Rhea Andrea F.

Uy
BS Psychology 3-1
Perspectives in Psychology

Behaviorist Perspective
Behaviorism is different from most other approaches because they view people (and
animals) as controlled by their environment and specifically that we are the result of
what we have learned from our environment. Behaviorism is concerned with how
environmental factors (called stimuli) affect observable behavior (called the response).
The behaviorist approach proposes two main processes whereby people learn from
their environment: namely classical conditioning and operant conditioning. Classical
conditioning involves learning by association, and operant conditioning involves learning
from the consequences of behavior.
Psychodynamic Perspective
Freud believes that events in our childhood can have a significant impact on our
behavior as adults. He also believed that people have little free will to make choices in
life. Instead, our behavior is determined by the unconscious mind and childhood
experiences.
Freuds psychoanalysis is both a theory and a therapy. It is the original psychodynamic
theory and inspired psychologists such as Jung and Eriksonto develop their own
psychodynamic theories. Freuds work is vast and he has contributed greatly to
psychology as a discipline.
Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis, explained the human mind as like an iceberg,
with only a small amount of it being visible, that is our observable behavior, but it is the
unconscious, submerged mind that has the most, underlying influence on our behavior.
Freud used three main methods of accessing the unconscious mind: free association,
dream analysis and slips of the tongue.

He believed that the unconscious mind consisted of three components: the 'id' the 'ego'
and the 'superego'. The 'id' contains two main instincts: 'Eros', which is the life instinct,
which involves self-preservation and sex which is fuelled by the 'libido' energy force.
'Thanatos' is the death instinct, whose energies, because they are less powerful than
those of 'Eros' are channeled away from ourselves and into aggression towards others.
The 'id' and the 'superego' are constantly in conflict with each other, and the 'ego' tries
to resolve the discord. If this conflict is not resolved, we tend to use defense
mechanisms to reduce our anxiety. Psychoanalysis attempts to help patients resolve
their inner conflicts.
An aspect of psychoanalysis is Freud's theory of psychosexual development. It shows
how early experiences affect adult personality. Stimulation of different areas of the body
is important as the child progresses through the important developmental stages.
Humanism
Humanistic psychology is a psychological perspective that emphasizes the study of the
whole person (know as holism). Humanistic psychologists look at human behavior, not
only through the eyes of the observer, but through the eyes of the person doing the
behaving.
Humanistic psychologists believe that an individual's behavior is connected to his inner
feelings and self-image. The humanistic perspective centers on the view that each
person is unique and individual, and has the free will to change at any time in his or her
lives.
The humanistic perspective suggests that we are each responsible for our own
happiness and well-being as humans. We have the innate (i.e. inborn) capacity for selfactualization, which is our unique desire to achieve our highest potential as people.
Because of this focus on the person and his or her personal experiences and subjective
perception of the world the humanists regarded scientific methods as inappropriate for
studying behavior.

Two of the most influential and enduring theories in humanistic psychology that
emerged in the 1950s and 1960s are those of Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow.
Cognitive Psychology
The

cognitive

perspective

is

concerned

with

mental

functions

such

asmemory, perception, attention etc. It views people as being similar to computers in

the way we process information (e.g. input-process-output). For example, both human
brains and computers process information, store data and have input an output
procedure.
This had led cognitive psychologists to explain that memory comprises of three stages:
encoding (where information is received and attended to), storage (where the
information is retained) and retrieval (where the information is recalled).
It is an extremely scientific approach and typically uses lab experiments to study human
behavior.

The

cognitive

approach

has

many

applications

including cognitive

therapy and eyewitness testimony.

Biopsychological Perspective:
The biological perspective is a broad scientific perspective that assumes that
human behavior and thought processes have a biological basis. Biology includes
investigations into biochemistry of behavior associated with neurotransmitters and
hormones, genetics and heritability, and the psychophysics of sensation and perception.
Physiological
psychology, neuroscience,
psychoneuroimunology
and
psychopharmacology are all part of the biological perspective. Because the biological
perspective relies on scientific methods, its scope of investigation is limited to variables
that can be controlled. Research methods are quantitative and seek to produce findings
that can be replicated and that are generalizable across populations.
Sociocultural Perspective:
The social/cultural perspective in psychology suggests that human behavior is
influenced by social context, environmental cues, social pressures and cultural
influences. Anyone who has attended a football game will recognize that human

