UNIVERSITY OF PERPETUAL HELP- CALAMBA

CAMPUS
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT-2 LEC
LIBRARY RESEARCH
TITLE:

Operational Amplifier

Submitted by:
Calopez, Rochelle Anne J.
BS Electronics Engineering/III
TTh 1:30PM -3:00PM
March 08, 2016

Submitted to:
Engr. Edison Bengco
Instructor

RATIN
G

1. Comparative analysis of admittance, conductive,

and impedance.

Admittance

A measure of how easily a circuit or device will allow a current to flow. It is defined
as the inverse of impedance. The SI unit of admittance is the siemens (symbol
S). Oliver Heaviside coined the term admittance in December 1887.
Symbolized Y is an expression of the ease with which alternating current ( AC ) flows
through a complex circuit or system. Admittance is a vector quantity comprised of two
independent scalar phenomena: conductance and susceptance .
Admittance is the vector sum of conductance and susceptance. Susceptance is
conventionally multiplied by the positive square root of -1, the unit imaginary number
called symbolized by j , to express Y as a complex quantity G - jB L (when the net
susceptance is inductive) or G + jB C (when the net susceptance is capacitive).

Admittance is defined as

Where,
Y is the admittance, measured in siemens
Z is the impedance, measured in ohms
The synonymous unit mho, and the symbol (an upside-down uppercase omega
), are also in common use.
Resistance is a measure of the opposition of a circuit to the flow of a steady
current, while impedance takes into account not only the resistance but also
dynamic effects (known as reactance). Likewise, admittance is not only a measure
of the ease with which a steady current can flow, but also the dynamic effects of
the material's susceptance to polarization:
where

is the admittance, measured in siemens.

is the conductance, measured in siemens.

is the susceptance, measured in siemens.

Conductance

An expression of the ease with which electric current flows through a substance. In
equations, conductance is symbolized by the uppercase letter G. The standard unit of
conductance is the siemens (abbreviated S), formerly known as the mho.
When a current of one ampere (1 A) passes through a component across which a
voltage of one volt (1 V) exists, then the conductance of that component is 1 S. The
siemens is, in fact, equivalent to one ampere per volt. If G is the conductance of a
component (in siemens), I is the current through the component (in amperes), and E is
the voltage across the component (in volts), then:
G = I/E

Impedance

The effective resistance of an electric circuit or component to alternating current,

arising from the combined effects of ohmic resistance and reactance.

 The measure of the opposition that a circuit presents to a current when a voltage is
applied.
In quantitative terms, it is the complex ratio of the voltage to the current in an
alternating (AC) circuit. Impedance extends the concept of resistance to AC circuits,
and possesses both magnitude and phase, unlike resistance, which has only magnitude.
When a circuit is driven with direct current (DC), there is no distinction between
impedance and resistance; the latter can be thought of as impedance with zero phase
angle.

2. Useful function and importance.

Function and Importance of Impedance
Impedance and resistance both have applications that, believe it or not, exist in your
own home. Your home electricity is controlled by a panel which has fuses in it. When you go
through an electrical surge, the fuses are there to interrupt the power so that the damage is
minimized. Your fuses are like very high-capacity resistors that will be able to take the blow.
Without them, your house's electrical system would fry and you would have to build it up
from scratch.
This issue is solved thanks to impedance and resistance. Another situation in which
impedance has importance is in capacitors. In capacitors, impedance is used to control the
flow of electricity in a circuit board. Without the capacitors controlling and regulating
electrical flow, your electronics that use alternating currents will either fry or go berserk. Since
alternating current delivers electricity at a fluctuating pulse, there needs to be a gate that holds
back all the electricity and lets it go smoothly so that

the electrical circuit is not

overloaded or under loaded.

Function and Importance of Conductance

When a current of one ampere (1 A) passes through a component across which
a voltage of one volt (1 V) exists, then the conductance of that component is 1 S. The siemens
is, in fact, equivalent to one ampere per volt. If G is the conductance of a component (in
siemens), I is the current through the component (in amperes), and E is the voltage across the
component (in volts), then:
In general, when the applied voltage is held constant, the current in a direct-current
(DC) circuit is directly proportional to the conductance. If the conductance is doubled, the
current is also doubled; if the conductance is cut to 1/10 its initial value, the current also
becomes 1/10 as great. This rule also holds for most low-frequency alternating-current (AC)
systems, such as household utility circuits. In some AC circuits, especially at high frequencies,
the situation is more complex, because some components in these systems store and release
energy, as well as dissipating or converting it.

