Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Table of Contents
Unit 1: Grammar overview: Present and future tenses Vocabulary: People and
relationships.........................................................................................................................4
1.1 Present Simple...........................................................................................................4
1.2 Present Continuous....................................................................................................5
1.3 Will............................................................................................................................6
1.4 Be going to.................................................................................................................7
1.5 Future perfect.............................................................................................................8
Unit 2: Grammar overview: Past and perfect tenses Vocabulary: Society and social
development.........................................................................................................................9
2.1 Past Simple................................................................................................................9
2.2 Past Continuous.......................................................................................................10
2.3 Present perfect simple..............................................................................................12
2.4 Present perfect continuous.......................................................................................14
2.5 Past perfect simple...................................................................................................16
2.6 Past perfect continuous............................................................................................17
Unit 3: Grammar overview: Adjectives and adverbs Vocabulary Overview: Lifestyles,
social and national customs...............................................................................................18
3.1 Position of adjectives...............................................................................................18
3.2 Comparison of adjectives........................................................................................20
3.3 Adjective forms........................................................................................................21
3.4 (not) as as and not so as...................................................................................22
3.5 So, such, too and enough.........................................................................................23
3.6 Adverb forms...........................................................................................................24
3.7 Comparison of adverbs............................................................................................26
3.8 Adverbs used before comparative adjectives...........................................................27
3.9 Adverbs used before past participles.......................................................................28
Unit 4: Grammar overview: Modals I: Present and future Vocabulary Overview: Work..29
4.1 Requests...................................................................................................................29
4.2 Offers.......................................................................................................................31
4.3 Suggestions..............................................................................................................32
4.4 Permission................................................................................................................33
4.5 Ability......................................................................................................................34
4.6 Duty and advice.......................................................................................................35
4.7 Obligation and necessity..........................................................................................36
4.8 Absence of obligation or necessity..........................................................................38
4.9 Deductions about the present...................................................................................39
4.10 Speculation (present).............................................................................................40
4.11 Speculation/prediction (future)..............................................................................41
Unit 5: Grammar overview: Nouns and articles Vocabulary overview: Education, study
and learning.......................................................................................................................43
5.1 Uncountable nouns..................................................................................................43
5.2 Collective nouns......................................................................................................45
Translation
1. He frequently responds angrily
to even the slightest criticism.
1.El raspunde frecvent cu....
1. to talk about
habitual actions,
often with
adverbs of
frequency
2. to talk about
definite
arrangements in
the future
3.
to talk about
permanent states
4.
to describe a
permanent truth
5. when we are
relating a story or
telling a joke
6.
in newspaper
headlines
1.2 Present
Continu
ous
Translation
We use the
Present
continuous:
1. to talk about
an activity which
is in progress at
the present time
2.
to talk about
a temporary
activity
3.
to talk about
our plans or
arrangements
for the future
4.
to talk about
an activity which
is in progress as
we speak
1.3 Will
We use
will:
1.
to make
predictions and
offers
Translation
2. to talk about
decisions we
make at the
moment of
speaking
3.
to describe
known facts
1.4 Be going
to
We use be
going to:
1 1. to describe
our intentions for
a future time
2 2. to talk about
actions which we
have planned or
organised for the
future
3. to make
predictions
about the future
based on
evidence we
have in the
present
Translation
1.5 Future
perfect
Translation
We use the
Future perfect:
1. to talk about
an action which
will be finished
by a certain
point in the
future
2. to talk about
an activity which
continues over a
certain period of
time and which
will be finished
by a certain time
in the future
3. to make
assumptions
about the
present
Translation
1. to talk
about an
action which
was completed
at a specific
time in the
past
3. to describe
states in the
past
This
tense is
associate
d with a
number
of time
expressio
ns such
as:
2.2 Past
Continuo
us
We use the Past
continuous:
1. to talk about
an activity in
progress at a
particular time
in the past
2. to talk about
an activity in
progress in the
past which was
interrupted by
another action
Translation
3. to talk about
two activities
which were in
progress
simultaneously
the two
clauses are often
linked by while
4. to set the
scene at the
beginning of a
narrative
5. with always
to express
criticism of
somebodys
annoying
2.2 Past
Continuo
us
habits in the
past
We do not
use the
past
continuous
to talk
about
habitual
actions in
the past.
Translation
....................................................
.....
We were camping on my
grandparents farm every summer.
