% shortening). An alternative test is to stop healing at an
applications related temperatures and to hold the sample under load at steady
temperature, recording the continuing contracts (if any) fir as long as may be of
interest.

3.

Spelling test measures susceptibility to thermal shock, involve healing and

cooling a brick from one through a number of cycles (up to 30) until a piece falls
off the higher the no of cycles the more satisfactory is the brick.

4.

Stay resistance is tested in many ways and it will be obvious that the stag used
and the temp of the test must be related to the expected working conditions for
the brick. There are standard test procedures for all tests, used by manufacturers
for purposes of general comparison but the user customer is likely to adopt a
move pragmatic approach, requiring as he does to satisfy himself that the

materials that he is about to purchase will readily serve his purpose preferably
at least cost. The final test is of course in the furnace.

WEEK 10
10.0

MELTING AND TRAETMNENT OF ALUMINUIM ALLOYS

10.1.

MELTING ALUMINIUM

Molten aluminium has a very high affinity for oxygen, but the oxide skin which forms on the
surface of the melt effectively protects it from further oxidation. The tendency therefore is to use
melting furnaces in which the minimum of turbulence is produced at the surface of the molten
metal so that the oxide skin remains unbroken. Consequently crucible furnaces were widely used
for melting aluminium alloys but in recent years the tendency has been to use such furnaces for
holding molten metal rather than for melting it, bearing in mind the low thermal efficiency of the
crucible. These holding furnaces may be bale-out or tilter furnaces fired by gas or oil.
Reverberator)1 furnaces are now more widely used for melting purposes and these are generally
designed so that instead of the flame impinging on the surface of the charge it is directed at the
roof of the furnace, thus reducing turbulence of the molten metal. A modern unit used for
melting aluminium alloys and working either on the shaft or shaft/reverberatory principle is the
'tower' furnace (1.312 and 1.324).
The recovery of swarf, baled foil, decorated foil scrap and tube off-cuts is often carried out in the
coreless induction furnace where the stirring action assists in absorbing thin scrap before it is
oxidised. The channel-type induction furnace, however, is generally more attractive from a cost
point of view when melting ordinary scrap and ingots. The principal disadvantage in its use is
that the channel tends to become clogged with.small particles of aluminium oxide. Since these
particles are not affected by the magnetic field they tend to be 'squeezed' to the outside of the
metal stream and on to the refractory walls of the channel itself. Hence the Tama-type channel

furnace is generally used for melting aluminium. It has rectangular channels which can be
cleaned periodically using suitable broaches.
In recent years the bulk melting of aluminium and its alloys has become popular. Thus, in the
Birmingham area, delivery of the molten metal from melter to user sometimes involves a road
journey of up to 16 km.
Hydrogen, which may arise from various sources, dissolves readily in molten aluminium alloys,
but is almost insoluble in solid alloys. As solidification takes place therefore, the gas is liberated
in the partly solid casting, producing blow-holes. Reverberatory melting increases the danger of
hydrogen absorption, since the gas may exist in considerable quantities in the furnace
atmosphere. Hence the reverberatory furnace is used mainly for melting alloys for die-casting,
where, due to the rapid solidification which takes place gas porosity is less able to manifest itself.
Both oxidation and gas solution increase with temperature, and it is therefore important that
accurate pyrometric control is available to avoid overheating the melt. It is particularly important
that those alloys containing zinc or magnesium should not be overheated. Much of the former
would be lost by volatilisation, whilst the latter oxidises readily at high temperatures. The
necessity for super-heating molten aluminium alloys should be avoided where possible by
preheating stirrers, plungers and ladles so that their chilling effect on the molten metal is
reduced.
Whilst overheating will accelerate the formation of dross, it is by no means
the only cause. As already mentioned, unnecessary turbulence or stirring of the melt will
repeatedly expose fresh metal surfaces which immediately oxidise and form additional scum.
Likewise the use of small scrap, with its relatively large area of oxide skin, and corroded scrap
will increase the amount of dross produced.

Undoubtedly the most frequent cause for the rejection of aluminium alloy castings is porosity
due to the liberation, during solidification, of hydrogen which has been dissolved by the metal at
some stage in the melting process. This hydrogen does not arise from the negligible amount of
the free gas present in the atmosphere, but is generally produced as a result of a chemical
reaction between the molten aluminium and water vapour from some other source:
2Al + 3H2O = Al2O3 + 6H
Whilst this hydrogen is still in its atomic state it is readily absorbed by the molten aluminium.
It is interesting to note that i m3 of air may contain as much as 10 g of water vapour. If this water
vapour reacts with molten aluminium according to the above equation more than i g of hydrogen
will be liberated, and this would be sufficient to cause such unsoundness in about i tonne of
cuttings as to make necessary their rejection.
As shown in Fig. 1.15 the solubility of hydrogen in solid aluminium is very, low, but as the metal
melts the solubility increases very rapidly. Conversely as the molten aluminium solidifies the
solubility of hydrogen falls again so that it is rejected from solution. Since dendrites of metal
have already begun

FIG 10.1.
to form, the tiny bubbles of gas are trapped between the growing arms, forming blow holes in the
resultant casting. In practice, molten aluminium with a gas content of less than 100 mm3/kg will
produce castings virtually free from porosity.
Common sources of moisture which give rise to the production of hydrogen include:
(a)

products of combustion in the furnace atmosphere;

(b)

water vapour in the atmosphere of the foundry itself;

(c)

corrosion products on the surface of the scrap;

(d)

condensed moisture on the surface of the scrap;

(e)

badly dried melting pots and foundry tools;

(f)

sand adhering to scrap, such as runners and risers.

The oxide skin which forms on the surface of the melt prevents to some extent contact between
the metal and either the foundry atmosphere or the products of combustion. The skin must
therefore be disturbed as little as possible when further additions of the charge are being made.
When aluminium alloys are melted in pit furnaces the crucible should be covered with a lid or,
better still, the molten charge should be protected by a layer of flux. The use of flux is essential
with alloys containing more than 2% magnesium, since these afloys are very prone to the
solution of hydrogen.
In order to expel moisture from corrosion products present on the surface of ingots or scrap, the
material should be preheated on the side of the^jnelting furnace before being charged to the
crucible. Because of their greater heat capacity, ingots require heating for a longer period than
thin scrap. This prolonged preheating is necessary to evaporate moisture, which condenses
initially on the ingot surfaces from the products of combustion emitted from the furnace.

Preheating of ingots shoujd be comrhon practice with all metals, since the presence of moisture
on the ingot surface will cause molten metal to be thrown out of the furnace with explosive
violence when such ingots are charged to the crucible.
Hydrogen may also be produced as a result of reactions between the molten charge and various
lubricants adhering to process scrap, whilst ingot metal which was originally melted under
unfavourable conditions may contain blow-holes filled with hydrogen. This hydrogen may be
dissolved again by the metal as it melts.

10.2 DE-GASSING ALUMINIUM ALLOYS

If an aluminium alloy has been melted under conditions which have allowed the absorption of
hydrogen to take place, then a de-gassing treatment must be . applied to the molten metal just
before casting it. hydrogen can be removed in one of the following wits
by bubbling another gas through the molten alloy;
(b)

by treatment of the molten alloy with a suitable liquid flux in the presence

of a

hydrogen-free atmosphere;
(c) by pre-solidification.
If the hydrogen in solution in the molten alloy is in equilibrium with an atmosphere containing a
certain amount of hydrogen, then, obviously, removal of all the hydrogen from the atmosphere in
contact with the melt will lead to the evolution by the metal of its hydrogen content. As this
evolved hydrogen is continually swept away, more will diffuse from the metal into the
atmosphere until equilibrium is reached at zero hydrogen content of both metal and atmosphere.
The removal of hydrogen from the melt by diffusion into a hydrogen-free atmosphere is not quite
so simple as it sounds, because not only must the atmosphere be free from hydrogen and
hydrogen-containing gases, such as water vapour, but the metal surface must also be clean and

free from oxide-film barriers, to enable the gas to diffuse into the atmosphere. Thus methods (a)
and (b) mentioned above are similar in principle. In each case intimate contact is effected
between a dry hydrogen-free gas and the molten metal; on the one hand, by passing bubbles of
the gas through the melt and, on the other, by fluxing the oxide skin at the surface of the melt and
exposing the metal itself to dry air.
the gas method
is the most frequently used, and involves passing either nitrogen or chlorine through the melt.
The function of this process as indicated above is to 'flush' hydrogen from the molten alloy.
The gas, whether nitrogen or chlorine, is supplied in cylinders, and it goes without saying that it
must be as free as possible from moisture, since the latter would tend to introduce hydrogen into
the melt. A graphite or refractory tube is used to bubble the gas through the molten alloy, and it
is connected to the gas cylinder by rubber tubing which carries an asbestos-wool filter. The
refractor}' tube, which should reach to the bottom of the melt, is best closed at the lower end and
drilled with a number of 3 mm diameter holes rather in the manner of a domestic gas poker.
Before de-gassing is carried out the fuel supply should be turned off. Treatment is usually
carried out with the melt at a temperature of 730 C if chlorine is used, but de-gassing with
nitrogen is not very effective below 740 C. The flow of gas should not be such that excessive
turbulence is caused at the surface of the melt; a steady stream of bubbles is all that is required. It
is advisable to remove most of the dross from the surface by means of a suitable liquid flux
before de-gassing is attempted. Fluxes commonly employed for this purpose contain mixtures of
the fluorides and chlorides of magnesium and potassium for use with magnesium-bearing alloys,
and mixtures of sodium chloride and sodium silicofluoride for use with magnesium-free alloys.