behavior is susceptible to influence of the crowd mentality. We are all shaped by the
context of our environment and influenced by the perception of authority in our social
order. Social psychologists suggest that these forces are very powerful and explain a
great deal about the causes of human behavior and thought processes.
Evolutionary Perspective:
The evolutionary perspective explains human behavior and thought process as
resulting from evolutionary processes. The underlying assumption of biological evolution
is survival of the species. Human behavior is understood in the light of the question:
how does this behavior result from processes that support the survival of the species?
Feminist-poststructural Perspective:
The feminist poststructural perspective arose in response to the observation by
postmodern theorists like Michel Foucault, that the creators/owners of a theory enjoy
certain advantages that come from organizing knowledge along explanatory lines.
Science has traditionally been dominated by men and thus the methods and outcomes
of science have benefited men for the most part. But, the feminist perspective goes
beyond a critique of androcentric practices and suggests that all organized knowledge
has a political agenda that should be examined in the light of all persons' rights and
benefits. The poststructural view helps us understand that knowledge is power and that
the holders of the languages that construct knowledge are the ones who will have the
choices about how resources are distributed. This political theory of psychology and
knowledge construction tries to level the playing field and admit the views and voices of
all. The underlying assumption in this view is that diversity is essential for human
survival. Incumbent upon adherents to this perspective is a commitment to take a stand
on issues they deem important, identify their own epistemological position and biases in
relation to their views and then engage in a process of self-interrogation of their
position.

Defense Mechanisms

1. Anticipation
Definition: Realistically anticipating or planning for future inner
discomfort. The mechanism is goal-directed and implies careful planning
or worrying and premature but realistic affective anticipation of dire and
potentially dreadful outcomes.
Example:
2. Affiliation
Definition: The individual deals with emotional conflict or internal or
external stressors by turning to others for help or support.
Example: sharing problems with others but does not imply trying to make

someone else responsible for them.

3. Altruism
Definition: Using constructive and instinctually gratifying service to others
to undergo a vicarious experience. It includes benign and constructive
reaction formation.

Example: A self-made millionaire who grew up in poverty sets up a

charitable foundation and gains great pleasure from how it helps
others get out of the poverty trap. She receives social accolade and
public recognition for her good deeds, which she carefully and
modestly grateful.

4. Humor
Definition: Using comedy to overtly express feelings and thoughts without
personal discomfort or immobilization and without producing an
unpleasant effect on others. This allows the person to tolerate yet focus on
what is too terrible to be borne.
Example: A person's treatment for cancer makes him lose his hair so he
makes jokes about being bald.
5. Self-assertion
Definition: The individual deals with emotional conflict or stressors by
expressing his or her feelings and thoughts directly in a way that is not
coercive or manipulative.
Example: A woman X whose husband was very busy and didnt have time
for his wife and kids decided to talk to her husband about it. She did not
want to play the victim and whine and manipulate her husband about it. By
saying something like What have I done to deserve this? She also did
not want to blame her husband and accuse him by saying You havent
been giving us time, the kids are suffering because of you.
So she decided to be self assertive without being whiny and playing the
blame game. She said I havent been given the support I needed, our
kids and I are being affected by it, lets talk and decide about what can be
done about it. What do you think? How do you feel about it?
6. Self-observation
Definition: Dealing with stress by reflection on ones thoughts, feelings,
motivation, and behaviour-and then responding appropriately.
Example: Engaging in journaling, self-exploration, therapy, bibliotherapy,
etc.

7. Sublimation
Definition: Unacceptable emotions are defused by being channeled into
socially acceptable behavior.
Example: A Professor who feels a secret disgust for teaching instead
works more diligently to earn the teaching award.
Example: A person with excessive, primitive sexual drives invests psychic
energy into a well-defined religious value system.
8. Suppression
Definition: Consciously or semiconsciously postponing attention to a
conscious impulse or conflict. Issues may be deliberately cut-off, but they
are not avoided.