11
2.3 Present
perfect
simple
Translation
We use the
Present perfect
simple:
1. to talk about
recent events we often use
just for
emphasis
2. to talk about
an action
which took
place at an
unspecified
time in the past
3. to talk about
an action
which took
place at an
unspecified
time in the past
and which has
an obvious
result in the
present
4. with state
verbs to
describe a
situation
lasting up to
the present
moment
5. with the
phrase It's the
first
time ... /Its
the only
time ...
.........................................................
.........................................................
.........................................................
.
12
2.3 Present
perfect
simple
This tense
is
associated
with a
number of
time
expression
s such as:
We never
use the
Present
perfect
with a
definite
time
reference.
Translation
already,
ever,- .............................
for, .................................
in the last few days,
...........................................
just,..................................
never, ................................
recently,............................
since.................................,
so
far, .......................................
.....
still,...................................
.
yet......................................
..
Ive lived in Paris in 1989.
13
2.4 Present
perfect
continuo
us
We use the
Present perfect
continuous:
1. to talk about
an activity
lasting up to and
including the
present moment
Translation
2. to talk about
an activity
which has not
yet been
completed
3. to talk about
an activity
which has only
just been
completed
4. to talk about
an activity
which we have
repeated over a
certain period of
time
Present
perfect
simple v.
Present
perfect
continuous
The Present
perfect simple
emphasizes the
completion of
an action the
consequences
of which often
14
2.4 Present
perfect
continuo
us
affect the
present time.
The Present
perfect
continuous is
used to
emphasize the
duration of an
activity.
Some state
verbs may be
used in the
Present
perfect
simple or
continuous
with no
difference in
meaning.
Translation
15
Translation
1. By the time Mozart was five
years old he had already
composed his first concerto.
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
This tense is
not used
simply to
describe
actions
which took
place a long
time ago. It
must be used
in contrast to
another past
event.
It is
associated
with a
number of
time
expressions
such as:
Unlike the
Present
perfect tense,
definite time
references
may be used:
by the time
until,
when,
before,
after,
in 1989,
when I was 11 years old
16
Translation
1. She had been writing
for twenty years before her
first novel was published.
..........................................
..........................................
..........................................
..
2. Ive been revising
for several months but I
still wasnt ready for
the exam.
......................................
......................................
......................................
......................................
The house was in a
terrible mess because
John had been repainting the walls.
......................................
......................................
......................................
....................................
17
Adjectives
normally
appear before
the nouns
they describe
or after link
verbs:
Translation
appear,
be,
become,
feel,
get,
look
taste,
sound,
smell
Many
adjectives
may be used
in both
positions,
some may
be used in
only one
position or
the other,
and some
change their
meaning
depending
on their
position.
18
3.1 Position of
adjectives
Translation
........
If there are
several
adjectives in a
sentence they
can be listed
in this order:
three, several
number
---, beautiful
judgement
small, --dimensions
brown, --colour
---, Greek
origin
china, leather
material
teapots, bags
19
3.2
Comparis
on of
adjectives
Translation
Basic form
Simple
Pretty
Typical
simpler/less simple.
..............................................
......prettier/less pretty
.more/less
typical.........................................
................................................
Comparative
forms
Superlative
forms
20
3.3 Adjective
forms
Translation
Some
adjectives end
in ly but
should not be
confused with
adverbs. Some
examples of this
kind are:
brotherly,
chilly, comely,
costly, deadly,
ghastly, etc.
Some adjectives
ed
ing.
one ending in
and one in
fascinated fascinating,
enthralled enthralling,
surprised surprising,
amazed amazing
.........................................................
.........................................................
.........................................................
.........................................................
.........................................................
The children were very excited
about the carnival.
.........................................................
.........................................................
........................................................
We saw an amusing comedy at the
theatre.
....................................................
....................................................
................................................
21
3.4 (not) as
as and
not so
as
Translation
so
.........................................................
.........................................................
.........................................................
.....................................................
22
Translation
23
3.6 Adverb
forms
The majority
of adverbs
are formed
by adding the
suffixes ly
or ally to
adjectives
and making
spelling
changes
where
necessary:
Some
adverbs
have the
same form
as the
related
adjective.
Others may
have two
forms which
differ in
meaning.
Translation
simple simply,
pretty prettily,
typical typically,
dramatic dramatically, etc.
....................................................
....................................................
....................................................
