Carbohydrates

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Lipids (/a-level/biology/biological-molecules-and-enzymes/revise-it/lipids)
Carbohydrates contain 3 elements:
1. Carbon (C)
2. Hydrogen (H)
3. Oxygen (O)
Carbohydrates are found in one of three forms:
1. Monosaccharides
2. Disaccharides (both sugars)
3. Polysaccharides
Monosaccharides
General formula:.
(CH2O)n where n is a number between 3 and 9. They are classied according to the number of
carbon atoms. The monosaccharides you will have to know fall into these categories:

carbon atoms. The monosaccharides you will have to know fall into these categories:
C = 3 = triose
C = 4 = tetrose
C = 5 = pentose
C = 6 = hexose
Trioses: (e.g. glyceraldehydes), intermediates in respiration and photosynthesis.
Tetroses: rare.
Pentoses: (e.g. ribose, ribulose), used in the synthesis of nucleic acids (RNA and DNA), coenzymes (NAD, NADP, FAD) and ATP.
Hexoses: (e.g. glucose, fructose), used as a source of energy in respiration and as building
blocks for larger molecules.
All but one carbon atom have an alcohol (OH) group attached. The remaining carbon atom has
an aldehyde or ketone group attached.
Chain form:

Ring form:
Due to the bond angles between the carbon atoms, it is possible for pentoses and hexoses to
form stable ring structures. The carbon atoms are numbered 1 to 5 in pentoses and 1 to 6 in
hexoses.
Depending on the orientation of the OH group on carbon 1, the monosaccharide can have

Depending on the orientation of the OH group on carbon 1, the monosaccharide can have
either or congurations.
Disaccharides and glycosidic bonds
These are formed when two monosaccharides are condensed together. One monosaccharide
loses an H atom from carbon atom number 1 and the other loses an OH group from carbon 4
to form the bond.
The reaction, which is called a condensation reaction, involves the loss of water (H2O) and the
formation of an 1,4-glycosidic bond. Depending on the monosaccharides used, this can be an
-1,4-glycosidic bond or a -1,4-glycosidic bond.

The reverse of this reaction, the formation of two monosaccharides from one disaccharide, is
called a hydrolysis reaction and requires one water molecule to supply the H and OH to the
sugars formed.
Examples of Disaccharides
Sucrose: glucose + fructose,
Lactose: glucose + galactose,
Maltose: glucose + glucose.
Maltose: glucose + glucose.
Sucrose is used in many plants for transporting food reserves, often from the leaves to other
parts of the plant. Lactose is the sugar found in the milk of mammals and maltose is the rst
product of starch digestion and is further broken down to glucose before absorption in the
human gut.
Biochemical tests
All monosaccharides and some disaccharides including maltose and lactose are reducing
sugars. These can be tested for, by adding Benedict's reagent to the sugar and heating in a
water bath. If a reducing sugar is present, the solution turns green, then yellow and nally

water bath. If a reducing sugar is present, the solution turns green, then yellow and nally
produces a brick red precipitate. Non-reducing sugars can also be tested for using Benedict's
reagent but rst require addition of an acid and heating to hydrolyse (break apart) the sugar.
The acid must then be neutralised using an alkali like sodium hydroxide before carrying out the
test as described above.
Polysaccharides

Polysaccharide:

Function:

Structure:

Made of 2 polymers - amylose and

amylopectin.

Starch

Amylose: a polymer of glucoses joined

by -1,4-glycosidic bonds. Forms a
Main storage helix with 6 glucose molecules per turn
polysaccharide and about 300 per helix.
in plants.
Amylopectin: a polymer of glucoses
joined by -1,4-glycosidic bonds but
with branches of -1,6-glycosidic
bonds. This causes the molecule to be
branched rather than helical

Glycogen

Main storage
polysaccharide Similar to amylopectin but with many
in animals and more branches which are also shorter.
fungi

Cellulose

Main
structural
constituent of
plant cell walls

Adjacent chains of long, unbranched

polymers of glucose joined by -1,4glycosidic bonds hydrogen bond with
each other to form microbrils.

Functions of carbohydrates
1. Substrate for respiration (glucose is essential for cardiac tissues).

Relationship of
structure to
function:

Insoluble therefore
good for storage.
Helix is compact.
The branches mean
that the compound
can easily hydrolysed
to release the glucose
monomers.

The number and

length of the branches
means that it is
extremely compact
and very fast
hydrolysis.
The microbrils are
strong and so are
structurally important
in plant cell walls.

1. Substrate for respiration (glucose is essential for cardiac tissues).

2. Intermediate in respiration (e.g. glyceraldehydes).
3. Energy stores (e.g. starch, glycogen).
4. Structural (e.g. cellulose, chitin in arthropod exoskeletons and fungal walls).
5. Transport (e.g. sucrose is transported in the phloem of a plant).
6. Recognition of molecules outside a cell (e.g. attached to proteins or lipids on cell surface
membrane).
Biochemical test
Iodine solution or potassium iodide solution can be used to test for the presence of starch. A
positive result changes the solution from an orange-brown to a blue-black colour. - refer to
gcse and title biochemical test for carboydrate.

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