Example: An older man has sexual feelings towards a teenager and

quickly suppresses the thought.
Example: I want to kick the living **** out of an idiot at the office.
Instead, I smile at them and try to feel sorry for their Freudian plight.
Example: I am about to take a short-cut down an alleyway. There are
some people down there. I decide to take the longer, but more 'interesting'
route.
9. Displacement
Definition: Shifting an emotion or drive cathexis from one idea or object to
another that resembles the original in some aspect or quality.
Displacement permits the symbolic representation of the original idea or
object by one that is less highly cathected or evokes less distress.
Example: A man may spend the day suffering humiliations at work for
which he cannot retaliate; then he goes home, discovers that his son has
failed to take out the trash , and on that pretext gives the son a terribsle
dressing down.
10. Dissociation

Definition: Temporarily but drastically modifying a persons character or

ones sense of personal identity to avoid emotional stress. Fugue states
and hysterical conversion reactions are common manifestations of
dissociation. A person loses track of time or a person and instead finds
another representation of their self in order to continue in the moment.
Example: After breaking up with a lover, a suicidal person is suddenly
unable to recall the periods of time during the time they were together.
11. Intellectualization
Definition: Excessively using intellectual processes to avoid affective
expression or experience. Undue emphasis is focused on the inanimate in
order to avoid intimacy with people, attention is paid to external reality to
avoid the expression of inner feelings, and stress is excessively placed on
irrelevant details to avoid perceiving the whole.
Example: A person who has just been given a terminal medical diagnosis,
instead of expressing their sadness and grief, focuses instead on the
details of all possible fruitless medical procedures.
12. Isolation of effect
Definition: Conflict is defused by separating ideas from affects, thus
retaining an awareness of intellectual or factual aspects but losing touch
with threatening emotions.
Example: A biology student sacrifices a laboratory animal, without
worrying about its right to existence, quality of life or emotional state.
13. Reaction Formation
Definition: Unacceptable thoughts or impulses are contained by adopting
a position that expresses the direct opposite.
Example: A writer who hates some groups of people writes an article
protesting their unfair treatment by the government.
14. Repression
Definition: Forbidden thoughts and wishes are withheld from conscious
awareness.

Example: A persons jealous desire to murder a rival is denied access to

conscious awareness.
15. Undoing
Definition: Undoing is the attempt to take back an unconscious behavior
or thought that is unacceptable or hurtful.
Example: After Ronald realized that he had just insulted his significant
other unintentionally, he spent the next hour praising his girlfriend beauty,
charm and intellect.
16. Devaluation
Definition: Attributing unrealistic negative qualities to self or others, as a
means of punishing the self or reducing the impact of the devalued item.
Example: The formerly admired Professor who gives you a D on your
term paper is suddenly criticized as a terrible teacher.
17. Idealization
Definition: Attributing unrealistic positive qualities to self or others.
Example: A student worried about intellectual ability begins to idolize a
tutor.
18. Omnipotence
Definition: An image of oneself as incredibly powerful, intelligent, or
superior is created to overcome threatening eventualities or feelings.
Example: A student facing a difficult final exam asserts that there is
nothing about the material that he doesnt know.
19. Denial
Definition: Avoiding the awareness of some painful aspect of reality by
negating sensory data. Denial abolishes external reality.
Example: A person who is a functioning alcoholic will often simply deny
having a drinking problem, pointing to how well he functions in his job and
relationship.

20. Projection
Definition: Unacceptable emotions or personal qualities are disowned by
attributing them to others.
Example: A student attributes his own anger to the professor, and thereby
comes to see himself as a persecuted victim.
21. Rationalization
Definition: An explanation for behavior is constructed after the fact to
justify ones actions in the eyes of self or others.
Example: A woman who starts dating a man she really, really likes is
suddenly dumped by the man for no given reason. She reframes the
situation in her mind with, I suspected she was a loser all along.
22. Autistic fantasy
Definition: The tendency to retreat into fantasy in order to resolve inner
and outer conflicts. The individual deals with emotional conflict or internal
or external stressors by excessive daydreaming as a substitute for human
relationships, more effective action, or problem solving.
Example: A 15-year-old boy dreams of being the world chess champion.
He spends nearly all of his time alone studying the game and wont
discuss other topics.