....................................................
....................................................
....................................................
...............................................
Shes a hard worker. She works
hard.
.......................................................
.......................................................
..
Hes an early riser. He gets up
early.
....................................................
....................................................
....................................................
.....
The pylon towered high above
the skyline. (place)
....................................................
....................................................
I think highly of my art teacher.
(manner)
....................................................
....................................................
..
The film was pretty good.
(modifying an adjective)
24
3.6 Adverb
forms
Translation
....................................................
....................................................
.....
The child smiled prettily (manner)
Further
examples of
this kind are:
hard hardly,
late lately,
direct directly,
deep deeply,
wrong wrongly,
sharp sharply,
scarce scarcely
....................................................
....................................................
....................................................
....................................................
....................................................
....................................................
....................................................
....................................................
....................................................
....................................................
....................................................
.................................................
25
3.7
Comparis
Translation
on of
adverbs
Basic form
simply
typically
Comparative
more/less simply
forms
more/less typically
Superlative
the most/the least simply
forms
the most/the least typically
A few adverbs
The plane arrived earlier than expected.
have er
.......................................................................
comparative
.......................................................................
forms
..
He runs faster than I do.
.......................................................................
.......................................................................
.
26
3.8 Adverbs
used
before
comparat
ive
adjectives
Adverbs of
this type give
information
about the
degree of
difference
between two
things which
are
being
compared.
Other
adverbs of
this kind are:
Translation
far,
rather,
infinitely,
much, etc..
................................
................................
................................
................................
................................
................................
................................
................................
................................
................................
................................
................................
................................
27
3.9 Adverbs
used
before
past
participle
s
Some adverbs
can be used
before the past
participle of a
verb. The
resulting
collocation
functions as an
adjective. Many
of these
combinations
feature the
adverb well and
may be spelt
with or without
a hyphen.
Translation
28
can, could,
may, might, will
and would
Translation
The use of
might here is
very formal.
......................................................
......................................................
......................................................
May I ask whos calling, please?
......................................................
......................................................
......................................................
Might I take a look at your
newspaper?
......................................................
......................................................
.....................................................
Will you tell the manager that Im
waiting to see him?
......................................................
......................................................
Would you please send this letter
by express post? Its urgent.
......................................................
......................................................
.....................................................
29
4.2 Offers
can, could,
may, shall, will
and would
Translation
30
4.3 Suggestions
can, could,
might, shall,
and should
The
use
of
here
very formal.
is
might
Translation
31
4.4 Permission
Translation
can(t), could
and may (not)
32
4.5 Ability
Can and cant
Translation
33
Translation
You look exhausted. You should get
to bed earlier.
.........................................................
.........................................................
.........................................................
You shouldnt smoke so much.
.........................................................
....................................................
You ought to buy a new alarm
clock. This one doesnt work.
.
.........................................................
.........................................................
.........................................................
....................................................
He ought not to treat her like that.
.........................................................
.........................................................
.........................................................
.........................................................
........................................................
34
4.7 Obligation
and
necessity
have to, must
(not) and need
to
Translation
35
4.7 Obligation
and
necessity
Translation
.........................................................
.........................................................
.........................................................
........................................................
36
4.8 Absence of
obligation
Translation
or
necessity
(dont) have to, We dont have to work overtime
(dont) need to
but there is a very competitive
and neednt
atmosphere in the office so a lot
of us do so anyway. (absence of
obligation)
....................................................
....................................................
....................................................
....................................................
....................................................
....................................................
Neednt and
dont need to
are
interchangeabl
e in the
present.
37
4.8 Absence of
obligation
or
necessity
Translation
.............................................
....
38
4.9 Deductions
about the
present
cant, must and
will
Translation
39
4.10
Speculati
on
(present)
could and
should
Translation
40
4.11
Speculati
on/predic
tion
(future)
may (not),
might (not),
shall (not),
should (not)
and will/wont
Translation
4.11
Translation
Speculati
on/predic
tion
(future)
.................................................
We shouldnt be late; there isnt
much traffic.
......................................................
......................................................
.....................................................
The police are letting the traffic
through; we wont be stuck here
much longer.
.......................................................
.......................................................
.......................................................
...................................................
He will become Managing
Director in the next round of
promotions.
.....................................................
.....................................................
.....................................................
What terrible service! We wont
come back here in a hurry
.....................................................
.....................................................
....................................................
