Warsaw University of Technology

Faculty of Physics

Diploma Thesis

Study of quantum decoherence in the

K meson system
Rafa Modonek

Supervised by:
Prof. dr hab. Wojciech Wilicki
Prof. dr hab. Jan Pluta

Warsaw 2013

Streszczenie
Badanie dekoherencji kwantowej w ukadzie mezonw K

Badanie dekoherencji kwantowej zachodzcej w czasie ewolucji czasowej stanu

spltanego kaonw neutralnych, powstajcego w wyniku rozpadu mezonu , stanowi
cz bada z zakresu zyki czstek, prowadzonych w celu testowania Modelu Standardowego i poszukiwania zyki wykraczajcej poza ten model. Badania takie prowadzone byy przy eksperymenice KLOE z uyciem metod interferometrycznych, polegajcych na porwnywaniu hipotez teoretycznych z danymi, dotyczcymi rozkadw rnicy czasw rozpadw w takich reakcjach jak: KL KS ( + )( + ).
Badania te wymagaj dokadnych pomiarw, wane jest wic precyzyjne okrelenie wszystkich moliwych rde bdw. Gwnym rdem bdw systematycznych jest zjawisko regeneracji, zachodzce jako wynik oddziaywania mezonw
K z materi i wprowadzajce dodatkow dekoherencj kwantow do ukadu tych
czstek.
Celem niniejszej pracy jest zbadanie wpywu regeneracji na zjawisko dekoherencji
kwantowej w ukadzie kaonw neutralnych, zachodzcej w rurze wizki przy detektorze KLOE. W tym celu wykorzystano formalizm mechaniki kwantowej. Do celw
tej analizy poczynione zostay odpowiednie obliczenia dla przypadku uproszczonego
jak rwnie napisana zostaa bardziej zoona symulacja komputerowa w celu uoglnienia rozwaa.
Rozdzia 1 przedstawia oglne omwienie problemu i wyjania znaczenie oblicze
wykonanych na potrzeby tej pracy.
W rozdziale 2. zostaa przedstawiona aktualna wiedza na temat kaonw neutralnych, ich stanu spltanego, a take pojcia dekoherencji kwantowej w takim ukadzie.
Rozdzia 3. omawia z kolei oddziaywanie mezonw K z materi i wprowadza bardziej
szczegowo pojcie zjawiska regeneracji. Pokazuje take formalizm opisujcy ewolucj czasow kaonw neutralnych w materii i analizuje rnice we wzgldnej intensywnoci zregenerowanych mezonw KS pojawiajcych si tu za regeneratorem.
Rozdzia 4. opisuje eksperyment KLOE biorc pod uwag wszystkie istotne elementy z ktrych zbudowany jest ten detektor.
W rozdziale 5 omwiono dokadnie sposb wyznaczenia amplitud rozpraszania
kaonw na jdrach materii, z ktrych zbudowane s elementy detektora KLOE.
W rozdziale tym zaprezentowano take wyniki oblicze i porwnano je z danymi
dostpnymi w innych pracach.

Rozdziay 6. i 7. zawieraj opisy symulacji zjawiska regeneracji koherentnej i

dyfrakcyjnej, przeprowadzonych dla przypadku czystej wizki mezonw KL penetrujcej cienki sferyczny regenerator, jak rwnie dla przypadku bardziej zoonego
- penetracji rury wizki KLOE przez par kaonw w stanie spltanym. Na zakoczenie obu rozdziaw przedstawiono uzyskane wyniki i dokonano ich omwienia.
Na zakoczenie (rozdzia 8.) dokonano podsumowania caoci i przedstawiono
wnioski pynce z pracy. Praca ta zawiera zaczniki przedstawiajce obliczenia i
uzyskane dane, ktre nie zmieciy si w czci gwnej bd s bardzo szczegowe.

...........................

podpis studenta

...........................

podpis promotora

Abstract
Study of quantum decoherence in the K meson system

Investigation of quantum decoherence occuring during the time evolution of entangled neutral kaons' system produced in meson decay is part of the studies
performed in eld of particle physics in order to test the Standard Model and search
for new physics beyond it. Such studies were performed at the KLOE experiment
using interferometric methods. The methods involve examination of dierent theoretical hypotheses against data on the distribution of the dierence of the kaons'
decay times in such reaction as KL KS ( + )( + ).
These studies require very precise measurements, so it is important to determine
all possible sources of errors. One of the contribution to the systematic errors comes
from the regeneration phenomenon which occurs as a result of interaction of K
mesons with matter and introduce additional quantum decoherence in the neutral
kaons system.
The aim of this thesis is to investigate the inuence of regeneration on decoherence in neutral kaons system occurring in the KLOE beam pipe using the formalism
of quantum mechanics. For this purpose, appropriate calculation for simple cases
were made as well as computer simulation was written in order to generalize the
considerations.
Chapter 1 presents the overview of the problem and explain the importance of
the calculations performed in this thesis.
In chapter 2 current knowledge about neutral kaons and their entangled system
as well as the the concept of quantum decoherence in kaons system were described.
Chapter 3 describes interaction of K mesons with matter, introduces the regeneration phenomena, shows the formalism describing time evolution of neutral kaons
in matter and analyses the dierences between relative coherent and incoherent
regenerated KS intensities behind a regenerator.
Chapter 4 describes the KLOE experiment taking into account all important
elements the detector is composed of.
In chapter 5 determination of the scattering amplitudes for the material of KLOE
beam pipe is discussed. The chapter presents also the results and compares them
with data from others papers.
Chapter 6 includes description of simulations of the coherent and diraction
regeneration performed for pure KL beam traversing thin spherical regenerator. At

the end of the chapter obtained results were presented and discussed.
Then (in chapter 7), simulation process of the coherent regeneration for KLOE
beam pipe is fully discussed followed by presentation of the results and their assessment.
Finally concluding remarks are presented in chapter 8. It appears that coherent
regeneration was completely insignicant in the KLOE experiment.
This work is supplemented with appendices showing calculation and obtained
data (computed scattering amplitudes) that does not t in the main part or are
purely technical.

...........................

.............................