When the dross has been removed along with the layer of flux the surface of the melt is protected
by the addition of a further layer of flux.
Effective de-gassing takes from 10 to 20 minutes, depending largely upon the size of the melt,
which is then allowed to stand for a further 10 minutes before removing the flux layer with a
perforated ladle. The melt is then cast.
The main advantage in the use of nitrogen for de-gassing is that unlike chlorine it is not
poisonous. In other respects, however, nitrogen is less satisfactory than chlorine. Not only does
cylinder nitrogen contain some moisture and oxygen but, being lighter than chlorine, it also
disperses more quickly into the atmosphere. Chlorine, being a heavy gas, forms a protective
layer on the surface of the melt, and this further assists in the removal of hydrogen. Moreover,
some aluminium chloride forms as a heavy vapour along with the chlorine and makes its own
contribution towards de-gasification and protection.
Despite its toxicity therefore, chlorine is much more widely used than nitrogen as a de-gassing
agent. Provided that efficient fume extraction is employed, chlorine is quite safe to use, and has
the further advantage that it has a cleansing action on the melt. The use of chlorine tends to
produce coarse grain in some alloys, but this can be overcome by adding a grain refiner after degassing is complete.
All the advantages attendant on the use of chlorine as a de-gasser can be obtained by treating the
melt with the compound hexachlorethane, Cz Cle-This is a solid which when plunged below the
surface of the melt decomposes with the liberation of chlorine. Obviously this provides a
convenient method of de-gassing, since gas cylinders and ancilliary apparatus are not required.
Suppliers of foundry equipment sell hexachlorethanegenerally under a trade nameas either
powder or tablets in weighed units for the treatment of a specific amount of molten alloy.

When de-gassing with hexachlorethane the furnace is first shut off before the melt has reached
its casting temperature. The temperature which the melt should have reached when the fuel
supply is cut off will be determined largely by experience, and will be related to the size of the
charge and the heat capacity of the furnace. The surface of the melt should be treated with flux to
remove most of the dross and covered with another thin layer of flux. The temperature of the
melt should be between 700 and 750 C. The required amount of hexachlorethane is plunged
below the surface with a special bell-shaped plunger (Fig. 1.16) and held near to the bottom of
the crucible until the evolution of chlorine has ceased. This should take about 3 minutes.
C2 Cl6
2C + 3Cl2

FIG 10.2. THE GASING AN ALUMINIUM ALLOY

The plunger is then removed and the melt allowed to stand for about 10 minutes during which
time it should attain its pouring temperature (the fuel supply is, of course, still turned off).
Finally, the flux is stirred into the surface of the melt in order that it shall dissolve dross and
other suspended matter. The flux is then skimmed off with a perforated ladle and the melt is
ready for casting.

Treatment with a liquid Fi.ux. It was mentioned earlier that the oxide scum which forms on the
surface of molten aluminium is a fairly effective protection against the absorption of hydrogen
and that, conversely, it will also prevent any dissolved gas from escaping again, as would happen
if the surface of the molten alloy were exposed to dry air after the melting process was complete.
Reasonably effective de-gassing is therefore obtained by covering the surface of the melt with
about i% by weight of a dry mixture consisting of two parts sodium chloride to one part sodium
fluoride. As soon as it melts this flux is rabbled into the surface of the melt for about 5 minutes.
It is then thickened by the addition of some higher-melting-point flux so that it can be removed
with a perforated ladle.
This treatment is most effective if the crucible is removed from the furnace before the flux is
added, since water vapour from products of combustion may still be present in the furnace
atmosphere after the fuel has been cut off. However, removal from the furnace may only be
possible in the case of large crucibles with a big heat capacity, and small crucibles which cool
quickly may have to remain in the furnace whilst treatment is carried out.
One disadvantage of treatment with flux of this nature is that the liquid flux attacks refractory
crucibles. This can be overcome to a large extent by confining the flux in an iron ring which fits
into the top of the crucible

FIG. 10.3. FLUX DE GASIFICATION OF A MOLTEN ALUMINIUM

ALLOY
Although the flux does not come into contact with the sides of the crucible, it cleans a sufficient
area of the surface of the melt for its action to be effective.
Pke-solidification is sometimes applied to reduce the gas content of very gassy melts. The
molten metal is allowed to cool and solidify very slowly in the crucible, care being taken to
prevent the surface from freezing over until the rest of the melt is solid. During cooling and
subsequent solidification the solubility of the hydrogen falls almost to zero, and if the surface is
prevented from freeezing over, most of the gas will be liberated. The charge can then be remelted
under satisfactory conditions and should be relatively gas-free.
Treatment of this type is best carried out in iron or steel pots, since refractory crucibles would be
liable to crack when attempts were made to remelt the solid charge.

WEEK 11
11.0 PETLING OPERATIONS
11.1 CLEANING AND INSPECTION
The cleaning of castings generally refers to all the operations involved in the removal of
adhering sand, the gating system, and fins, wires, chaplets, or other metal not a part of
the casting. Cleaning operations may also include a certain amount of metal finishing or
machining to obtain the required casting dimensions, the salvage of castings having
minor defects, and the inspection of the finished castings.

11.2

CLEANING OPERATIONS AND EQUIPMENT

The series of operations performed in the cleaning department may be classified as

fellows:
1.

Removal of gates and risers, rough cleaning

2.

Surface cleaning, exterior and interior of easting

3.

Trimming, the removal of fins, wires, and protuberance at gate and riser locations.

4.

Finishing final surface cleaning, giving the casting its outward appearance

5.

Inspection
Sometimes heat-treatments are involved which necessitate cleaning the castings after the
heat-treatment. This might be done between steps 3 and 4 above. Often steps 1 to 5 are
carries on simultaneously. Some of these, such as gate removal, may occur during
shakeout operations.

Removal of Gates and Risers

The sprue, runners, and risers are firmly attached to the solidified casting. If the casting
alloy is brittle, the gating system may be broken off by impact when the castings are
dumped and vibrated in shakeout.

Flogging
Flogging with a hammer or sledge is a positive means of gate removal by impact.
A man may be stationed at the shakeout to flog the sprue and risers as the sand falls away
from the casting. When the molds are set out on floors and dumped by hand, men with
hammers knocks off the gates and toss the castings and gates in to separate boxes for
transfer to the cleaning room. To sprue the castings is to remove gates in this way. Grayand while-iron castings are especially amenable to gates removal by this method. An
inherent danger of braking off the gates is that the break may extend in to the casting
proper. This condition may be remedied by notching the ingate ahead of the casting. The
protuberance remaining on the casting can then be ground flush with the casting wall.

Flogging may be applied advantageously to steel castings as long as the gates are
of a size that can be knocked off by a man using about a 12-Ib maul. One author1
estimates that the maximum size of gate which may be flogged from carbon-steel
castings is one with 4.4 sq in. cross-sectional area connection to the casting (25/8 in.diameter round riser). The same author studied the impact in foot-pounds necessary to
break steel knock-off risers and developed the graph shown in Fig. 24.1. it is important to
note that the dismeter referred to in Fig. 24.1 is

the necked-down diameter of a

Washburn riser, and not the enlarged diameter easier. Even certain brasses and bronzes,
relatively ductile as cast, may have rises flogged off if Washburn rises are used.

Mechanical cutoff
Gates may be removed by band sawing, power sawing, abrasive cutoff
wheels, or with sprue cutter. A rapid method of removing a number of small
castings from s central runner is provided by the sprue cutter. This machine,
illustrated in Fig. 24.2, shears off the casting at the ingate. Ductile metal casting
such as steel, brass, copper, and aluminum are conveniently handed by the
sprue cutter, provided the gate and casting size is not too large to shear. Gates
of 1/8 to 1/2 in. in thickness may be readily sheared on the sprue cutter. In some
cases, fine may be removed and gates cut off simultaneously by using a punch
press fitted with a die for performing these operations. Die castings are often
treated in this way.2
Abrasive cutoff wheels may be used for gate removal. The machine
illustrated in Fig.24.3 will cut hard or difficult-to-saw alloys, as well as the more
common foundry alloys.