In a few years from now the 35hour working week should have
become common practice.
......................................................
......................................................
......................................................
......................................................
42
nouns take a
singular verb and cannot
be used with the indefinite
article (a/an).
Translation
Uncountable
They
They
cannot be made
plural but we can add a
phrase which specifies an
amount.
nouns which we
normally think of as
uncountable can be used as
countable nouns in certain
contexts.
Some
43
Students personalized
examples i.e. his/her
opinions, life experience
etc.
Translation
........................................................
44
Students personalized
examples i.e. his/her
opinions, life experience
etc.
5.2 Collective
nouns
Collective nouns
refer to
organisations or
bodies made up of
a number of
individuals e.g. :
Translation
army,
audience,
cast,
clergy,
crew,
crowd
government,
jury,
media,
press,
public,
union,
youth, etc
45
cattle,
pyjamas,
stairs.
.........................................................
.........................................................
.........................................................
46
to refer to a specific
noun we think is
known both to
ourselves and our
listener/reader or to
refer to a specific
example of
something.
with objects which
we consider to be
unique such:
Translation
The college timetable will
have to be drawn up again.
.............................................
.............................................
.............................................
The society we have created
is based on profit.
...........................................................
...........................................................
...........................................................
.
Be careful though
WE DONT SAY:
the Sun,
the Moon,
the Sea,
the past,
the universe,
the environment
the nature,
the space,
with certain
geographical
features such as:
seas and oceans
rivers
groups of
islands
the Channel
the Pacific
the Thames
the Danube
47
Translation
mountain
ranges
countries
the Cyclades
the Himalayas
to describe people of
a particular
nationality
with certain
adjectives used as
nouns
with titles
in the superlative
form of adjectives
with a
singular
noun to
make a
generic
reference
to a group
in the titles
of
newspapers
in which
case it is
capitalized
with
musical
instruments
the Indians
the French
the young
the disabled
the Queen,
the Chairman
the Headmistress
the least acceptable
the best
The Independent
The Sunday Telegraph
Translation
..............................................
49
to talk
about
different
kinds of
measurements:
although
we
can also
use
the word:
to refer to
somebody
who is
unknown
to us
with a singular
noun to make a
generic reference
to a group
Translation
2.00 an
hour,
3 days a week
per 4 hours,
per day
.......................................................
.......................................................
.......................................................
.
50
5.6 Omission of
the article
No article is
needed:
Translation
Translation
Jennifer Marshall,
Mrs Davies
before names
before names
of meals
before most
street names
when referring
to certain public
places when we
want to talk
about their
function rather
than a specific
building
Here are some
examples:
lunch
dinner
Princes Street
Oxford Street
church,
court,
home,
hospital,
market,
prison,
school ,
work,
when we use
plural nouns or
uncountable
nouns to talk
about somebody
or something in
general. A lot of
.......................................................................
......................................................................
Mathematics is a closed book to me.
.......................................................................
.....................................................................
People are so strange, arent they?
51
5.6 Omission of
the article
abstract
uncountable
nouns are used in
this way.
Translation
.......................................................................
.....................................................................
Education is the key to economic
prosperity.
.......................................................................
.......................................................................
.......................................................................
...
I never listen to advice.
.......................................................................
.......................................................................
....................................................................
5.6 Omission of
the article
Translation
before certain
geographical
features
Lake Windermere
Everest
Asia
North America
lakes
mountain peaks
continents
Tunisia
Greece
countries
52
Translation
could(nt),
was/were
(nt) allowed to
and wouldnt
53
6.1 Giving or
refusing
permission
in the past
Translation
.......................................................
.......................................................
.......................................................
.
54
6.2 General
ability to
do
something
in the past
could(nt) and
was(nt)/
were(nt) able to
Translation
walk
.........................................................
.........................................................
.........................................................
...
After a weeks training the staff
were able to use the new computer
system.
........................................................................
........................................................................
........................................................................
.......................................................................
55
6.3 Ability to do
something
in a
specific
situation in
the past
wasnt/were(nt)
able to and
managed
to/didnt manage
to
Translation
56
Translation
We had to walk home because we
missed the bus.
.........................................................
.........................................................
.........................................................
...................................................
They didnt have to show their
passports again after they crossed
the border.
had to/didnt
have to and
needed to/didnt
need to
........................................................................
........................................................................
........................................................................
.....................................................................