Signature of Student

Signature of Thesis Supervisor

Contents
List of Figures
List of Tables

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1. Introduction .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2. The neutral kaon system

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.1. Discovery of the K meson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.2. Hamiltonian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.3. Discrete symmetries and neutral kaons eigenstates . . . . . . . . . . . 10

2.4. Correlations in neural kaons decays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.5. Kaon interferometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.6. Decoherence in quantum state of entangled kaons . . . . . . . . . . . 13

3. Regeneration phenomenon .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

15

3.1. Interactions of kaons with matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

3.2. Types of regeneration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.3. Time evolution of a neutral kaon state in homogeneous matter . . . . 16
3.4. Ratio of the coherent to incoherent regeneration: Rcoh/dif f

. . . . . . 17

3.5. Coherent regeneration in homogeneous matter in case of the entangled

kaons state . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.6. Coherent regeneration in heterogeneous matter in case of entangled
kaons state . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.7. Scattering amplitudes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

4. KLOE experiment

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

25

4.1. DANE accelerator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

4.2. KLOE detector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
4.2.1. Drift chamber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
4.2.2. Electromagnetic calorimeter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
4.2.3. Beam pipe and nearby regenerators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
4.2.4. KLOE-2 experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

5. Determination of the scattering amplitudes for the materials of

KLOE beam pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
5.1. Average molar mass of the beam pipe material . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
5.2. Spatial density distribution of matter inside nuclei . . . . . . . . . . . 31
0 scattering amplitudes on proton and neutron . . 32
5.3. Forward K 0 and K
1

5.4. Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

6. Determination of the coherent and diraction regeneration intensity in case of K 0 beam traversing spherical regenerator. . . . . 40
6.1. Detailed description of the case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
6.2. Dealing with small and big numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
6.3. Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

7. Determination of the coherent regeneration intensity occurring

in the KLOE beam pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
7.1. Description of the simulation algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
7.1.1. Step one - meson decay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
7.1.2. Step two - propagation and decays of neutral kaons . . . . . . 45
7.1.3. Step three - calculations of double decay rate

. . . . . . . . . 46

7.1.4. Step four - histograming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

7.2. Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

8. Conclusions

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

A. Regeneration of KS 's from KL 's beam

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

51
52

A.1. The intensity of (KL + coh KS ) + decays per time unit . . . . 52

B. Kaons regeneration in homogeneous matter in case of entangled

kaons state. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
B.1. Double decay rate I( + , + ; t1 , t2 ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

C. Scattering amplitudes tables

Bibliography

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

56

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

61

List of Figures
2.1. KL KS s1 s2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.2. Intensity distribution as a function of t for identical nal states

+ , + . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.3. Intensity distribution as a function of t for eq. (2.25). The black line
is for = 0 and the red one is for = 0.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.1. Ratio of coherently to incoherently regenerated KS intensity behind
beryllium regenerator as a function of the regenerator thickness. . . . 19
3.2. Relative intensity of the coherently (red line) and incoherently (blue
line) regenerated KS behind beryllium regenerator as a function of
the regenerator thickness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.3. Ratio of coherently to incoherently regenerated KS intensity behind
the Be-Al regenerator as a function of the regenerator thickness. . . . 20
3.4. Relative coherent (red line) and incoherent (blue line) regenerated

KS intensities behind the Be-Al regenerator as a function of the regenerator thickness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

3.5. The simplest example of propagation of entangled neutral kaons in
heterogeneous medium. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4.1. The DANE complex. The gure is adopted from ref. [22]. . . . . . . 25
4.2. Cross section of the KLOE detector at DANE. Figure adopted from
ref. [8]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
4.3. KLOE drift chamber. Figure adopted from ref. [23]. . . . . . . . . . . 27
4.4. KLOE electromagnetic calorimeter. Figure adopted from ref. [24]. . . 28
4.5. Scheme of the beam pipe and other regenerators location - KLOE. . . 29
5.1. The real part of the forward K 0 scattering amplitudes on beryllium
nuclei. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
5.2. The imaginary part of the forward K 0 scattering amplitudes on beryllium nuclei. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
0 scattering amplitudes on beryllium
5.3. The real part of the forward K
nuclei. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
0 scattering amplitudes on beryl5.4. The imaginary part of the forward K
lium nuclei. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
5.5. The real part of the forward K 0 scattering amplitudes on aluminium
nuclei. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
5.6. The imaginary part of the forward K 0 scattering amplitudes on aluminium nuclei.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

 0 scattering amplitudes on aluminium

5.7. The real part of the forward K
nuclei. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
0 scattering amplitudes on alu5.8. The imaginary part of the forward K
minium nuclei.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

5.9. The real part of the forward K 0 scattering amplitudes for beam pipe
material. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
5.10. The imaginary part of the forward K 0 scattering amplitudes for beam
pipe material. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
0 scattering amplitudes for beam pipe
5.11. The real part of the forward K
material. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
0 scattering amplitudes for beam
5.12. The imaginary part of the forward K
pipe material. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
6.1. Intensity distribution for kaons propagating in vacuum as a function
of proper time. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
6.2. Intensity distribution for kaons propagating in space as a function of
proper time. The regenerator is situated around 17 S . . . . . . . . . 43
6.3. Histogram of the subtracted intensity distributions for kaons propagating in space as a function of proper time. The regenerator is
situated around 17 S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
7.1. Distribution of neutral kaons momenta generated in simulation. . . . 45
7.2. Distribution of angle between beam direction (z axis) and kaons
created in meson decay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
7.3. Visualisation of one event. Light blue shape is the beam pipe; lines
represents kaons and pions propagation paths. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
7.4. Generated intensity distribution for kaons propagating in vacuum as
a function of t with tted function from eq. (2.25). . . . . . . . . . 48
7.5. Generated intensity distribution for kaons propagating in the KLOE
beam pipe as a function of t with tted function from eq. (2.25). . . 49
7.6. Ratio of generated intensity distributions for kaons propagating in the
KLOE beam pipe and vacuum as a function of t with tted linear
function. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
7.7. Histogramed dierences between generated intensity distributions for
kaons propagating in the KLOE beam pipe and vacuum as a function
of t. Dierences were calculated for each event separately. . . . . . . 50

List of Tables
3.1. The Good Ratios Rcoh/dif f for the KLOE regenerators and kaons'
momenta 110 MeV/c. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
5.1. Parameters used in the harmonic-oscillator distribution. Data from
ref. [27]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
5.2. Parameters used in Wood-Saxon distribution. Data from [18].