Band sawing can be used for removing gates from many castings, both
ferrous and nonferrous. Its most extensive use is on nonferrous castings and
involves equipment such as that shown in Fig. 24.4. Band sawing may be done
by cutting or friction sawing. Actual sawing involves cutting, chip formation, and
removal at speeds up to about 3500 fpm.
Friction sawing requires cutting speeds up to 15,000 fpm which will heat
the metal to temperatures approaching its melting point. Friction sawing is used
almost entirely on ferrous materials. Gate removal by sawing under the proper
conditions requires a consideration of cutting speed, cutting pressure, section
thickness, lubricant, saw-blade type, alloy type, and other conditions. Numerical
data for a few of these factors are listed in

Table 24.1. Low-speed sawing,

ordinary at less than 500 fpm of saw-blade velocity, is conventional band sawing.
Sawing at higher speeds, is used whenever possible for gate removal. Band
sawing makes it possible to a degree to follow the contour of the casting when
removing gates and risers, something which cannot be done so easily with a
sprue cutter or abrasive cutoff wheel.

Torch cutting
Large risers and gates on steel castings are most conveniently removed by cutting
torches. The sprue cutter is limited in metal thicknesses, whereas the cutting torch and
oxygen lance may cut risers of practically any size. The principal of the oxyacetylene
cutting torch, illustrated in Fig. 24.5, requires that the slot, or Kerf, be controlled by the
operator or cutting machine so that the temperature and oxidation rate of the metal can be
maintained. Metal-section thickness determines the proper torch-nozzle size and oxygen

pressure necessary to keep the cutting reaction and Kerf moving along. Table 24.2 lists
some of the combinations required for effective cutting.
If cast6ing of a given size and type are lined up on work benches as in Fig. 24.6,
the speed and ease of gate removal are increased. The dame type of setup is occasionally
conveyorized. Hand cutting, as illustrated in Fig. 24.6, is most commonly employed in
jobbing foundries on a variety of castings. Sometimes mechanized cutting may be used,
employing a motorized cutting carriage, with a form template to guide the cutting torch
around the casting surface. Extremely large risers. Require an oxygen lance as well as
cutting torch to complete the cut. This is illustrated in Fig. 24.7. the torch maintains the
cutting reaction zone on the near side of the riser, and the lance carries it through to the
far side. Thus cutting by hand or machine is seen to be an exceedingly versatile means of
gate removal.
Some ferrous alloys, cast irons, and high-alloy steel are oxidation-resistant and do
not cut well with the oxygen torch alone. Powder cutting has be developed to handle
these materials. Iron powder is introduced at the oxygen stream after being preheated in
the flame. The iron powder is picked up by an air stream and discharged through the
preheat flame into the oxygen stream. The combination of the oxygen stream and burning
iron attacks the metal by fluxing and oxidation. By this means, 18-8 stainless steel, highchromium irons, high-temperature alloys, cast irons, and other oxidation-resistant alloys
can be cut to remove gates rapidly.
Gouging and powder washing are processes allied to torch and powder cutting
which assist in cleaning up castings. Gouging is used to clean out or remove surface
defects on steel castings. Gouging is performed with the cutting torch, and involves

preheating the defective area and cutting it or washing it out with a low-volocity, largebore oxygen stream. Slag inclusions, blowholes, cracks, fins, and wire may be cleaned
out by gouging. A steel casting with surface defects removed by gouging and ready for
repair by welding is illustrated in Fig. 24.8. Powder washing is a similar process but is
used on the more oxidation-resistant alloys and in removing sand-metal encrustation due
to metal penetration of molds or cores. Power washing differs from gouging trimming of
riser pads, heavy fins, chills, and other metal protuberances on medium and large steel
castings may be done in this way.

Surface cleaning
Surface-cleaning operations ordinarily follow the removal of gates and risers.
However, surface cleaning may facilitate gate removal. For instance, elimination of sand
from the casting favors sawing and torch cutting, so that surface cleaning may then be
done before gate removal in the case of nonferrous alloys and sometimes steel. When
flogging is used on steel or cast iron, it is easier to perform the surface cleaning after gate
removal.

Tumbling
Sand, scale and some fins and wires may be removed by tumbling in a tumbling mill. The
mill is filled with castings and some jack stars.
Rotation of the mill causes the castings and stars to tumble and abrade cash other. Twenty
minutes to an hour of tumbling is used on gray and malleable-iron castings. Tumbling has a
burnishing action on the casting surfaces and causes the corners to be rounded. Excessive
tumbling can cause overbrasion and deformation of the corners.

11.3

Principles of metal casting

The tumbling action can be combined with sand, grit, or short blasting in blast mills. Wet
tumbling using water treated with caustic is employed for dust suppression. Continuous
tumbling mills in which the castings and stars are changed at one end and discharged at
the other are usually operated wet.
Tumbling for deburring and brightening of copper-base castings is also practiced.
The castings may be cleaned and deburred by using water and detergents in combinations
with sand or pumice stone in the tumbling barrels. Ball burnishing provides a means of
imparting high luster to copper-base castings by tumbling. Steels ball and the castings in
a ratio of 2:1 are charged into the barrel along with dilute soap solution. After tumbling
the casting are dried in other mill by tumbling them in sawdust or wood shavings.

Blasting
Blasting the surface of castings is the most rapid means of removing sand and
scale. Abrasives employed are sand, metal grit, and metal shot. Sand blasting may be
performed using coarse sand, 6- to 30-mesh size, as the abrasive and air as the carrying
medium. When air blasting is employed the blasting must be done in cabinets or rooms
provide with a means of handling the dust arising from the disintegrating sand. Water
blasting eliminates the dust problem.
Grit or shot blasting can be done by the airless-blast method. The metallic
particles are thrown by centrifugal force from a rapidly rotating wheel such as that
illustrated in Fig. 24.9. the blasting wheel is incorporated in a variety of devices which
tumble casting or rotate them under the shot or grit stream so that all casting surfaces are
exposed to its abrasive action. The combination of tumbling and mechanical blasting is

shown schematically in Fig. 24. 10a and b. Another machine has a series of rotating
tables that pass under the shot or grit stream.
Rebound of the shot assists in cleaning surfaces not in line of the shot stream. On tabletype models. The castings must be turned over for cleaning all surfaces. The mechanicalimpact cleaning method may also be applied to conveyorized cleaning. Castings,
suspended or grit stream. The castings are rotated in the stream to expose all the surface
to cleaning.
Metallic abrasives. Shot or grit may be made of white iron, malleableized iron, or
steel. Shot is produced by allowing a stream of molten iron or steel to pass through a
steam jet. The jet breaks up the stream into fine particles which fall into a water
quenching tank. Grit may be produced from brittle shot by crushing. Malleableized iron
or steel shot has less tendency to break down into smaller particles than does white-iron
shot. Typical shot and grit sizes are listed in Table 24.3, and recommendations for use on
various casting types in Table 24.4.Shot blasting has a battering effect on the metal
surface and causes surface metal flow as it is continued. Grit appears to have more of a
gouging action and seems to be removing small particles of metal from the casting
surface as blasting continues. Shot blasting therefore produces a rather shiny surface,
whereas grit dulls the surface. Only very light shot blasting can be applied to nonferrous
castings or the surface will be severely battered. Grit is not desirable because it will
become embedded in the surface of copper or a aluminum castings. Malleable iron, soft
steel copper, or bronze shot seems best for that application. In either shot or grit blasting,
effectiveness is greatly reduce if the abrasive is contaminated with excessive amounts of

sand or fine metal particles. Hence the cleaning units are equipped with a means of
removing the fines as well as recycling the shot.

9.3

Other types of surface cleaning

A number of methods of casting-surface cleaning other than those mentioned

above are in use. Wire brushing, buffing, pickling and various polishing procedures may
be applied. Simple wire brushing can be an adequate means of taking off surface sand of
nonferrous castings. Most of the other means of cleaning mentioned are used to impart a
specially desirable surface finish for final cleaning of the casting.

Trimming
Either after, before, or during the initial surface cleaning, the casting, are trimmed to
remove fins, gate and riser pads protruding beyond the casting surface, chaplets, wires,
parting-line flash, or other appendages to the casting which are not a part of its final
dimensions.

Chipping
Pneumatic chipping hammers may be used to remove fins, gate and riser pads,
wires, etc., and to remove cores. A variety of hammer and chisel sizes are used for
various casting alloys. A No. 2 hammer, with 2-in. piston stroke, will handle most iron
and steel foundry work. Specifications for chipping on different types of casting are given
in Table 24.5. Chisel types and the relationship if air operating pressure to air-hose setup
are illustrated in Fig. 24.11. an air-hose arrangement that causes more than about 10 per
cent pressure drop from the source to the pneumatic tool seriously lowers the efficiency
of the tool. Air-hose combinations of length and diameter which are favorable and
unfavorable at various flow rates are listed in Table 24.7 Pneumatic grinders or other

tools are subject to the same conditions. Chipping operations may be speeded up by
having shipping stations at conveyors used to transport castings in the cleaning room.
Much chipping may be done most conveniently by hand with a hammer. Light-gray- and
white iron castings are especially adaptable to hand chipping pneumatic chipping is then
done on the areas that are heavier and more difficult to trim.