He needed to rest after his long
and tiring journey.
.........................................................
.........................................................
....................................................
She didnt need to sit the exam
again because she passed first
time.
........................................................................
........................................................................
....................................................................
57
If you dont
perform a certain
action in the past
because you
knew beforehand
that it was not
necessary you
use didnt need
to.
Translation
58
6.6 Expressing
criticism of
somebodys
past
actions
Translation
should(nt) have
or ought (not) to
have
.......................................................
.......................................................
.......................................................
......................................................
He ought to have consulted me
before he told the boss.
.......................................................
.......................................................
.......................................................
..
They ought not to have spoken to
the headmistress like that.
......................................................
......................................................
......................................................
...................................................
59
6.7 Deductions,
assumption
s and
speculation
about the
past
must have, may
(not) have,
might (not)
have, could(nt)
have and cant
have
Translation
60
6.7 Deductions,
assumption
s and
speculation
about the
past
Translation
.......................................................
.......................................................
.......................................................
...................................................
They cant have forgotten! I
reminded them this morning.
.........................................................
.........................................................
.........................................................
Unit 7: Grammar overview: Reported speech
Vocabulary overview: The media and
entertainment
7.1 Tense
changes
Ill buy a
Playstation.
I must hurry
up.
I may change
my mind.
I cant tell the
difference.
You neednt
dress up for
dinner.
Translation
He said he
Playstation.
would
buy
.........................................................
.........................................................
.....................................................
He said he had to hurry up.
.......................................................
.......................................................
.......................................................
He said he might change his mind.
.........................................................
.........................................................
....................................................
He said he couldnt tell the
difference.
........................................................................
61
7.1 Tense
changes
Translation
...................................................................
He said I didnt have to dress up
for dinner.
.......................................................
.......................................................
.......................................................
...
62
7.2 Modal
verbs
Present simple
past simple
Present
continuous
past
continuous
Past simple
past perfect
Past
continuous
past
perfect
continuous
Translation
63
7.2 Modal
verbs
Present perfect
simple past
perfect simple
Translation
.........................................................
.........................................................
.........................................................
.......................................................
She has been playing basketball
for years.
.......................................................
.......................................................
.......................................................
He said she had been playing
basketball for years.
.......................................................
.......................................................
.......................................................
.......................................................
...
64
7.3 Other
changes
today
tomorrow
yesterday
this
evening/this
week/etc.
here
now
this
I You We
me us my
your our
mine yours
ours
Translation
that day
the next/the following day/the day
after
the previous day/the day before
that evening/that week/etc.
there
then
that
he/she I they
him/her them his/her
my their his/hers mine theirs
65
Translation
........................................................................
........................................................................
........................................................................
.......................................................................
With the
Past
perfect tense
and
some modal
verbs
there are no
further
changes
which can
be
made to th
verb.
66
7.5 Questions
in
reported
speech
The changes to
tenses and time
references etc.
For reporting
questions are
the same as for
reporting
statements.
Wh- questions
To report
questions
which begin
with whwords (where,
who etc.), we
always use the
pattern
subject-verb,
not verbsubject.
Translation
Yes/No
questions
If the answer to
a question is
yes/no we use if
or whether to
report the
question.
67
7.5 Questions
in
reported
speech
Translation
.............................................
.............................................
.............................................
...
He asked me had I seen that
new advert.
68
7.6 Commands
in
reported
speech
Leave the room
immediately!
Dont take the
red file.
He told me not
to take the
redfile.
Translation
69
7.7 Reporting
alternativ
e
suggestio
ns with
if/whethe
r
Would you like
to go to the
cinema or the
theatre?
Shall we stay
in or eat out?
Translation
70
Unit 8
Grammar overview: Determiners and pronouns Vocabulary overview: The Arts and
architecture
8.1 this, that,
these and
those
We use
Translation
this and
these to refer
to things which
are close to us
in time or
distance and
these
and those as
determiners.
Translation
...................................................
72
8.2 It for
reference
We can use it to
refer back to a
previously
mentioned idea.
Translation
Or to refer
forward in the
sentence.
73
8.3 It as a
dummy
subject
Sometimes it
doesnt refer back
to a previous idea
but is used as
what is called a
dummy subject.
This structure is
often used to
describe things.
Translation
74
8.4 Much,
many, a
lot of, a
few and a
little
We use much, a
lot of and a little
with : uncountable
nouns. We use
many, a lot of
and a few with
Translation
countable nouns.