23. Projective Identification

Definition: Unpleasant feelings and reactions are not only projected onto
others, but also retained in awareness and viewed as a reaction to the
recipients behavior.
Example: A student attributes his own anger to the professor but sees his
response as a justifiable reaction to persecution.
24. Splitting

Definition: Opposite qualities of a single object are held apart, left in

deliberately unintegrated opposition, resulting in cycles of idealization and
devaluation as either extreme is projected onto self and others.
Example: A student vacillates between worship and contempt for a
professor, sometimes seeing her as intelligent and powerful and him as
ignorant and weak, and then switching roles, depending on their
interactions.
25. Acting out
Definition: Expressing an unconscious wish or impulse through action to
avoid being conscious of an accompanying affect. The unconscious
fantasy is lived out impulsively in behavior, thereby gratifying the impulse,
rather than the prohibition against it.
Example: A student disrupts class because she is angry over an unfair
grade.
26. Help-Rejecting-Complaining
Definition: Help-Rejecting Complaining involves dealing with stress by
complaining and making repeated requests for help that disguise hidden
feelings of hostility toward others, which is then expressed by rejecting the
suggestions, advice, or help that others offer. The complaints may involve
physical or psychological symptoms or life problems.

Example: A person complains to their partner about problems at

work. When the partner suggests ways of resolving the problems the
solutions are rejected out of hand and the person continues to
complain.

27. Passive Aggression

Definition: Expressing aggression toward others indirectly through

passivity, masochism, behavior and turning against the self. A person

who uses passive-aggressive method to cope with stresses on them

does this by 'attacking' others through passive means. Thus the
aggressive intent is cloaked by the passive method. Passive aggression
often appears when a person is asked to do something which they want
to avoid for some reason (such as priority of other work). By appearing
to agree but not making any real commitment, they can avoid the action.
Example: An employee who does not like a reasonable directive issued
by the boss may delay performing the task as a sign of resistance. Then
too, being sullen or otherwise subtly resistance may be the easy response
to such a situation.
28. Delusional Projection
Definition: Frank delusions about external reality, usually of a persecutory
nature.

Example: A person at a meeting is asked to complete a task with

which they feel unable to comply. They talk at great length about it,
discussing how important it is and all the various complexities that
would be involved. At the end of the meeting, they still have not
agreed to do anything.
Example: A sales person uses a persuasive sales patter. The
customer agrees that this is just what they want, but when it comes to
signing the order, they find reasons why they cannot buy today.
Example: A change manager asks people to change what they do. They
agree but do not actually do what they agreed to do.
29. Psychotic Distortion
Definition: A gross reshaping of external reality to meet internal needs.
Example: Replacing anxiety with joy and excitement
30. Psychotic Denial
Definition: gross impairment in reality testing.

Example: A man hears that his wife has been killed, and yet refuses
to believe it, still setting the table for her and keeping her clothes and
other accoutrements in the bedroom.
31. Asceticism
Definition: Eliminating the pleasurable effects of experiences. There is a
moral element in assigning values to specific pleasures. Asceticism is
directed against all base pleasures perceived consciously.
Example: Monks take a vow of silence and give up sex.
32. Hypochondriasis
Definition: Exaggerating or overemphasizing an illness for the purpose of
evasion and regression. In hypochondriasis, responsibility can be avoided,
guilt may be circumvented, and instinctual impulses are warded off.
Example: A person who has a minor cough may think that they have
tuberculosis.
33. Introjection
Definition: Internalizing the qualities of an object. When used as a
defense, it can obliterate the distinction between the subject and the
object.

Example: I have to give a presentation but feel scared. I put on the

hat of Abraham Lincoln and imagine I am confidently giving an
important address to the nation.
Example: A child is threatened at school. They take on the strongdefender attributes that they perceive in their father and push away
the bully.
Example: A business leader sets high moral standards within the
company. Many others follow her lead.
34. Regression

Definition: Attempting to return to an earlier libidinal phase of functioning

to avoid the tension and conflict evoked at the present level of
development. It reflects the basic tendency to gain instinctual gratification
at a less-developed period.
Example: A regressed adult may be reduced to a babbling, helpless
creature who has to be fed and toileted like a baby.
35. Somatization
Definition: Converting psychic derivatives into bodily symptoms and
tending to react with somatic manifestations.
A. Desomatization: Infantile somatic responses are replaced by thought
and affect.
B. Resomatization: The person regresses to somatic forms in the face of
unresolved conflicts.

Example: A policeman, who has to be very restricted in his

professional behavior, develops hypertension.
Example: A worried actor develops a twitch.

36. Externalization
Definition: Tending to perceive in the external world and in external
objects elements of ones own personality, including instinctual impulses,
conflicts, moods, attitudes, and styles of thinking.
Example: The patient is extremely argumentative; instead of recognizing
this characteristic in herself, however, she complains about the difficult
personalities of others and views herself as blameless.
37. Inhibition
Definition: Consciously limiting or renouncing some ego functions, alone
or in combination, to evade anxiety arising out of conflict with instinctual
impulses, the superego, or environmental forces or figures.