Grinding
Grinding, or snagging, of castings is practiced to remove excess metal. Three
principal types of grinders are employed for this purpose: floor or bench-stand grinders,
portable grinders, and swing-frame grinders. In addition, specialized machines such as
disk grinders, belts, and cutoffs may be used.
Stand grinding
Stand grinders are usually of the double-end type and may be of constant- or
adjustable-speed type, the latter compensating for wheel wear. Low-speed machines
operate at speeds up to 6500 surface feet per minute (sfpm), high-speed machines at 9500
sfpm. Castings which can be handled manually are ground on machines of this type. The
operator presents the areas to be ground to the wheel face under suitable pressure.
Traversing of the wheel face is desirable to prevent rounding or grooving of the wheel
and the need for frequent dressing of the wheel.
Stand grinding is ordinarily hand work, depending upon the judgment of the
operator for the selection of areas to be ground and amount of grinding. When many
castings of one type are ground, special guide fixtures or mechanized feeding and
positioning fixtures may be used to speed up grinding.

Abrasive wheels. Grinding wheels used for cleaning castings are made of either
the aluminum oxide or silicon carbide types of abrasives. The aluminum oxide abrasives
are bonded with vitrified clay or with a resinoid bond. The vitrified-clay-bonded wheels
are limited to 6500 sfpm. The silicon carbide abrasive are reiniod-bonded and may
operate up to 9500 sfpm. Application of various abrasives and bonds is given in Table
24.6. In general, the silicon carbide abrasives are used for casting materials of lower
tensile strength. Coarser abrasive sized are used for fast cutting whereas fine grits
produce a smoother finish. Grits may be graded by sieve number similar to foundry
sands. High grain-size numbers in Table 24.6 indicate finer abrasives. Grain spacing and
structure determine the number of cutting edges per unit area of wheel face. Snagging
usually requires wide grain spacing to get rapid metal removal unless the loading
pressure is high.
A wheel diameter of 14 t 36 in. is common in foundries. The wheel velocity in
sfpm varies as the wheel is worn. Of course, the minimum wheel diameter is limited by
the safe upper limit of sfpm for the particular wheel and rpm of the grinding machines at
hand. Worn wheels and stubs from heavy grinders may be transferred to smaller grinders
for light work. Specific wheel applications are best determined by experience and testing.
Swing grinders. Swing grinders are employed when the casting are too heavy to
carried to the work. In this case, the grinder is mounted on a swing frame, the casting
positioned under the grinder, and the grinder is then worked over the casting surface as
illustrated in Fig. 24.12. Wheel sizes run from 12 to 24 in. in diameter. When the wheel is
worn to the point where an excessive loss in sfpm occurs, the rpm on the wheel may be
increased by changing the position of belts on the motor and wheel pulleys. The work

pieces must be firmly positioned under the grinder. This may require supports or fixtures
to hold pieces that do not have large stable flat surfaces.
Portable grinders.

Electric or air operated portable grinders are employed for

working over surfaces of castings that cannot be handled by swing or stand grinding.
Cone, cup, disk, special shapes, and straight grinding wheels up to about 14 in. in
diameter may be mounted on portable machines. Generally, only light grinding is
intended. Disk grinding is some time practiced in this way. Special shaped wheels have
safe operating speeds which are lower than those of wheels, and these must be observed
to avoid the hazards of wheel disintegration.
Rotary tools
Cleaning of softer nonferrous alloys such as aluminum or magnesium alloys may
be done by rotary filing tools or cutters. These may be electrically or air operated, and are
usually of the portable type. The tool operator may then file off excess metal on any
casting surface accessible.
Trimming and sizing
Shearing, punching coining, and straightening are mechanical operations which
may be employed to complete trimming and sizing castings. Coining or straightening is
done with dies in process under hydraulic pressures up to about 1000 tons, as described in
Refs. 17, 22, and 33. In mild-steel and malleable-iron castings, holes may be purchased
out to eliminate drilling operations. Some castings may have surfaces which are milled,
broached, or ground to a specified accuracy as required by customer.

Finishing
The latter stages of cleaning are often referred to as finishing. Many castings have
received their final cleaning operation when grinding is completed. Other are given
additional surface finishing such as machining, chemical treatment, polishing, buffing,
blasting, and painting to put them into a suitable appearance for sale. Heat-treatments
may come at various stages of cleaning. Since scaling, oxidation, or discoloration occurs
during heat-treatment, steel and malleable-iron castings receive their final surface
cleaning after heat-treatment. In nonferrous castings, chemical, electrolytic, and
mechanical means of making the castings surface attractive may be utilized.
A speci salt-bath cleaning operation may be used on ferrous castings to obtain maximum
freedom from scale, sand dirt, and grit. For example, gray-iron castings may be immersed
into a molten salt bath of caustic, 15% sodium hydroxide, 5% sodium nitrates, at 800 F
for cleaning. The castings are then rinsed, dipped in acidified water, 15% hydrochloric
acid, hot-water-rinsed, and treated with soluble oil. The oil coating provides rust
protection. Treatments of this type are utilized only when the additional cost is justified
in a particular application or processing sequences.

INSPECTION
Inspection comprised those operations which check the quality of castings and result in their
acceptance or rejection. Inspection procedures may be classed as follows:
1.

Visual, surface inspection for foundry detects

2.

Dimensional, requiring gauges for measurements

3.

Metallurgical, requiring chemical, physical, and other tests for metal quality.
Complete inspection usually embraces all these types of procedures.

Visual inspection
Certain types of casting detects are immediately obvious upon visual examination of the
casting. Cracked castings, tears, dirt, blowholes, scabs, metal penetration, severe shifts,
runouts, poured short, swells or strains, cracked mold or cores, and numerous other
defects can be identified by the inspector. Casting defects of this type are usually
associated with defective molds, cores, their materials of construction, flask equipment
the operations of molding and coremaking, and the rest of the factors in making and
pouring the mold. Many of the causes of these defects have been discussed in previous
chapters. Evidently, if excess amounts of these detects occur, faulty practices are being
employed in the foundry. Their correction is a is a necessity and can be facilitated if the
cause of the defect can be located. Inspectors identify the casting defects and assign their
cause to some foundry operation or material so that corrective measures can be taken.
Visual inspection is the simplest method of inspection, and carried to its ultimate
it will ensure a casting that looks good. This degree of inspection is satisfactory for
some castings such as sash weight, manhole covers, drains, and counterbalance weights.
However, countless numbers of castings for manufacturing require more exacting
inspection for dimensional accuracy and metallurgical standards.

Dimensional
Dimensional inspection of castings involves the principles of gauging as it is applied to
any machine elements. Surface plates, height and depth gauges, layout tables, dividing
heads, go and no-go gauges, snap and plug gauges, templates, dies, contour gauges, etc.,
as used in standard layout and inspection procedures may be applied to castings.
Agreement between the machine shop and foundry, or purchaser and vendor, is necessary

so that gauging and dimensional checking may be carried out in a mutually acceptable
way. Locating points used as starting points for machining and dimensional inspection
should be selected by common by common consent. Castings must be sectioned to check
metal-wall thickness. The area of dimensional inspection and accuracy involves the entire
field of castings utilization by the machine shop. There is no needs to be pointed out,
however, that the closest cooperation between the foundry, pattern shop, and machine
shop utilizing the casting will result in the most efficient use of good gauging and
machining practices.