Function and Importance of Admittance

Admittance is a vector quantity comprised of two independent scalar phenomena:
conductance and susceptance. In some respects, susceptance is like an AC counterpart of
direct current (DC ) conductance. But the two phenomena are different in important ways, and
they can vary independently of each other. Conductance and susceptance combine to
form admittance , which is defined in terms of two-dimensional quantities known as complex
number s.
When AC passes through a component that contains a finite, nonzero susceptance,
energy is alternately stored in, and released from, a magnetic field or an electric field. In the
case of a magnetic field, the susceptance is inductive. In the case of an electric field, the
susceptance is capacitive. Inductive susceptance is assigned negative number values, and
capacitive susceptance is assigned positive imaginary number values.
As the inductance of a component increases, its susceptance becomes smaller
negatively (that is, it approaches zero from the negative side) in imaginary terms, assuming
the frequency is held constant. As the frequency increases for a given value of inductance, the
same thing happens.

3. Applications and related field of practice of series

RLC and parallel RLC.
Application of Admittance
The Admittance of a circuit is the measure of the circuit's conductance, which is its
ability to conduct electric current through it. Being that admittance is the measure of a circuit's
conductance, it is the direct opposite of the circuit's impedance, its opposition to the flow of
current; so, thus, to calculate admittance, the formula (1/Impedance) is used. Admittance is
measured in a unit called siemens.
Thanks to impedance and resistance. Another situation in which impedance has
importance is in capacitors. In capacitors, impedance is used to control the flow of electricity
in a circuit board. Without the capacitors controlling and regulating electrical flow, your
electronics that use alternating currents will either fry or go berserk. Since alternating current
delivers electricity at a fluctuating pulse, there needs to be a gate that holds back all the
electricity and lets it go smoothly so that

the electrical circuit is not overloaded or under

loaded.

Application of Impedance
A useful analogy for the understanding of impedance is that of a water pipe and pump.
The pipe diameter represents the impedance of your loudspeaker; the water flowing through it
is power and the water pump is the amplifier (or receiver) itself. The pump pumps water
through the pipe. A large diameter pipe allows a large amount of water to flow. This is a low
impedance situation: the large pipe does not impede the large flow of water. A small diameter
pipe allows less water to flow. This is a high impedance situation: the small pipe impedes the

flow of water, keeping it small. Low impedance, large flow of power; high impedance, smaller
flow of power. I'm trying to keep it simple, folks. Stick with me. Ultimately, this will help you
better choose your electronics for optimum performance.
Now that we can think of impedance in terms of water flowing through a pipe, it's
helpful to think of amplifier power (voltage and current) as water pressure and water flow
respectively. Voltage (pressure) and current (flow) together create power. As an aside,
"current" is measured in amperes and "voltage" is measured in volts. If 5 amperes of current
flow with 40 volts of pressure the result would be 200 watts of power.
So, back to "simple." We have an impedance (the pipe) in which a given amount of
power (water) flows, and the receiver (the pump) producing the voltage (pressure) and current
(flow). As the pipe gets larger and the pressure stays the same, the flow drops and so you get
less water. To keep the water the same, the pump must provide more flow. Thus, lower
impedance flows must have higher power pumps (amplifiers). If the pipe is smaller,
impedance to the flow is higher. Pressure can build up and flow becomes more difficult. Thus,
lower impedance demands higher power "pumps"; higher power receivers and amplifiers.
And now, kind reader, we will be leaving "simple" behind. Please put your seats in
their upright position and stow your tray tables.
In the world of speakers and amplifiers, the speaker's impedance influences the ratio of
voltage and current. In my example up there, I gave you 5 amperes and 40 volts multiplied
together to get 200 watts. If we reduce the impedance of a speaker load by half, from 8-Ohms
to 4-Ohms, but kept the power the same, we would find that the amount of current would
multiply by the square root of 2 to 7.07 amperes and the voltage would reduce by the square
root of 2 to 28.28 volts. Multiply 4 (the Ohms; smaller number, larger pipe) times 28.28
(volts) and you get the same 200 watts, but from the amplifier's point of view the job has
gotten harder. Pressure has gone down because the pipe is larger, but the flow has gone up! So
you see how the speaker's impedance changes the task of the amp, asking it to produce more
(in this case) or less current flow.

Application of Conductance
An electrical current results from the motion of electrically charged particles in
response to forces that act on them from an applied electric field. Within most solid materials a
current arise from the flow of electrons, which is called electronic conduction. In all
conductors, semiconductors, and many insulated materials only electronic conduction exists,
and the electrical conductivity is strongly dependant on the number of electrons available to
participate to the conduction process. Most metals are extremely good conductors of
electricity, because of the large number of free electrons that can be excited in an empty and
available energy state.
In water and ionic materials or fluids a net motion of charged ions can occur. This
phenomenon produce an electric current and is called ionic conduction.