. . . . 32

5.3. Forward scattering amplitudes on protons and neutrons for neutral

kaons at momenta in range 50 - 300 MeV/c. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
6.1. Examples of physics parameters in natural units used in the simulation. 41
C.1. Forward scattering amplitudes for beryllium. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
C.2. Forward scattering amplitudes for aluminium. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
C.3. Forward scattering amplitudes for beam pipe. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

1. Introduction
The discovery of kaon particles was one of the most important event in particle
physics. It had a large impact on this eld of science and started a series of subsequent discoveries that eventually led to the creation of the Standard Model. Now
kaons still play important role, especially in the researches which aim to test this
model and search physics beyond it. A good example of this type of research are
experiments testing fundamental discrete symmetries.
One of the research institutes involved in this type of experiments is Laboratori

Nazionali di Frascati (LNF) - the largest laboratory of the Italian Istituto

Nazionale

di Fisica Nucleare (INFN) located near Rome. The LNF conducted the study, inter
alia, using the DAFNE accelerator (an electron positron collider used to produce

mesons at a high rate) as well as KLOE detector which was operational at this
accelerator from 1999 to 2006. Now the upgraded experiment KLOE-2 is ready to
start working at the same place. KLOE (K LOng Experiment) was aimed i.a. at the
study of kaon physics.
One of the goals of this experiment was investigation of time evolution and decays
0
of entangled neutral kaon pairs produced in meson decay. The produced K 0 K
pair considered in the basis of the parity eigenstates, is a pair of short and longliving neutral kaons KS and KL , suitable for test the linear superposition principle
of quantum mechanics and the study of CP and CPT violation parameters. The
measurements of this parameters were performed at KLOE experiment (and will
be performed at KLOE-2) using interferometric methods involving examination of
dierent theoretical hypotheses against data on the distribution of the dierence of
the kaons' decay times in such reaction as KL KS ( + )( + ).
One of the main contribution to the uncertainties of measurements at the KLOE
experiment came from the statistical errors but in the second stage of the experiment
KLOE-2, these errors will be reduced 10 times and the uncertainties in this case will
be mainly inuenced by the systematic errors.
The main source of systematic errors in the experiment is the regeneration phe 0 with matter
nomenon. It is related to the dierence in the interaction of K 0 and K
resulting in conversions of KL meson into KS meson (and vice versa), which introduce a quantum decoherence in the neutral kaons system. Regeneration can be
classied into two main types: coherent and incoherent one. The most important
contribution to regeneration mainly comes from in the beam pipe made of beryllium and aluminium and is related to the incoherent regeneration. However, coherent

regeneration might also inuence the measurements which was never suciently investigated.
The main goal of this thesis is to investigate the inuence of regeneration phenomenon (especially the coherent one) on decoherence in neutral kaons system occurring in the KLOE beam pipe using the formalism of quantum mechanics. For the
purpose of this analysis, the appropriate calculation for simple cases were made as
well as computer simulation was written in order to generalize the considerations. In
order to perform these calculations, scattering amplitudes for beam pipe's materials
were calculated using eikonal approximation.

2. The neutral kaon system

2.1. Discovery of the K meson

The K mesons, hereon called also kaons, were discovered by George Rochester
and Cliord Butler in late 1946 and 1947 during the investigation of cosmic rays in
a cloud chamber [1, 2]. They detected two particles decaying in the form of a letter.
One of them was a neutral particle decaying into two lighter charged particles, and
second one was a charged particle decaying into two lighter particles, charged and
uncharged ones. Rochester and Butler estimated their masses about a half the proton
mass.
The newly discovered particles at once showed strange properties. Experiments
revealed that they were produced in reactions involving the strong interaction but
that they decayed through weak interactions with typical lifetimes of order 1010 s.
The phenomenon was nally explained by introduction of a new quantum number
dubbed "strangeness", as suggested by Murray Gell-Mann and Kazuhiko Nishijima
in 1953. They postulated that strangeness is conserved during V particles creation,
but not conserved in their decay. In other words, strangeness is conserved in the
electromagnetic and strong interactions, but not in the weak interactions. Quantitatively, this is expressed by the Gell-Mann - Nishijima relation which in the absence
of heavier avour reads

1
Q = I3 + (B + S),
2
where Q stands for the electric charge, I3 for the third component of the isospin,
B for baryonic charge and S for strangeness. This formula explicitely forbids strong
and electromagnetic interactions changing strangeness.
Kaons belong to the group of mesons particles and are composed of a strange
quark and either an up or down quark:

K + = u
s, K = us

0 = ds
K 0 = d
s, K
0 ), even though they have dierent
What is interesting, neutral kaons (K 0 and K
strangeness quantum number, cannot always be distinguished from one another.
0 can transform into each other via weak
This is due to the fact that K 0 and K
interaction. This fact was noticed by Murray Gell-Mann and Abraham Pais in 1955
[3]. In a weak process, a decay modes with S = 1 can exist:

0 ) 2, K 0 (K
0 ) 3,
K 0 (K
8

but reverse process can also occur. Thus, mixing can occur via virtual intermediate

2 and 3 states:
0
K 0 2 K
0.
K 0 3 K
0 states will evolve into their superposition
As a consequence, an initially pure K 0 , K
at a later time t:

0i
|K 0 (t)i a(t)|K 0 i + b(t)|K
At that time there was a general belief that all interaction should be invariant
with respect to the charge-conjugation (C) operation. For this reason Gell-Mann
and Pais suggested that the most convenient change of kaon decay eigenstates representation would be to the eigenstates:

1
0i
|K10 i = |K 0 i + |K
2


1
0i
|K20 i = |K 0 i |K
2

(2.1)
(2.2)

with eigenvalues C = 1, respectively. Since these states have dierent dominating

decay modes, they should also have dierent lifetimes.
It is now known that the C symmetry is not preserved, but arguments presented
by Gell-Mann and Pais remain unchanged assuming CP invariance.