Metallurgical inspection
Metallurgical inspection includes chemical analysis, mechanical-properties tests,
evaluation of casting soundness, and product testing of special properties such as
electrical conductivity, resistivity, magnetic effects, corrosion resistance, response to
heat-treatment, strength in assemblies, surface conditions, coasting and surface
treatments, and others.
Chemical analysis
The methods of chemical analysis for many casting alloys, ferrous and
nonferrous, have been developed and adopted as standard through the work of the
ASTM. The ESTM methods of chemical analysis of metals sets forth the standard and
tentative standard procedures adopted for ferrous and nonferrous metals by American
industry. Many short-cut methods of analysis have been developed for specific casting
alloys. Since this textbook does not deal with chemical analytical methods, there will be
no further discussion of this subject.
Casting soundness

Shrinking cavities blowholes, gas hole holes, porosity, hot tears, cracks, entrained
slag, lapped or cold-shut surfaces etc, are all considered as contributing to lack of casting
soundness when they are present. These defects are of greater or lesser importance,
depending on the casting application. May castings with internal shrinkage, porosity, or
other defects that do not interfere with the functioning of the castings are quite acceptable
to the user. Where the requirements are high and factors of safety low. However, the very
highest degree of metallurgical quality is required. In castings for aircraft, ordnance, and
other highly precision-engineered applications, absolute soundness and optimum
properties are needed. These objectives will be met only when the casting inspection
includes methods which check the casting for soundness defects not visibly detectable.
Diverse methods of discovering soundness detects have been devised, and are
exhaustively treated by various authors.
Pressure testing. Pressure testing is used to locate leaks in a casting or to check
the over-all strength of a casting in resistance to bursting under hydraulic pressure.
Equipment for sealing off castings and finding the leaks is discussed in Ref. 23 proof
loading by hydraulic pressure involves introducing a fluid, oil or water, into the casting.
The casting is then subjected to a pressure which is in excess of the maximum stress that
the casting is suppose to encounter in service. Case pipe or tubes are often proof-tested in
this way.
Sectioning. Castings may be sawed up. And the sections examined for soundness.
This procedure is desirable since the interior of the casting, section thickness, as well as
its soundness, may be studied. Macroetching may be used to locate suspected shrinkage,
porosity, or cracks.

Radiographic inspection. Nondestructive testing of casting soundness may be

determined by X-ray radiographic means. The source of short-wavelength rays which can
penetrate metals may be either an X-ray tube (radiographic machine), a radium capsule, a
cobalt-60 capsule, betatron, or other radioactive source. Whatever the surface, X or
gamma rays are passed through the test piece, and the intensity of transmitted rays is
recorded on a photographic film. Film is positioned behind the casting sections being
radiographed. The distance from X-ray source to casting, section thickness, exposure,
time land many other details must be properly selected to give satisfactory results. Since
most defects transmit the short-wavelength light better than the sound metal does, the
film is darkened more where the defects are in the Fig. 24.13, where an internal hot tear is
revealed by radiographic examination. Figure 24.13 is a positive print of the normal Xray negative film. Other internal defects can be located in this way. The penetrating
power of the short-wavelength source limits the section thickness that can be examined in
this way.
Magnetic-particle inspection. This method of inspection is use on magnetic
ferrous castings for detecting invisible surface or slightly subsurface defects. The object
is magnetized, and magnetic particles applied to the casting surface. When a current or
magnetizing force is passed through the metal, fields are set up as illustrated in Fig.24.14.
Polar affects exist at the defect. The magnaflux indication is obtained when magnetic
particles align themselves preferentially in the flux field. Mangnaflux equipment may be
of the portable type which has electrodes that can be positioned anywhere desired on the
casting. Larger units are stationary and have fixed electrodes which are clamped to the
casting and provide low-voltage high-current magnetization. The magnetic particles are

applied dry, by an air stream, with the portable machine, or wet on the larger machines.
Magnetic indications are not obtained from defects alone. Certain shapes. Sharp corners,
fillets, and welds give indications that might look like defects, Hence experienced
inspection is required to use this tool effectively. After magnafluxing, the parts must be
demagnetized. Reference 36 is suggested for review of the principle of this inspection
method.
Fluorescent penetrant. Invisible surface defects nonmagnetic alloys
cannot be located by magnaflux inspection. However, a similar inspection tool is
available. A penetrating oil, mixed with whiting powder, may be applied to the casting
surface. After the casting has been wiped dry, the oil will creep out of cracks or other
defects and become visible at those places. Recent developments of this technique have
employed fluorescent liquids. When these are wiped or cleaned off the casting, the
defects filled with the fluorescent oil may be readily observed under black light. These
tests are limited to surface defects.
Supersonic testing. Sound waves above the audible frequency (16,000
cycles per sec) may be used to locate detects. If supersonic vibrations are initiated at one
casting surface, they will be reflected from the sound waves, but the time interval.
Defects will be less than that of the opposite casting surface. The sound vibrations and
inflection measurements are made with equipment known as the supersonic
reflectoscope. A vibrating quartz crystal applied the waves, and an oscilloscope can be
used to detect the reflections from casting surfaces and defects. Of course, the problem of
locating the defects is great since the entire casting must be laboriously surveyed by hand

with the equipment. Reference 32 may be studied for further details on this inspection
tool.
Mechanical-property testing
Castings and testy bars must be tested to see that mechanical-property
specifications ate met. Tesile, hardness, transverse, impact, fatigue and other properties
are tested in accordance with standard procedures
Adopted by ASTM and other specifying groups. Since these tests may be studied
in the ASTM standards books and other technical works, they will not be considered in
this book. Some special test bars peculiar to certain casting alloys have been considered
in earlier chapters. Special proof tests are used on certain types of castings. Pipe, for
example, may be subjected to a pressure test to prove its reliability. Assemblies of cast
chain links are often subjected to a maximum tensile proof load to ensure quality. Thus
mechanical tests may be used to qualify castings for their service requirements, as well as
for determining the normal strength properties.

SALVAGE
Casting which have been rejected because of failure to meet inspection
requirements are not necessarily scrapped. If the defects are not too serious, salvage is
possible in many cases by welding or other treatment and refinishing. Whether salvage is
permissible or economical depends greatly on factors such as the casting alloy, casting
size and shape, relative cost of new castings vs. repairing the defects, difficultly of
salvage, availability of repair equipment between the foundry and castings in welding the
defective areas. Castings that are defective because they are leakers under pressure tests
may be reclaimed by sealing process (Chap. 12)

WELDING
Casting reclaimed by welding defects are ordinarily tread as follows:
1.

The defective areas are prepared for welding by chipping, grinding, grouping, or power
washing in the case of ferrous alloys. Nonferrous require defect removal by mechanical
means such as filing, grinding, or other tooling. Cracks should be completely removed
before welding.

2.

By welding, the actual repair process. The welding of castings is discussed in references
in the bibliography of this chapter.

3.

By cleaning. The welded areas may be cleaned by the methods described earlier, and then
the castings must be reinspected to pass required standards.

WEEK 12
12.1

MOULDS FOR PROCESSING PLASTIC MATERIALS

The moulds for making products from plastics come in various designs to suit the manufacture of
different articles, the material they are made from, the production features etc.

The moulds are classified into compression and transfer ones. In the compression mould (fig.
137a), the loading chamber is a continuation of the cavity shaping the bottom of the article. The
part of the mould which accommodates the loading chamber and the bottom shaping cavity is
called a die. The moulding material is charged into the die where it is heated to become plastic
and rammed by the punch. The latter is a part of the mould transmitting the pressure upon the
material and shaping the top and internal surfaces of the article. The pressure exerted by the
punch upon the material moulds it in the volume of the shaping cavity and imparts it the required
shape. The compression mould closes completely when the article is finally shaped.

In the transfer mould, the shaping cavity is made separately from the loading chamber and is
completely clamped prior to filling it with material. The material comes from the loading
chamber into the moulding cavity through the sprue channels.
There are two basic types of transfer moulds:
a.

With a loading chamber (for use in presses);

b.

Without a loading chamber (for use on injection machines).

The transfer moulds are less efficient than the compression moulds, but they allow more accurate
products of intricate shape to be obtained which require to trimming of flash.
The transfer moulds without a loading chamber are used only in the processing of thermoplastic
compounds. Such moulds are mounted on injection machines. The material comes into the
moulding cavity over the sprue channels from the heating cylinder of the injection machine.
12.2

FROM THE HEATING CYLINDER OF THE INJECTION MACHINE.

As to their maintenance the moulds can be either loose or fixed. The loose moulds are to be
removed from the press to withdraw the moulded article after each moulding operation. To heat
the loose moulds, the presses are equipped with heating platens between which the mould is
mounted. The loose moulds are of low efficiency, they are applicable when making small lots of
products. The fixed moulds are rigidly joined to the platens of the press or injection machine.
The ready product is removed from such moulds without removing the mould from the press.
The fixed moulds are provided with either a heating or cooling device depending on the type of
material to be processed. Besides loose and fixed moulds the product is made loose.
From the standpoint of the quantity of products which can be made at a time or the quantity of
moulding cavities, the moulds are classified into single and multiple cavity moulds. Another
distinction between the moulds consists in the number and direction of their parting planes. A

parting plane of the mould is a term applied to the surface over which the moulding parts open.
The opening of the mould is necessary for loading the next portion ()weight batch) of the
material to be moulded and for removing the moulded article. The parting (opening) plane can be
either vertical or horizontal. To remove the article vertically, the opening is to be made over the
horizontal plane. If the removal of the article calls for moving the moulding members apart
horizontally, the opening plane is to be vertical. The number of parting planes can be one, two or
three, depending on the shape of the article.
12.3

MOULDS FOR PRESS MOULDING

Let us consider several typical designs for processing thermosetting materials.
The manufacturers who specialize themselves in making products from the thermosetting
materials widely apply compression moulds since they are most efficient. The
compression moulding can be used for making articles of different size and shape.
However they are not suitable for production of articles with thin metal reinforcements,
deep holes of small diameters, or holes perpendicular to the direction of moulding.
The top mould with punch 5 is closed and locked by guide posts 9 with respect to the
bottom. Die 4, whose top act as a loading chamber, is of a split design to simplify the
manufacturing process. The bottom of the article is moulded by part 3 known as insert.
Insert 3 is mounted tight in the opening of die 4 and closed by backing plate 1. in the
same way punch 5is secured in plate 6 (punch holder). Parts 2 and 8 of the mould which
shape the holes are called cores.
After the moulding operation is over, the mould is removed from the press and placed on
a special device to withdraw the moulded article thereform. The article is removed by
stripper 10 whose stems move ejectors 7 through the holes in plate 1.