Example: A person is conscious of sexual desire but if finding it

frustrating, "decides" that all that is really wanted in the relationship is
companionship.
Example: A student who originally wanted to be a physician decides to
become a physician's assistant.
38. Sexualization
Definition: Endowing an object or function with sexual significance that it
did not previously have or possessed to a smaller degree in order to ward
off anxieties associated with prohibited impulses or their derivatives.
Example: when a person is treated as a sex object rather than as a whole
person
Example: when physical characteristics are considered to be the only
indicator of sexiness

39. Turning against self

Definition: The objective of a drive, usually aggression, is changed from
another person to the self. Its therefore seen frequently in depression and
masochism.
Example: Once upon a time, at a time when I was not feeling my best, my
daughter, five years old, spilled an entire glass of chocolate milk in the
living room. I lashed out at her verbally, telling her she was clumsy and
had to learn to be more careful and how often hadn't I told her and...well,
you know. She stood there stiffly with a sort of smoldering look in her
eyes, and, of all things, pounded herself on her own head several times!
40. Compartmentalization
Definition: Compartmentalization is a lesser form of dissociation, wherein
parts of oneself are separated from awareness of other parts and
behaving as if one had separate sets of values.

Example: An honest person who cheats on their income tax return and
keeps their two value systems distinct and un-integrated while remaining
unconscious of the cognitive dissonance.
41. Compensation
Definition:
Compensation
is
a
process
of
psychologically
counterbalancing perceived weaknesses by emphasizing strength in other
arenas.
Example: I may not know how to cook, but I can sure do the dishes!
42. Minimization
Definition: Not acknowledging the significance of ones behavior. Allows a
person to decrease responsibility for own behavior.
Example: When a person says Dont believe everything my wife tells
you. I wasnt so drunk I couldnt drive.
43. Substitution
Definition: The replacement of a highly valued, unacceptable, or
unavailable object by a less valuable, acceptable, or available object.
Example: A woman wants to marry a man exactly like her dead father and
settles for someone who looks a little bit like him.
44. Weepiness and Crying

Definition: When people cannot emotionally cope with a situation, one

option is to burst into tears.
Younger children readily cry. Women are more likely to cry than men,
who may get to a point where they want to cry, but cannot.
Crying can appear at different levels of noticeability, from silent tears to
loud and heart-rending sobs.

Example: A person hears that one of their work projects has been
stopped. They feel like crying but hold it in until they get home, where
they burst into tears of frustration and sadness when telling their
partner all about it.

45. Withdrawal
Definition: Withdrawal is a more severe form of defense. It entails
removing oneself from events, stimuli, and interactions under the threat of
being reminded of painful thoughts and feelings.
Example: A person who experienced a traumatic relationship with friends
withdraws from her group for fear of being reminded of being left.

46. Distancing

Definition: When people perceive a threat, a common approach is to

distance themselves from it. The same effect happens when they feel
stressed by a current situation.
People may physically move away from a threat. They may also move
away mentally and emotionally. Mental distancing includes thinking less
about the subject, for example by simplifying and stereotyping. Emotional
distancing includes loosening bonds and can result in the person caring
less.

Example: A person having an argument storms out of the room.

(While this has a significant control aspect, it also takes them away
from the discomfort of conflict).
Example: A woman whose husband spends a lot of time at work
starts to distance herself by finding other interests and is less often at
home when he returns.
Example: A person who is stressed at work is absent with illness more
often.
47. Emotionality

Definition: When we become stressed or tension is caused, a number of

negative
emotions
may
start
to
build,
including anger,
frustration, fear, jealousy and so on.
When we display these emotions it can affect others around us, arousing
similar or polar feelings. A common social value is that we should not
distress others, so many people hold the emotion in, 'bottling up' the
stress. This in itself can trigger other coping mechanisms. It can also
result in explosive outbursts as we are unable to contain the emotion
further.

Example: Teenagers often cannot contain the emotions caused by

physiological and temporal development. As a result, they can be
very emotional and can contribute significantly to family problems.

48. Attack

Definition: The best form of defense is attack' is a common saying and is

also a common action, and when we feel threatened or attacked (even
psychologically), we will attack back.
When a person feels stressed in some way, they may lash out at whoever
is in the way, whether the other person is a real cause or not. They may
also attack inanimate objects.