2.2. Hamiltonian

The time evolution of neutral kaon and its decay products can be described as
[4, 5]:

0i +
|K(t)i = a(t)|K 0 i + b(t)|K

cj (t)|fj i,

(2.3)

where a(t), b(t), cj (t) are time dependent functions and |fj i (j = 1, 2, ...) are all
possible kaon decay nal states. The state vector (2.3) satises the Schrdinger
equation:

d|K(t)i
= H|K(t)i
dt

(2.4)

In the Hamiltonian H = H0 + Hwk , the H0 governs the electromagnetic and strong

interactions and conserve strangeness. The Hwk is a small perturbation which governs the weak interactions and does not conserves strangeness.
9

The neutral kaon system can be described by the perturbation approximation

[6, 7]. In this approach solution of equation (2.3) for the functions a(t) and b(t) is
given by:
(2.5)

= eiHt 0 ,
where:


=




a(t)
a(0)
, 0 =
b(t)
b(0)

and H (eective Hamiltonian) is a 2 2, not Hermitian, time independent matrix

and can be decomposed into its hermitian and anti-hermitian parts:
!
!
!
M11 M12
H11 H12
i 11 12

H=
=Mi =

2
2 21 22
M22
M21
H21 H22

(2.6)

0.
where M and are mass and decay hermitian matrices with indices 1, 2 = K 0 , K
The eective Hamiltonian H is related to the perturbation part Hwk of the full
Hamiltonian H by the equations:

Mij = M0 ij + hi|Hwk |ji + P

X hi|Hwk |f ihf |Hwk |ji

f

ij = 2

M0 Ef

hi|Hwk |f ihf |Hwk |ji(M0 Ef ),

(2.7)
(2.8)

where i, j = 1, 2, P means principal part and f are the intermediate states which
correspond to the virtual (M) or real () decay channels.
The conservation of discrete symmetries constrains the matrix elements of the
eective Hamiltonian as follows:

H11 = H22

conservation of CPT symmetry

|H12 | = |H21 |

conservation of T symmetry

H11 = H22 and |H12 | = |H21 | -

conservation of CP symmetry

2.3. Discrete symmetries and neutral kaons eigenstates

As was mentioned before, neutral kaons decay eigenstates with CP invariance

assumption are described by equations (2.1) and (2.2). But since CP symmetry is
0
violated, the CP eigenstates |K1,2
i are no more mass eigenstates. New mass eigen-

states, with the CPT invariance assumption can be written as [8]:

|K10 i + S |K20 i
p
1 + |S |2
|K20 i + L |K10 i
|KL i = p
,
1 + |L |2
|KS i =

10

(2.9)
(2.10)

where S and L are small complex parameters responsible for a CP violation in

decays of the KS and KL . The states KS and KL are not orthogonal states, in
opposite to |K10 i an |K20 i. After inserting |K10 i an |K20 i to the eqs. (2.9) and (2.10)
one can obtain:

0i
(1 + S )|K 0 i + (1 S )|K
p
2(1 + |S |2 )
0i
(1 + L )|K 0 i (1 L )|K
p
|KL i =
2(1 + |L |2 )
|KS i =

(2.11)
(2.12)

2.4. Correlations in neural kaons decays

In the KLOE experiment neutral kaons are produced in reaction:

0
e+ e K 0 K
The e+ and e collide with equal energies, the is produced almost at rest and
kaons y apart in almost opposite directions. Because is the vector meson with

J P C = 1 , C and P eigenvalues of created kaon system must by also equal to -1.

This condition is satises by initial antisymmetric state which looks as follows:

0 (p)i |K
0 (+p)i|K 0 (p)i
|K 0 (+p)i|K

|ii =
2

(2.13)

After transformation of equations (2.11) and (2.12) and inserting them into equation
(2.13) one can change the strangeness basis suitable for the description of kaons
production to basis suitable for the description of the kaons decays:

N
|ii = |KS (+p)i|KL (p)i |KL (+p)i|KS (p)i,
2

(2.14)

p
(1 + |S |2 )(1 + |L |2 )
N=
'1
1 S L

(2.15)

where

2.5. Kaon interferometry

According to quantum mechanics, in order to obtain the amplitude for decay of

K(+p) into a nal state s1 at time t1 and of K(p) to state s2 at time t2 , one can
calculate:

A(s1 , s2 , t1 , t2 ) =

N
{hs1 | T | KS (t1 )ihs2 | T | KL (t2 )i
2
hs1 | T | KL (t1 )ihs2 | T | KS (t2 )i} ,
11

(2.16)

where T is the transformation matrix whose explicit form is unknown but also not
needed in this case.

Figure 2.1.

KL KS s1 s2

If the propagation of kaons states is considered for a vacuum, their time evolution
is as follows:
(2.17)

|KS(L) (t)i = |KS(L) (t = 0)iiS(L) t ,

where S and L are complex masses:

i
S(L) = mS(L) S(L)
2

(2.18)

and the decay amplitude becomes:

A(s1 , s2 , t1 , t2 ) =

N
hs1 | T | KS ihs2 | T | KL ieiS t1 eiL t2
2

hs1 | T | KL ihs2 | T | KS ieiL t1 eiS t2

(2.19)

The two-dimensional intensity for decay to nal states s1 and s2 at times t1 and

t2 can be obtained by taking the modulus squared of eq. (2.16):


I(s1 , s2 , t1 , t2 ) = C12 |1 |2 eL t1 S t2 + |2 |2 eS t1 L t2
o
S +L
2|1 ||2 |e 2 (t1 +t2 ) cos [m(t1 t2 ) + 2 1 ] ,

(2.20)

where:

m = mL mS ,
i |i |eii =

C12 =

hsi | T | KL i
,
hsi | T | KS i

|N |2
|hs1 | T | KS ihs2 | T | KS i|2
2

(2.21)

After dening t = t1 t2 and integration over (t1 + t2 ), one get:

I(s1 , s2 , t 0) =

C12  2 L t
|1 | e
+ |2 |2 eS t
S + L

2|1 ||2 |e

12

S +L
t
2

cos [mt + 2 1 ]

(2.22)

I(s1 , s2 , t 0) =

C12  2 L |t|
|2 | e
+ |1 |2 eS |t|
S + L
2|1 ||2 |e

S +L
|t|
2

o
cos [m|t| + 1 2 ]
(2.23)

The main advantage of this one-dimensional intensity is that it is more suitable to

compare it with experimental data.
If one considers the case in which both kaons decay into identical nal states (for
example KL + and KS + ):

s1 = s2 = s; 1 = 2 = ; 1 = 2
eqs. (2.22) and (2.23) reduce to the form:

I(s, t) =

o
S +L
C12 ||2 n L |t|
e
+ eS |t| 2e 2 |t| cos [m|t|]
S + L

(2.24)

The distribution (2.24) for kaons decaying to + , + identical nal states is

visualised in g. 2.2.