1.The loading chamber is mounted on top plate1. the moulding material fills in the cavity
through adapter (Sprue Bush). 2. The external outline of the article is shaped in plates 3
and 4 while t6he holes are made with the aid of cores 5 and 6. central core 7 acts also as a
spreader for the plastics flow passing through adapter and directs it towards the face of
the article. After the mould is opened over planes AA and BB, the article remains in plate
4 where form it can be easily ejected by a textile or aluminium rod.
Figure 140 shows a fixed compression mould for making a safety hood from
thermosetting material. The mould is of one-impression design with one horizontal
parting plane AA. The punch which shapes the internal cavity of the article is secured in
punch holder 2.

arranged at the top of p[late 1 for heating the punch with four holes

receiving the electric heaters. The corners of punch holder 2 are provided with slots (not
shown in the figure) for bolts securing the top of the mould to the press platen. The
bottom of the mould comprises die 3 mounted on heating plate 6, support posts 8,
clamping plate 12 securing the mould to the press bed, and the mechanism for ejecting
the moulded article. The latter comprises ejectors 5 driven by the press lower ram
connected to them by means of shank 11. To preclude misalignment in motion, plates 9
and 10 of the ejection mechanism with ejectors 5 and shank 11 are guided over posts 13.
The separate components of the mould bottom are fastened together by bolts 7. To reduce
the heat loss, the outside of the die is enclosed in asbestos casing 14.
The working principle of the mould is as follows. Prior to moulding, the material is
loaded into die 3 of the mould. Then the working ram of the press is engaged and the
moulding is performed by descending it. During the operation the punch is kept in correct
position with respect of the die by posts 15. By the end of the stroke of the top ram the

mould is completely clamped and the moulding material fills in the space between the
punch and the die and is formed into the article. After the curing necessary for a complete
setting up of the article, trhe top ram of the press is engaged for ascending and the mould
is unclamped. Next, to remove the moulded article from the die, the bottom ejection ram
is engaged; it actuates upon shank 11 to lift plates 9 and 10. ejectors 5 secured in the
plates remove the ready article from the die. Used for closing and opening the mould
over the plane AA and the bottom one for delivering the material into the cavity. The
moulding proceeds in the following sequence. When the mould is open, its loading
chamber is charged with the material in the form of pellets from the top. Then the mould
is closed by engaging the top ram. Thereafter the bottom ram starts operating and lifts
piston 2 which delivers viscous and fluid material through the sprue channels into the
impressions of the mould. Piston 2 goes on rising till its top face reaches spreader 4. at
that moment the bottom ram disengages. With piston 2 in such position, flange 5 of the
mould shank, which joins the piston to the rod of the bottom cylinder, is beneath plate 6
of ejectors. After the curing time the mould is opened by engaging the top cylinder of the
press. The bottom cylinder is now used to set piston 2 in motion again.
When ascending high, the piston escapes from chamber 1 ejecting, thus the remaining
material there form. At the same time the shank flange raises plates 6 and 7 with ejectors
8 secured in them. The articles which are raised above the parting plane of the mould are
manually removed from the ejectors.
Recently a wide application has been gained by flashless moulds for processing
thermosetting compounds. The flash or sprues of such moulds are removed either during

moulding or when the ready article is being ejected. The application of flash less moulds
obviates the neeed of auxiliary operations of trimming and removing the sprues.
Two sprues are brought upto the holes of the article which are made by the use of cores
12. The cores form the holes not through the entire depth and the moulding material
enters the cavity through the clearance a. the clearance b. between the rests

WEEK 13
13.0 FUNDAMENTAL OF PLASTICS
13.1. PROPERTIES APPLICATIONS AND LIMITATIONS OF PLASTIC
MATERIALS
Plastics is a term applied to composition consisting of a mixture of high molecular
compounds (polymers) and fillers and plasticizers, hardners, stains and pigment lubricating
and other substances.

PROPERTIES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

lightness in weight: the specific gravity from 1 to 2.4

Easy workability: Plastics can be easily casted, mouled, drilled, machined etc.
Good thermal and electrical insulators
Good resistance to shock and vibrations better than metals.
higher abrasion and wear resistance better than metals
highly resistant to corrosion
can be make transparent or opaque and can be made in desired colour.
good dimensional stability.

LIMITATIONS
1. low strength and rigidity, low heat resistance and sometimes low dimensional stability
2. small loads at room temperatures will induce a continous type of creep behaviour. This
effect is intensified at higher temperatures.
3. the thermal expansion of plastics usually run from five to ten times that of metal.
4. embrittlement with age is another disadvantage
5. the cost fo plastic materials is high but has been decreasing, while other materials have
been increasing.

Applications
Electrical condvits, electrical insulators, floor tiles, jointless flooring, decorative laminates
and mouldings bath and sink units, foams for thermal insulation, overhead water tanks.
There are two main groups of plastic materials.
Thermoplastic are those (polymers) plastic materials that can be remelted and reshaped
several times into new shapes as desired by application of heat and force. Examples acrylics,
polytetral fluoroethylene (PTFE), Polyvinyl chlorides (PVC), nylons, Polythylene,
polypropylene.
Application- pipes and tanks, packaging, moisture proof
Thermosetting plastics are those materials that undergo a chemical change when they are
subjected to the action of heat and pressure, after which they cannot be remelted or reshaped
by the application of further heating and pressure. Examples phenol. Formal dehyde
(Bakelite) and Urea formaldehyde.
Bottle top, electrical switch, soldering iron handle.
Electrical plug, electrical knobs, door handle.

13.2

Basic Types Of Equipment For Making Plastic Products

Thermosetting material are moulded in vertical hydraulic presses. The operational

diagram of such a press.
Ram 1 travels in cylinder 2 of the pump, displaces the fluid through pipe 9 into working
cylinder 8 of the press valve 10 is open and the fluid is delivered through pipe 9. during
the reverse stroke valve 10 shuts while inlet valve 3 opens and a new portion of fluid is
delivered through pipe 4 from tank 5 to cylinder 2 with every subsequent descend of ram
1 main ram 7 of the press will rise. To make this ram descend it is necessary to open cock
6 the specific pressure of the fluid in the hydraulic system of the press is measured by the
pressure gauge. Machine oil is used in the hydraulic presses as a working fluid.
The press is normally provided with two pumps: a high pressure pump and a lowpressure pump. The high pressure pump (20 30megapascals) is used only during the
moulding of articles. For idle stroke of the ram, the low pressure pump (600
1500kilopascals) is used, sparing thus the power consumed.
Working cylinder
Delivery pipe

Main ram

Pump ram
Pump cylinder
Inlet valve

cock

Inlet pipe

tank
.

Delivery valve
FIG 12.0. HYDRAULIC PRESS FOR

SEMI AUTOMATIC PRESS FOR MOULDING OF

The hydraulic presses for processing the plastic materials are available with one upper
working cylinder (downward pressure); with one lower working cylinder (upward
pressure); with two working cylinders (down ward and upward pressure, or downward
and lateral pressure). The presses are operated by either a self contained unit, or power is
provided through a centrally located hydraulic accumulator. In the former case each press
is equipped with a hydraulic pump driven by an electric motor. The centrally located
accumulator is a pump unit servicing several presses.
When operating the press, the operator controls the motions of the ram. The ram carried
the movable platen which accommodates the top of the mould. The stationary bottom part
of the mould is mounted on the press bed. A standard moulding operation comprises the
clamping of the mould, holding under pressure, and ejection of the moulded article.
The modern presses are provided with the means to change from one operational element
to another automatically. The operator is concerned merely with carging the material into
the mould and pushing the button for setting the press into operation. A general view of a
semi automatic press with a self contained motor is shown in fig. 134.
The main units of the press are mounted on welded frame 11. movable platen 7 is moved
by ran 8 over guides 5. the mould are accommodated in the recesses of the columns and
closed by covers.
The adjustable cams and limit switches 6 are used for adjusting the stroke of working ram
8 and ejection ram 1 of the press. Individual hydraulic drive 1.5 is arranged behind the
press.