We usually use
.........................................................
.........................................................
........................................................
A lot of is
more common in
informal English.
75
Translation
Each as a
pronoun.
.........................................................
.........................................................
........................................................
.......................................................
.......................................................
.......................................................
.......................................................
...
Each for
emphasis.
Every for
emphasis.
76
Translation
was lying.
.........................................................
.........................................................
.........................................................
.........................................................
Every after
possessives for
emphasis.
77
8.6 One(s),
another,
other(s)
One and
ones can
replace
countable
nouns.
One + of
(with a
singular verb)
Translation
Another can
mean a
different
one or the
same again.
Other can
be used as a
determiner
or a
pronoun.
Others can
only be used
as a
78
8.6 One(s),
another,
other(s)
pronoun.
Sometimes
the others
means
people.
Translation
79
Translation
80
Neither and
either are
followed by
a verb in the
singular.
verb
is often used
in spoken
English.
Translation
A plural
81
8.9 No and
none
No and none
are used
with
singular,
plural and
uncountable
nouns and
with a
singular
verb.
informal
English, a
plural verb
may be used.
Translation
In
82
If the relative
pronoun refers
to the object of
the verb it may
be omitted.
Translation
We use of which
to distinguish
between several
different things.
83
when
9.1 Relative
clauses
Translation
84
9.2 Defining
Translation
and nondefining
relative
clauses
A defining
relative clause
contains
information
essential to the
understanding
of the
sentence.
Without it, the
sentence
would be
Hes the man who lives opposite.
meaningless.
Hes the
man. Or
Jonathon is
someone,
have little
meaning if
they stand
alone.
A nondefining
relative
clause
contains nonessential
information
which can be
omitted
without
affecting the
main
meaning of
the sentence.
The non-
85
9.2 Defining
and nondefining
relative
clauses
essential
information
appears
between two
commas.
When a
preposition is
used in the
relative
clause we can
follow these
patterns.
Translation
86
9.3 Clauses of
purpose
and
reason
so as not to
Translation
To infinitive
in order (not)
to
for + -ing
because of
as, since
87
9.4 Clauses of
result
Translation
therefore
consequently
thus
hence
as a result
in such a way
as to/that
88
9.5 Clauses of
concessio
n and
contrast
Translation
although
but
however
even though
in contrast to
despite
in spite of
nevertheless
89
9.5 Clauses of
concessio
n and
contrast
Translation
while/whereas
yet
90
Translation
91
10.2 First
condition
al
if/unless +
present tense,
will/may + bare
infinitive
Translation
when/once/befo
re/as soon
as/if/etc. +
present perfect,
future form/can
+ bare infinitive
Other future
forms used in
first conditional
sentences
92
10.3 Second
condition
al
if + past
simple,
would/could/mi
ght + bare
infinitive
Translation
93
10.4 Third
condition
al
if + past perfect,
would/could/mi
ght have + past
participle
Translation
94
10.5 Other
phrases
used in
condition
al
sentences
The following
phrases can also
be used in
conditional type
sentences:
providing/provi
ded that,
suppose/supposi
ng, on condition
that, assuming
that, but for, as
long as.
Translation
95
Translation
report verb +
that +
infinitive
without to
Adj + that +
infinitive
without to
96
11.1 The
Translation
present
subjuncti
ve
often follow this for the damage.
pattern are:
order, propose,
recommend,
request, think,
desirable,
preferable, etc.
In less formal
English, the
following
structure could
be chosen
instead of the
subjunctive:
(that) +
should +
infinitive
without to
Set phrases
be that as it may,
come what may,
suffice it to say,
far be it from me,
so be it,
Heaven forbid!
God save the King!
97
Translation
in formal
English
(where spoken
English would
He wishes his mother werent so
generally use
strict.
was)
(He wishes his mother wasnt so
strict.')
in the phrase,
If I were you,
in the pattern,
were + subject
+ to infinitive
98
Translation
99
Translation
Its high time you stopped
moping about the house and got a
job!
100
Translation
The government
is planning a
new offensive
on traffic
congestion.
The local
people were
using plants
and herbs to
make
traditional
medicines.
The government
has set aside its
plans for a
nuclear power
station after a
storm of
protest.
101
12.1 Passive
tenses
Translation
Environmentali
sts hope their
efforts will halt
the hunting of
whales.