Figure 2.2.

Intensity distribution as a function of t for identical nal states

+, +.

2.6. Decoherence in quantum state of entangled kaons

In general, term

quantum decoherence means the process of passing from a co-

herent superposition of states to a statistical mixture of states [5, 9].

In case of neutral kaon system the decoherence phenomenon can be modelled in
the simplest way by adding the factor (1 ) before the interference term in eq.
13

(2.20).


I(s1 , s2 , t1 , t2 ) = C12 |1 |2 eL t1 S t2 + |2 |2 eS t1 L t2
o
S +L
2(1 )|1 ||2 |e 2 (t1 +t2 ) cos [m(t1 t2 ) + 2 1 ]

(2.25)

The is the so-called decoherence parameter. The = 0 corresponds to fully coherent superposition of states (usual quantum mechanics case), while = 1 lead to the
total decoherence and to break of entanglement.
Figure 2.3 shows an example of the dierences between intensity distribution for
two values of . It is clearly visible that the part of the spectrum the most sensitive
to decoherence is the one close to 0.

Figure 2.3.

Intensity distribution as a function of t for eq. (2.25). The black line is for
= 0 and the red one is for = 0.1.

14

3. Regeneration phenomenon
3.1. Interactions of kaons with matter

The term "regeneration" was introduced by Pais and Piccioni in 1955 [10] to
describe the phenomenon of recreation of short-lived KS mesons from beam of pure
long-lived KL mesons when it traverse the matter. A detailed analysis of the process
was then presented by M.L. Good [11].

0 interact with matter in

Regeneration fallows from the fact that K 0 and K
dierent ways. These are strong interactions and must preserve the strangeness,
barion and lepton numbers, as well as the electric charge. For that reason many
0 , which has the same strangeness
more interaction channels are available for K
number as and particles. For example it can interact in such a ways as:

0 + p 0 + +
K
0 + n 0 + 0
K
These are not possible for K 0 which is the part of the lowest excitation (K + , K 0 )
0 's are strongly absorbed by matter,
dublet with positive strangeness. Thus, while K

K 0 's only undergo elastic and charge-exchange scattering which implies that the
0 with nucleon N is greater than the same
total cross-section for interaction of K
total cross-section of K 0 [12].

0 interactions with matter

The dierences in elastic cross-sections for K 0 and K
0 forming KS and KL
result in a change of the phase relations between K 0 and K
states. For example, the state (2.12) after passing through the matter takes the form:

0i
f ()(1 + L )|K 0 i f()(1 L )|K
p
2(1 + |L |2 )


1
1
f () + f() |KL i + f () f() |KS i,
=
2
2

|()i =

(3.1)

where is the scattering angle while f () and f() are complex scattering amplitudes
0 , respectively.
of K 0 and K
Because f () 6= f(), the state (3.1) emerging from the matter contains additional (regenerated) KS component with amplitude:

1
fr = [f () f()]
2

15

(3.2)

3.2. Types of regeneration

We can distinguish two main types of the regeneration: the coherent and incoherent (or diraction) one.
The rst type of regeneration is a result of coherent addition of amplitudes from
scattering on nuclei in an extended region of several centimetres in length. Therefore
it is signicant only in a strictly forward direction of 106 rad.
Diraction regeneration occurs on one nucleus and is the result of coherent superposition of the scattering amplitudes on nucleons inside the nucleus.
As was mentioned in section 3.1 when the neutral K meson hits scattering centres
in regenerator, the resulting kaon wave depends on the phase of the incoming wave
at the scattering centre. These phase shifts can result in coherent or the incoherent
regeneration, depending on the kaon momentum, as well as on the size and the
density of the regenerator material [12].

3.3. Time evolution of a neutral kaon state in homogeneous

matter

A general neutral kaon state |i can be represented by a linear combination of

two mass components [13]:

|i = L |KL i + S |KS i,

(3.3)

where L and S are the amplitudes for nding the state as a KL or as a KS ,

respectively. In vacuum these two components evolve separately but in matter the
mixing occur, as was shown earlier in eq. (3.1). More detailed description can be
nd in refs [1, 1315].
Let's now consider the passage of neutral kaons through a homogeneous matter. For simplicity, one can assume that material consists of randomly distributed
identical scattering centres, with number density per unit volume and forward
0 mesons, respectively.
scattering amplitudes f and f for K 0 and K
With these assumptions and in case of coherent regeneration the lowest order
approximation of KL and KS states after passing through a matter are given by
[14][13]:



|KL (t)i = L (t) |KL i + coh
L (t)|KS i

(3.4)



|KS (t)i = S (t) |KS i + coh
S (t)|KL i ,

(3.5)

16

where |KL i, |KS i are eigenstates of KL and KS in matter at time t = 0,

0

L(S) (t) = eiL(S) t

i
0
f + f ,
L(S) = mL(S) L(S)
2
m
and m is the average mass of neutral kaon.
The geometry-dependent regeneration parameter coh
L (t) is dened as a fraction
of KS in an initially pure KL beam after penetrating regenerator with thickness

L = t =

p
t,
m

whereas the parameter coh

S (t) is dened as a fraction of KL in an

initially pure KS beam after penetrating the same distance:

f
S (t)
= 1 eit
L (t)
m

(3.6)

f
L (t)
= 1 eit
,
S (t)
m

(3.7)

coh
L (t) =

coh
S (t) =
where:

= L S
f = f f
This gives the following formulas:

iL t

|KL (t)i = e

|KS (t)i = e

iS t

it

|KL i + 1 e

it

|KS i 1 e



f
|KS i
m

(3.8)



f
|KL i ,
m

(3.9)

The derivation of the above formulas, as well as their full form, can be found in
ref. [13].