Example: Someone criticizes me in a discussion. I angrily criticize

them back.

49. Avoidance

Definition: In avoidance, we simply find ways of avoiding having to face

uncomfortable situations, things or activities. The discomfort, for
example, may come from unconscious sexual or aggressive impulses.
Avoidance may include removing oneself physically from a situation. It
may also involve finding ways not to discuss or even think about the topic
in question.

Example: I dislike another person at work. I avoid walking past their

desk. When people talk about them, I say nothing.
My son does not like doing homework. Whenever the subject of
school comes up, he changes the topic. He also avoids looking
directly at me.

50. Self-Harming

Definition: The person physically deliberately hurts themself in some way or

otherwise puts themselves at high risk of harm.

Example: Slapping oneself

Banging one's head against a table
Punching a hard wall
Picking at wounds
Cutting oneself with a knife or sharp object
Burning oneself
Biting oneself

51. Symbolization

Definition: Symbolization is a way of handling inner conflicts by turning

them into distinct symbols.

Symbols are often physical items, although there may also be symbolic
acts and metaphoric ideas.

Example: A soldier explains his decision to join the army as

'defending the flag'.

52. Trivializing

Definition: When we are faced with a disappointment over something

that is important to us, we are faced with the problem of having our
expectations and predictions dashed. We may even have told other
people about it beforehand, making it doubly embarrassing that we have
not gained what we expected.
As a response, we make light of the situation, telling ourselves (and often
other people) that it is not that important anyway, thus trivializing what
was previously important.
One way that we trivialize is to make something a joke, laughing it off.

Example: A girl rejects the advances of a boy. He tells his friends

that she isn't that pretty anyway.
Example: A friend trips up and falls on his face. He gets up laughing.
53. Wishful thinking
Definition: Making decisions according to what might be pleasing to
imagine instead of by appealing to evidence, rationality, or reality.
Example:
54. Conversion

Definition: Conversion as a defense mechanism occurs where cognitive

tensions manifest themselves in physical symptoms. The symptom may

well be symbolic and dramatic and it often acts as a communication

about the situation. Extreme symptoms may include paralysis, blindness,
deafness, becoming mute or having a seizure. Lesser symptoms include
tiredness, headaches and twitches.

Example: A person's arm becomes suddenly paralyzed after they

have been threatening to hit someone else.

55. Upward and downward social comparisons

Definition: A defensive tendency that is used a means of self-evaluation.
Individuals will look to another individual or comparison group who are
considered to be worse off in order to dissociate themselves from
perceived similarities and to make themselves feel better about
themselves or their personal situation.
Example: If you compare yourself to your friends and feel that you are
pretty physically fit, you might sign up for a marathon believing that you
have the ability to finish with no problem. When race day arrives, you
might find yourself surrounded by people who are much more athletic than
you and realize that your initial assessment of your abilities was overly
optimistic.
56. Humility
Definition: A mechanism by which a person, considering their own
defects, has a humble self-opinion.
Example:
57. Emotional self-regulation
Definition: Emotional Self-Regulation refers to the processes people use
to modify the type, intensity, duration, or expression of various emotions.
Example:

58. Emotional self-sufficiency

Definition: Not being dependent on the validation (approval or
disapproval) of others.
Example:
59. Moderation
Definition: The process of eliminating or lessening extremes and staying
within reasonable limits. It necessitates self-restraint which is imposed by oneself
on ones own feelings.
Example:
60. Apathetic Withdrawal
Definition:
Example:
61. Blocking
Definition: Temporarily or transiently inhibiting thinking. Affects and
impulses may also be involved. Blocking closely resembles repression but
differs in that tension arises when the impulse, affect, or thought is
inhibited.
Example:
62. Controlling
Definition: Attempting to manage or regulate events or objects in the
environment to minimize anxiety and to resolve inner conflicts.
Example:
63. Reversal
Definition: Reversal refers mainly to turning love to hate and hate into
love for defensive purposes.
Example:
64. Addictive Behavior
Definition:

Example:
65. Repetition Compulsion
Definition:
Example:
66. Emulation
Definition:
Example:
67. Cynicism
Definition:
Example:
68. Eroticization
Definition:
Example:
69. Individualism
Definition:
Example:
70. Perfectionism
Definition:
Example:

http://changingminds.org/explanations/behaviors/coping/coping.htm