As already mentioned the products made from thermo-plastic materials are produced by
injection moulding on injection machines (Fig. 135).
The raw material charged in hopper 1 is batched in device 2 for one moulding, then it is
supplied to delivery chamber 3. by the stroke of piston 4 the material is delivered into
heating cylinder 5 with electric heater 6 where it is softened (melted(. The heating
cylinder provides, the same amount of already-melted mass is squeezed through the
nozzle of the injection machine and sprue channels of mould 7 into the shaping cavity.
The mould consisting of two main parts the front and the rear ones is cooled by water
flowing through channels 8.
Clamping unit 1 is provided with a hydromehcnaiocal drive. The molten material is
injected into the mould from cylinder 2 under pressure. In the thermoplastic automatic
machine, the injection is performed by a screw conveyor. The design of the injection unit
provides for both rotation of the crew conveyor about its axis and its reciprocation along
the cylinder axis. When rotating the crew conveyer takes in the next portion of the
material delivered from, charge hopper 3 and brings it forward, into the cylinder head. To
perform the injection, the rotating screw conveyor is stopped and them moved by
hydraulic cylinder 4 towards the mould, the screw conveyor acting as a piston.
The thermoplastic automatic machine with a screw conveyer is advantageous as
compared to piston machines. The screw conveyer allows only one batch of plastics to be
heated in the heating cylinder, the batch being prepared for the next injection. The piston
machines are so designed as to simultaneously heat the amount of material exceeding that
required for one cycle by several fold. This property of the screw machines is of much
importance when processing the thermoplastic materials liable to disintegrate if held for a

long time under the temperature required for processing. Another advantage is that the
batch of material moved along the axis of the screw conveyor during its rotation is
uniformly heated and softened which makes the moulding process easier.

WEEK 14
14.0. MOULDS FOR PROCESSING PLASTIC MATERIALS
14.1. CLASSIFICATION OF MOULDS
The moulds for making products from plastics come in various designs to suit the
manufacture of different articles, the material they are made from, the production features
etc.

(A) COMPRESION
MOULD
(B) TRANSFER
MOULD
(C) INJECTION
MOULD FOR
THERMOPLASTIC
S
1-4. PUNCHES
2,8,9. DIES
3. ARTICLE
5-14. SPRUE CHANNELS
6. LOADING CHAMBERS
7. UPPER PLATE
8. REAR(MOVABLE
PLATE OF INJECTION
MACHINE
11. FRONT
12. HEATING CYLINDER
13. PISTON
15. FRONT PLATE

FIG 13.212008 DIAGRAMS OF MOULDS

The moulds are classified into compression and transfer ones. In the compression mould
(fig. 137a), the loading chamber is a continuation of the cavity shaping the bottom of the
article. The part of the mould which accommodates the loading chamber and the bottom
shaping cavity is called a die. The moulding material is charged into the die where it is
heated to become plastic and rammed by the punch. The latter is a part of the mould
transmitting the pressure upon the material and shaping the top and internal surfaces of

the article. The pressure exerted by the punch upon the material moulds it in the volume
of the shaping cavity and imparts it the required shape. The compression mould closes
completely when the article is finally shaped.
In the transfer mould, the shaping cavity is made separately from the loading chamber
and is completely clamped prior to filling it with material. The material comes from the
loading chamber into the moulding cavity through the sprue channels.
There are two basic types of transfer moulds:
a.

With a loading chamber (for use in presses);

b.

Without a loading chamber (for use on injection machines).

The transfer moulds are less efficient than the compression moulds, but they allow more
accurate products of intricate shape to be obtained which require to trimming of flash.
The transfer moulds without a loading chamber are used only in the processing of
thermoplastic compounds. Such moulds are mounted on injection machines. The material
comes into the moulding cavity over the sprue channels from the heating cylinder of the
injection machine.

14.2.

From the heating cylinder of the injection machine.

As to their maintenance the moulds can be either loose or fixed. The loose moulds are to
be removed from the press to withdraw the moulded article after each moulding
operation. To heat the loose moulds, the presses are equipped with heating platens
between which the mould is mounted. The loose moulds are of low efficiency, they are
applicable when making small lots of products. The fixed moulds are rigidly joined to the
platens of the press or injection machine. The ready product is removed from such
moulds without removing the mould from the press. The fixed moulds are provided with

either a heating or cooling device depending on the type of material to be processed.

Besides loose and fixed moulds the product is made loose.
From the standpoint of the quantity of products which can be made at a time or the
quantity of moulding cavities, the moulds are classified into single and multiple cavity
moulds. Another distinction between the moulds consists in the number and direction of
their parting planes. A parting plane of the mould is a term applied to the surface over
which the moulding parts open. The opening of the mould is necessary for loading the
next portion ()weight batch) of the material to be moulded and for removing the moulded
article. The parting (opening) plane can be either vertical or horizontal. To remove the
article vertically, the opening is to be made over the horizontal plane. If the removal of
the article calls for moving the moulding members apart horizontally, the opening plane
is to be vertical. The number of parting planes can be one, two or three, depending on the
shape of the article.
14.3

Moulds for press moulding

Let us consider several typical designs for processing thermosetting materials.

The manufacturers who specialize themselves in making products from the thermosetting
materials widely apply compression moulds since they are most efficient. The
compression moulding can be used for making articles of different size and shape.
However they are not suitable for production of articles with thin metal reinforcements,
deep holes of small diameters, or holes perpendicular to the direction of moulding.
The top mould with punch 5 is closed and locked by guide posts 9 with respect to the
bottom. Die 4, whose top act as a loading chamber, is of a split design to simplify the
manufacturing process. The bottom of the article is moulded by part 3 known as insert.

Insert 3 is mounted tight in the opening of die 4 and closed by backing plate 1. in the
same way punch 5is secured in plate 6 (punch holder). Parts 2 and 8 of the mould which
shape the holes are called cores.
After the moulding operation is over, the mould is removed from the press and placed on
a special device to withdraw the moulded article thereform. The article is removed by
stripper 10 whose stems move ejectors 7 through the holes in plate 1.
1.The loading chamber is mounted on top plate1. the moulding material fills in the cavity
through adapter (Sprue Bush). 2. The external outline of the article is shaped in plates 3
and 4 while t6he holes are made with the aid of cores 5 and 6. central core 7 acts also as a
spreader for the plastics flow passing through adapter and directs it towards the face of
the article. After the mould is opened over planes AA and BB, the article remains in plate
4 where form it can be easily ejected by a textile or aluminium rod.
Figure 140 shows a fixed compression mould for making a safety hood from
thermosetting material. The mould is of one-impression design with one horizontal
parting plane AA. The punch which shapes the internal cavity of the article is secured in
punch holder 2.

arranged at the top of p[late 1 for heating the punch with four holes

receiving the electric heaters. The corners of punch holder 2 are provided with slots (not
shown in the figure) for bolts securing the top of the mould to the press platen. The
bottom of the mould comprises die 3 mounted on heating plate 6, support posts 8,
clamping plate 12 securing the mould to the press bed, and the mechanism for ejecting
the moulded article. The latter comprises ejectors 5 driven by the press lower ram
connected to them by means of shank 11. To preclude misalignment in motion, plates 9
and 10 of the ejection mechanism with ejectors 5 and shank 11 are guided over posts 13.

The separate components of the mould bottom are fastened together by bolts 7. To reduce
the heat loss, the outside of the die is enclosed in asbestos casing 14.
The working principle of the mould is as follows. Prior to moulding, the material is
loaded into die 3 of the mould. Then the working ram of the press is engaged and the
moulding is performed by descending it. During the operation the punch is kept in correct
position with respect of the die by posts 15. By the end of the stroke of the top ram the
mould is completely clamped and the moulding material fills in the space between the
punch and the die and is formed into the article. After the curing necessary for a complete
setting up of the article, trhe top ram of the press is engaged for ascending and the mould
is unclamped. Next, to remove the moulded article from the die, the bottom ejection ram
is engaged; it actuates upon shank 11 to lift plates 9 and 10. ejectors 5 secured in the
plates remove the ready article from the die. Used for closing and opening the mould
over the plane AA and the bottom one for delivering the material into the cavity. The
moulding proceeds in the following sequence. When the mould is open, its loading
chamber is charged with the material in the form of pellets from the top. Then the mould
is closed by engaging the top ram. Thereafter the bottom ram starts operating and lifts
piston 2 which delivers viscous and fluid material through the sprue channels into the
impressions of the mould. Piston 2 goes on rising till its top face reaches spreader 4. at
that moment the bottom ram disengages. With piston 2 in such position, flange 5 of the
mould shank, which joins the piston to the rod of the bottom cylinder, is beneath plate 6
of ejectors. After the curing time the mould is opened by engaging the top cylinder of the
press. The bottom cylinder is now used to set piston 2 in motion again.