3.4. Ratio of the coherent to incoherent regeneration:

Rcoh/dif f

If the conditions for the coherent regeneration in the forward direction are not
0 undergo elastic scattering in forward direction one can
fullled, and if K 0 and K
still register regenerated kaons. In case of a long-lived beam, one uses the angle
between the kaon direction and the beam direction in order to separate transmitted
and coherently regenerated kaons ( ' 0) from kaons that have undergone scattering
or incoherent regeneration. Unfortunately, since the angular resolution of detectors
17

is limited, it is impossible to separate all coherently regenerated kaons from these

regenerated incoherently. For this reason, it is important to determine the theoretical ratio (so-called Good Ratio) between intensities of coherent and diraction
processes.
To do this, let's calculate rst the amplitude of the KS mesons (directly behind
the regenerator) regenerated coherently from KL beam. From eq. (3.6) one can see
that the amplitude is given by:
coh
Acoh
L = L (t)L (t) =

0


f
1 eit eiL t
m

(3.10)

Consider now incoherent regeneration of the KS particles. The dierential cross

section of the diraction regeneration is [15]:


2
dinc  f () f() 
=

d
2

(3.11)

The intensity of the KS mesons created within the layer of thickness dx and
having travelled the distance L x is:


d

dIinc
d



 f () f() 2 Lx L
 e S u dx,
= 

2

(3.12)

where u is the collision length.

Integration over x yields:

dIinc  f () f() 

=
S (1 eS t )e2 Im (f ()+f ()) m t

d
2
with t =

(3.13)

L
.

Due to the nite angular resolution of detectors there is a misidentication of

kaons regenerated coherently and incoherently in a solid angle = 2(1 cos).
In order to nd relative intensities of the two dierent phenomena, it is necessary
to integrate formula (3.14) in a solid angle in a forward direction. For simplicity,
one can assume that scattering amplitudes f and f do not depend on angle and
are constant, which is true for relatively small angles:

Iinc



 f () f() 2
t

 S (1 eS t )e2 Im (f ()+f())
m
= 2(1 cos ) 

2

Finally, the ratio of the coherent to incoherent intensity is equal to:


2
 coh 2
 imt
12 S t 
2(1 cos) e
e
A 

Rcoh/dif f = L
=
Iinc
m2 2 S (1 eS t )
18

(3.14)

(3.15)

Assuming a resolution for the KLOE detector ' 50 mr [16] it is possible to

calculate the relative intensities of coherent and incoherent regenerations as well as
Good Ratio as a function of the regenerator thickness. Fig. 3.1 and Fig. 3.2 show
such calculations for beryllium regenerator, where its thickness is given in units of
the kaon's proper time relative to S , where the kaon momentum is 110 MeV/c.

Figure 3.1.

Figure 3.2.

Ratio of coherently to incoherently regenerated KS intensity behind beryllium

regenerator as a function of the regenerator thickness.

Relative intensity of the coherently (red line) and incoherently (blue line)
regenerated KS behind beryllium regenerator as a function of the regenerator
thickness.

As one can see, diraction regeneration for thin regenerators (relative to KS

19

decay length) dominates over the coherent regeneration. Fig. 3.3 and Fig. 3.4 show
the same calculations for the beryllium-aluminium alloy regenerator. This material
is used for a beam pipe in KLOE. Table 3.1 contains Good Ratios calculated for
KLOE regenerators (beryllium foil and beam pipe with thickness about 50 m and

500 m, respectively).

Figure 3.3.

Figure 3.4.

Ratio of coherently to incoherently regenerated KS intensity behind the Be-Al

regenerator as a function of the regenerator thickness.

Relative coherent (red line) and incoherent (blue line) regenerated KS intensities behind the Be-Al regenerator as a function of the regenerator thickness.

20

Table 3.1.

thickness (m)

Rcoh/dif f

Be

50

8 104

BP

500

6 103

The Good Ratios Rcoh/dif f for the KLOE regenerators and kaons' momenta
110 MeV/c.

3.5. Coherent regeneration in homogeneous matter in case of

the entangled kaons state

In section 2.5, it was mentioned that the double dierential decay rate can be
expressed as

I(s1 , s2 , t1 , t2 ) = A(s1 , s2 , t1 , t2 )A (s1 , s2 , t1 , t2 ),

(3.16)

where A(s1 , s2 , t1 , t2 ), represented by eq. (2.16) is a decay amplitude for state |ii
(2.13) into the nal states s1 and s2 produced in the +p and p directions at kaon
proper times t1 and t2 , respectively, and A (s1 , s2 , t1 , t2 ) is complex conjugate of this
amplitude.
In order to calculate the amplitude, it is necessary to know the evolution of the
kaons states.
The decay rate into identical nal states s for KS and KL propagating in homogeneous medium can be obtained by inserting eqs. (3.4) and (3.5) into eq. (2.16)
and such calculated amplitude with its complex conjugate into formula (3.16), which
gives:


I(s, t1 , t2 ) = CDe2 Im b(t1 +t2 ) eL t1 S t2 + eS t1 L t2 +
o
S +L
2e 2 (t1 +t2 ) cos[mt] ,
where:

C=

|N |2
|hs|T |KS i|4
2



D = ||2 + 2|||r| cos( r ) 2||3 |r| cos( + r )

= ||ei

hs|T |KL i
hs|T |KS i

r = |r|eir
21

f
m

(3.17)

b=

(f + f)
m

(3.18)

Detailed calculations are given in appendix B.1.

After insertion t = t1 + t2 ; t = t1 t2 ; t1 =

t+t
;
2

t2 =

tt
2

and integration

over t, one get:

I(s, |t|) =


CD
e2 Im b|t| eL |t| +
4 Im b + S + L
o
+
S |t|
S 2 L |t|
+e
2e
cos(m|t|)

(3.19)

The above equation is equivalent to eq. (2.24), but for kaons propagating in
homogeneous medium and not in vacuum.