Leading nations
will have cut
carbon
monoxide
emissions
drastically by
2010.
Genetically
modified
products may
cause
previously
unknown
allergies.
Radioactive
waste could
have killed the
fish.
102
12.1 Passive
tenses
Translation
The rescue
workers ought
to take certain
precautions.
.
She loves
people giving
her flowers.
.
He remembers
somebody
taking him to
the zoo as a
child.
..
103
12.3 Verbs
uncommo
n in
passive
Some verbs
cannot be used
or are
uncommon in
the passive.
Intransitive
verbs (verbs
without an
object)
Single-object
prepositional
verbs
Verbs
unusual in
passive
Translation
be,
grow up,
hop,
sit,
sleep,
die, etc.
apologize to,
belong to,
compete with,
glance at,
laugh about,
listen to,
participate in,
smile at,
wait for etc.
exclaim,
hesitate,
joke,
pretend,
reply,
resemble,
wonder,
yell etc.
104
Translation
In order to
talk about the
person or thing
that performed
an action (the
agent) we use
by.
In order to
talk about the
instrument with
which an action
was performed
or the material
from which
something is
constructed we
use with.
It is not
necessary to
include the
agent when the
identity of the
agent is
unknown,
irrelevant or
when the
agents identity
is self-evident
from the
context.
We do include
the agent if that
information
seems
'
The victim seems to have been
struck with a heavy object.
105
Translation
106
12.4 Reporting
opinions
We use the
following
patterns with
verbs think,
believe, report,
etc. in order to
report peoples
opinions.
Translation
He is believed to be an expert in
his field.
107
Translation
108
12.6 Causative
Subject +
have + object +
past participle
Translation
In informal
English, we can
use get instead
of have.
109
Translation
Present
She seems to have difficulties.
Present continuous
She seems to be having difficulties.
Active
Past
She seems to have had difficulties.
Past continuous
She seems to have been having
difficulties.
Passive
Present
The problem seems to be solved.
Present continuous
Past
The problem seems to have been
solved.
110
13.1 Forms of
the
infinitive
in active
and
passive
voice
Translation
Past continuous
111
Translation
He tends to exaggerate.
To express
purpose.
With only to
talk about a
disappointing
result.
As a
replacement for
a relative
clause.
112
Translation
113
After had
better and
would rather.
Translation
114
13.4 Forms of
the
gerund in
active
and
passive
voice
Active
Translation
Present
I dont recall reading this book.
Past
I dont recall having read this book.
Active
Present
He resents being imposed upon.
Past
He resented having been imposed
upon.
115
Translation
begin,
start,
keep,
see,
go,
stop,
mention,
consider,
recommend, etc.
We went sightseeing.
After verbs
with dependent
prepositions.
insist on,
confess to,
be fed up with,
count on,
agree to,
consist of etc.
The scientists success depends on
securing financial backing.
After
116
Translation
capable of,
dependent on,
good at,
reliant on,
responsible for,
upset about, etc.
He was annoyed
overcharged.
about
being
After time
adverbials.
after,
before,
since,
while,
when
whenever.
117
Translation
see,
sense,
feel,
observe,
hear, etc
The police saw him entering the
building but they didnt see him leave.
Contrast
these verbs
followed by
an infinitive
with or
without to
(as listed
above)
where the
action is
completed.
118
Translation
If we want to give
additional emphasis
to a particular part of
a sentence we can
change the usual
order of subject-verbobject; this is known
as inversion. It can
be done in a number
of ways.
119
Another structure
with inversion: so +
adjective + a/an +
noun + is/was +
he/she/it + that
clause.
Inversion also
occurs in conditional
sentences.
120
14.3 as
With as
Translation
We were furious about the noise,
as were our neighbours.
I went into therapy, as did my
husband.
121
14.4 Short
answers
In what are
often called
short answers.
Translation
I am upset.
I am feeling upset.
I am not upset.
I am not feeling upset.
.
So am I.
Neither am I.
He speaks French.
So does he.
He has finished.
He has been studying.
He hasnt finished.
He hasnt been studying.
So have I.
Neither have I.
I was angry.
I was laughing.
I wasnt angry.
I wasnt laughing.
So was he.
She helped.
So did we.
La fel am facut si noi.
They had finished.
So had he.
122
Students personalized
examples i.e. his/her
opinions, life
experience etc.
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