When ascending high, the piston escapes from chamber 1 ejecting, thus the remaining
material there form. At the same time the shank flange raises plates 6 and 7 with ejectors
8 secured in them. The articles which are raised above the parting plane of the mould are
manually removed from the ejectors.
Recently a wide application has been gained by flashless moulds for processing
thermosetting compounds. The flash or sprues of such moulds are removed either during
moulding or when the ready article is being ejected. The application of flash less moulds
obviates the neeed of auxiliary operations of trimming and removing the sprues.
Two sprues are brought upto the holes of the article which are made by the use of cores
12. The cores form the holes not through the entire depth and the moulding material
enters the cavity through the clearance a. the clearance b. between the rests

WEEK 15
15.0. RAW MATERIALS REQUIREMENT & AVAILABILITY:
Major raw materials required by foundries include:
1.

Foundry grade moulding sand.

2.

Bonding material such as Bentonite (Clay), Sodium Silicate.

3.

Organic binders such as Phenolic Resins

4.

Ethyl Silicate/Colloidal Silica for investment shell preparation.

5.

Additives such as Coal dust, iron oxide, dextrin, molasses, wood flour, etc.

6.

Core Oils

7.

Waxes

8.

Epoxy Resin

9.

Pig Irons Product of blast furnace where iron ore is smelted to get pig iron.

10.

Metallic Scraps (C. I. Scrap, Steel Scrap, Al-alloy scrap, cu- alloy scrap, etc.)

11.

Ferro-Alloys e.g. Ferro Silicon (Fe-Si);Fe Mn;

Fe V,

Fe Cr; Fe Ti, Fe Mo,

Fe Si- Mn;Fe Si Mgfetc.

12.

Aluminium Ingots and Aluminium Master alloys

13.

Copper Ingots & Copper Master alloys

14.

Limestone & other fluxing materials

15.

Grain Refiner/Modifier for Ferrous and Non-ferrous Alloys.

16.

Fluxing/Degassing Materials for Non-Ferrous

17.

Refractory Materials for Furnace/Ladle Lining and Repair.

18.

Black Oil

The above list is not exhaustive.

The materials listed above may not be required by all the foundries. The requirements
will depend on the casting alloy used and melting/ casting technique adapted by a
foundry. Table 6 lists the requirements of some materials based on the installed capacity
utilization. The National demand as peryear 1999 have also been indicated. There has not
been significant improvement in these raw materials supply and availability over the
years.

S/No. Raw Materials

I.
Dolomitc/Limesionc
2.
Bentonite

Unit

Nation

Requirement
19%
1999

al
1999

0.25m

0.25m

0,3m

240

270

405

Ferro chromium
alloy
Fcrro manganese
alloy
Ferro silicon alloy

275

275

412.5

26

26

39

22

22

33

180

ISO

270

7.

Refractory clay &

blocks
Steel scrap

Lb

0,126m

0.126m

0.22m

8.

Tin

LL

30.25

70.25

205

9.

Fcrro alloys

L,

60

100

150

10.

Cast Iron

9050

18.800

28.200

11.

Zinc Ingot

NM

3.000

4,500

12.

l.C.l.i lllVlM

ib

N/A

210

315

13,

Black oil

Litres

60.000

60.000

90:000

14.

Iron Scraps

3.
4.
5.
6.

MT

Full Capacity

ItHll
500
500
750
KS
metallic raw materials through the use of local iron and steel scrap collectors.

The

foundries
presently
source

However, when the Ajaokuta and Delta Steel Companies become fully operational, the
scrap collectors would not be able to satisfy the foundry sub-sector. Most of the raw
materials listed above are available in the country in the crude form. These are required to
be processed, characterized and standardized for foundry use.

15.1.

INFRASTRUCTURAL FACILITIES:

Infrastructural facilities are major source of constraint not only for the foundries but any
type of industries. Erratic power supply, poor road and rail network, inadequate water and
other facilities limit the growth of the foundries and the development of local raw
materials. Metal casting is high energy intensive area and as a result of erratic power
supply foundries set aside huge financial outlay in procurement, installation, operation
and maintenance of in house power generating facility.

15.2.

MANPOWER REQUIREMENT:

Foundries need skilled personnel for quality production of castings at various level. The
manpower requirement of the sector based on the survey conducted by RMRDC indicates
3809 technical and 1424 administrative personnel. These figures are based on the existing
foundries alone. However, there is a lot of scope for the increase in foundries and allied
industries. Proper skill acquisition, education and training in metal casting technology is
vital for the growth arid development of this sector. In every state there are institutions at
secondary and tertiary levels to impart the required knowledge but the facilities for
practical training are grossly inadequate. There is need to equip these institutions with
proper laboratory facilities,

15.3.

RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT FACILITIES:

The main groups of organizations involved in Research & Development activities are:
1.

Universities & Polytechnics and to some extent Colleges of Technology;

2.

Research institutions Sudi as National Metallurgical Development

Centre, Jos;

Federal Institute for Industrial Research, Lagos, NASENI, Abuja,

3.

Major Industrial Organizations/ Companies as well as some government

parastatals such as DIC, SEDI, NRC, etc.

Many of the Universities have qualitative and high level manpower and specialists in
various fields but are handicapped by poor laboratory and workshop facilities and grossly
inadequate funding. These institutions are in dire need of urgent and massive infusion of
funds for refurbishing and re-equipping the laboratories, libraries and workshops with
state of the art facilities. Notwithstanding the inadequate facilities, the Universities,
Polytechnics and Colleges of Education have made considerable contributions through R

& D in materials characterization, products and equipment development, troubleshooting

and are rendering consultancy services to companies, entrepreneurs and governments.
Most industries rely on Universities and Research Institutions for solution of their
scientific and technical problems, although under rather casual and informal
arrangements. Large government parastatals such as NRC, SEDI, DIC, etc. have good
facilities for R & D. Co-ordination and Co-operation between these industries and
agencies, universities and research institutes are essential for the growth of the nation.
There are also some other important factors such as finance, markets and marketability,
government policies, etc which need to be properly looked into for the improvement of
the sector.

15.4.

PROSPECTS & RECOMMENDATIONS:

There are great prospects and very wide area for the growth and development of foundry
and allied industries in Nigeria. Many developed countries are shifting their foundries to
the developing countries where there are sufficient raw materials, low labour cost and
well trained personnel. Niycrici has almost all the raw materials required by foundries
and large human resources. These 2M (Materials & Man) have to be utilized to produce
Machines and make Money with a better Management of all the resources and activities.
Nigeria has all the potentials for becoming a big industrialized nation in the World.
Future prospects for development and recommendations are listed below:

RAW MATERIALS:Many

of

the

raw

materials

required

available in the country but they are in crude form.

by

foundries

are

They are required to be explored,

mined, processed, characterized and standardized for foundry use.

Local

substitutes

for

imported

raw

materials

should

be

identified and developed.

Depending on the type of materials, centre of Excellence may be established in
Universities and Institutions for raw materials development and utilization.

Due to capital intensive nature of some local raw materials government should encourage
private entrepreneurs to establish joint ventures in those areas.

TECHNOLOGY ADAPTATION:New technology/processes are being developed and utilized for conserving materials and
energy, reducing human labour and fatigue, minimizing machining and other operations,
improving quality and reliability of products. These techniques have to be adopted using
the locally available materials and facilities. There is also need to design and develop
commonly used machines and tools. Development of machines will require many
products to be made in foundries.
Many of the most commonly used processes for mould/core making are not well adapted
by the foundries. Production of S. G. Iron, C. G. Iron, Austempered Ductile Iron need to
be fully developed for which the required raw materials have to be locally sourced and
produced. Investment casting process, though used by Benin artisan since centuries, need
to be developed for producing engineering components. Very fine quality silica or zircon
flour, wax formulation for pattern, ceramic slurry containing .ethyl silicate or colloid- a,
standardized dewaxing and firing cycle are the major materials and process requirements
for investment shell development.

MANPOWER DEVELOPMENT:Highly skilled and well trained personnel at various stages of production are needed and
the demand will keep on growing based on the growth of the sector. There is a need for
establishing centre of Excellence in Colleges of Technology, and Universities. Skilled
personnel from Colleges can be employed as technicians, trained personnel in. In
polytechnics can be supervisory staff and the foundry engineers can take the
responsibility of research, development, production or management. Training of trainers

is also for better manpower development. Participation/attendance a! International

conference/workshop should be encouraged.

RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT:

Laboratories must be well equipped both for training as well as research and development
activities. Apart from funds for lab. equipment and facilities, government should provide
sufficient fund for meaningful research. The government should influence the established
industries to finance the short and long term projects of their need. Close cooperation
between industries and institutions must be established through confidence building.
Institutions have to build confidence through their expertise, problem solving and
facilities available.