3.6. Coherent regeneration in heterogeneous matter in case of

entangled kaons state

The case of entangled kaons propagating in a homogeneous medium is relatively

simple. In order to understand how regeneration phenomenon can be modelled for
entangled kaons in heterogeneous medium [13] let us consider a pair of entangled
neutral kaons, propagating as shown in g. 3.5.
Kaon propagating in direction p1 enters the spherical regenerator of thickness L
at proper time 1 0 and leaves it at 2 = 1 + L, where L is in time units.
Before entering the regenerator the KL and KS mass components evolve separately in vacuum according to:

|KL,S (1 )i = eiL,S 1 |KL,S i,

whereas inside the regenerator the states evolve as follows:



f
)L
(f
+
f
i
L
i
L
i
L
i
|KL,S (2 )i = e m
e L,S |KL,S (1 )i +
e L e S |KS,L (1 )i
m
After leaving the regenerator the states propagate through vacuum again and for
life times 2 one get:

|KL,S ( )i = eiL,S ( 2 ) |KL,S (2 )i

(3.20)

Since kaon propagating in direction p2 decays before regenerator, the evolution

of its mass components is simply described by:

|KS,L (3 )i = eiS,L 3 |KS,L i

(3.21)

Inserting above formulas into eq. (2.16) gives a possibility to calculate the decay
rate for entangled neutral kaons propagating in heterogeneous matter.
22

Figure 3.5.

The simplest example of propagation of entangled neutral kaons in heterogeneous medium.

3.7. Scattering amplitudes

In order to use above formulas describing regeneration phenomenon, it is necessary to know scattering amplitudes for regenerators' materials. In general case,
scattering amplitudes depend not only on the materials properties but also on kaons
momenta. In the KLOE experiment kaons are produced with momenta between 104

MeV/c and 116 MeV/c. Unfortunately experimental data for kaons at momenta
below 500 MeV/c are lacking. To calculate the theoretical values of scattering amplitudes one uses eikonal approximation, examined in details in ref. [17]. The eikonal
approximation is known to be rigorously valid at high energies but it is successfully
used also at much lower energies [18]. From now on this approximation will be
assumed to be a good approximation also at kaon momenta around 100 MeV/c.
The dierential cross section of diraction regeneration, as mentioned earlier:

dinc
= |fr |2 ,
d
where d = dd(cos ), [0, 2), [0, ).

23

In the eikonal approximation, expressions for scattering amplitudes are as follows:

Z +
h
i
i0 (~b)
f () = ik
b db J0 (kb sin ) 1 e
(3.22)
0
Z +
h
i
i
0 (~b)

f () = ik
b db J0 (kb sin ) 1 e
,
(3.23)
0

where ~b is a collision parameter and J0 stands for Bessel function. The functions 0
and
0 are dened as:

Z +
4
n(~b, z)dz
0 (~b) =
[Zfp (0) + (A Z)fn (0)]
kA
0
Z
 +
4 
~

0 (b) =
Z fp (0) + (A Z)fn (0)
n(~b, z)dz
kA
0

(3.24)
(3.25)

The function n(~b, z) represents the spatial density distribution of matter inside
0 scattering
nuclei, while fp (0), fn (0) and fp (0) and fn (0) are the forward K 0 and K
amplitudes on the proton and neutron, respectively.
The total, elastic and regeneration cross sections can be expressed by the scattering amplitudes:

tot


f (0) + f(0)
2

2
del  f () + f() 
=

d
2

2
dreg  f () f() 
=

d
2

4
=
Im
q

(3.26)

The amplitudes fp (0), fn (0), fp (0), fn (0) were calculated by R. Baldini and
A. Michetti [18] from the scattering lengths found by A. D. Martin [19], and the
experimental data of cross sections of K + N and K N obtained by Bugg [20] and
Bowen [21]. They are presented also in chapter 5.3.
The calculations and obtained values of the scattering amplitudes are presented
later in this thesis.

24

4. KLOE experiment
4.1. DA

NE

accelerator

DANE (Double Annular -factory for Nice Experiments) accelerator was designed to work with centre-of-mass collision energy around the meson mass M =

(1019.455 0.020) MeV/c2 . The meson production cross-section peaks at about

3 microbarns. The meson decays mostly to kaons in pairs (neutral or charged). A
layout of DANE is presented in Fig. 4.1.

Figure 4.1.

The DANE complex. The gure is adopted from ref. [22].

DANE consists of three main components: LINAC, accumulation rings and

two storage rings which are the heart of the collider. Electrons and positrons are
accelerated in the LINAC, accumulated and cooled in the accumulator, and then
transferred to the two crossing storage rings, in which around 120 bunches of both
electrons and positrons are stored. Each bunch collides with its counterpart once
per turn which minimizes the perturbation of each beam by the other one. Bunches
collide with a crossing angle x = 25 mrad. Due to this fact mesons are produced in
the horizontal plane with a momentum around 13 MeV/c, approximately transverse
to the beamline.

4.2. KLOE detector

The KLOE detector, located at one of the two interaction points of DANE, is
shown in cross section in Fig. 4.2
25

Figure 4.2.

Cross section of the KLOE detector at DANE. Figure adopted from ref. [8].

The main motivation behind construction of the KLOE detector was the observation of direct CP violation. The size of the detector was dictated by the mean
decay length of the KL meson. Kaons emerging from the decay of meson travel
at around 20% of the speed of light. From this, it follows that mean path travelled
by KL meson is about LKL = c = 3.48 m. KLOE detector has radius around 2
meters and is able to catch 40% of long-lived neutral kaons.
The detector was composed of a cylindrical drift chamber, surrounded by an
electromagnetic calorimeter.

4.2.1. Drift chamber

The drift chamber (DC) diameter and length are 4 m and 3.3 m, respectively. The
chamber is lled with gas (90% of helium and 10% of isobutan) traversed by about
52 000 wires (some kept at +2000 volt) arranged in 58 cylindrical layers around the
beam pipe, giving a total of more than 12.5 thousands of square drift cells. The DC
is surrounded by a superconducting coil that produces a magnetic eld of about 0.5
T. It allows to measure charged vertices of KL and KS with 1 mm accuracy and
fractional momentum resolution of

p
p

0.5%. [22]. The DC is presented in Fig. 4.3.

26

Figure 4.3.

KLOE drift chamber. Figure adopted from ref. [23].

4.2.2. Electromagnetic calorimeter

The KLOE electromagnetic calorimeter was designed to measure the energy of
particles interacting electromagnetically with matter. In particular, the calorimeter
allows to detect low energy photons from neutral pion decays. It has very good
energy resolution as well as the time and space resolution, which allows to determine
vertices of the KS and KL decays with an accuracy of a few millimetres.
The calorimeter material is formed into a barrel, aligned with the beams and
surrounding the drift chamber. In addition, two endcaps close the calorimeter from
both sides. Eectively, about 98% of 4 angle is covered. The barrel consists of 24
trapezoid-shape modules, each 23 cm thick. Endcaps are made of 64 vertical modules
bent on both sides in a C-shape.
Time resolution of this calorimeter is about 54 picoseconds for photons in the
energy range from 20 to 500 MeV. The energy resolution for such photons is of the
order of 5.7%. The spatial resolution for photons from this energy range is 1 cm and
is determined by the transverse size of electromagnetic showers.
The electromagnetic calorimeter is show in Fig. 4.4

27

Figure 4.4.

KLOE electromagnetic calorimeter. Figure adopted from ref. [24].

4.2.3. Beam pipe and nearby regenerators

The beam pipe (BP) has been designed in such a way that most of the short-lived
neutral kaons decay in the vacuum and the KL KS regeneration is minimized in
the interference region. This was achieved by selecting the appropriate shape and
materials of BP, what minimized nuclear interactions and photon absorption. The
beam pipe was built of a Al-Be alloy (62% of beryllium and 38% of aluminium) 0.5

mm thick and shaped as a 10 cm radius sphere. The BP had also a 50 m thin layer
of cylindrical-shape beryllium with radius of 4.4 cm. Beyond the beam pipe, the
regeneration may also occur on the inner wall of the drift chamber. This regenerator
can be described as a cylindrical-shape 750 m thick carbon bre and 150 m thick
aluminium with radius about 25 cm. The geometry of regenerators is presented in
Fig. 4.5.

28

Figure 4.5.

Scheme of the beam pipe and other regenerators location - KLOE.

4.2.4. KLOE-2 experiment

Now a new experiment, KLOE-2 [25], is about to start collecting data. In the
experiment several new detectors close to the interaction point are going to be used.
The new and most advanced technologically detector is the inner tracker which
consists of four cyllindrical layers of high-resolution gas electron multiplyiers (GEM).
Also, new crystalline calorimeters CCALT and QCALT, made of Lyso crystals, are
going to be installed close to the beam line.
The inner tracker will increase the geometrical acceptance for low momentum
tracks, improve eectiveness of the decay vertex reconstruction and the track momentum resolution. The colorimeter are intended to increase the detector acceptance
for photons coming from the vicinity of the interaction region.
In addition, the thickness of the cylindrical and spherical beam pipe as well as
beryllium foil are changed. In further simulations, only KLOE-1 experiment will be
considered.

29

5. Determination of the scattering amplitudes for the

materials of KLOE beam pipe
The KLOE BP is made of aluminium-beryllium alloy which means that neutral
kaons traversing it encounter either Al or Be nuclei with dierent values of scattering amplitudes. Unfortunately, as was mentioned earlier, there is a lack of detailed
data for pure elements at kaons momenta below 500 MeV/c. One of the few sources
is a paper written by R. Baldini and A. Michetti [18]. However, the paper includes
only the data for kaons with momenta in steps of 100 MeV/c and omits the value
of 110 MeV/c, suitable for the KLOE experiment. In order to avoid interpolations
and to recheck calculations from unpublished paper we calculate scattering amplitudes using eikonal approximation. Scattering amplitudes in case of BP alloy were
calculated under the assumption that the alloy material can be treated as an element with molar mass being an average of beryllium and aluminium molar masses.
This allows us to use such calculated amplitudes for the alloy in the same way as in
case of materials consisting of pure elements (for example beryllium foil inside beam
pipe).

5.1. Average molar mass of the beam pipe material

The molar mass of BP was calculated as an average of the beryllium and aluminium molar masses using below formula:
P
MN N (wt.%)N
hMalloy i =
,
alloy

(5.1)

where N stands for the alloy this element, MN is a molar mass of the element,

(wt.%)N - weight percentage of constituent element, N is a number density of the

element and alloy - average number density of alloy.
For beam pipe:

MAl Al 38% + MBe Be 62%

=
BP
g
0.603 1023 cm1 3 38% + 9.012 mol
1.221 1023
0.9954 1023 cm1 3
g
= 13.1494
mol

(5.2)

hMBP i =
=

g
26.982 mol

1
cm3

62%

with:

Al = NA

Al
1 2.7 cmg 3
23 1
= 6.022 1023
g = 0.603 10
MAl
mol 26.981 mol
cm3
30

Be

g
Be
23 1
23 1 1.85 cm3
= NA
= 6.022 10
g = 1.221 10
MBe
mol 9.012 mol
cm3


Be
Al
38% +
62% =
BP = NA
MAl
MBe


2.7 cmg 3
1.85 cmg 3
23 1
= 6.022 10
g 38% +
g 62% =
mol 26.981 mol
9.012 mol
1
= 0.9954 1023
cm3
and NA being the Avogadro's constant.


(5.3)

5.2. Spatial density distribution of matter inside nuclei

The eikonal approximation expressions for scattering amplitudes (3.22), (3.24)

include function representing the spatial density distribution of matter inside nuclei.
In this thesis for nuclei with atomic mass below 16 the harmonic-oscillator model
was used [26, 27]:


 r 2 
r 2
e( a )
n(~b, z) = n(r) = n0 1 +
a
r
 2
 
with the parameters from table 5.1 and r = z 2 + ~b .

Table 5.1.

(5.4)

M ( g/mol)

n0

Be

9.01

0.14678

0.611

1.7919

BP

13.15

0.16629

1.346

1.6756

Parameters used in the harmonic-oscillator distribution. Data from ref. [27].

Parameters and a for beam pipe were estimated using polynomial interpolation
of data for Be9 , Be10 , Be11 , C 12 , N 14 and N 15 [27, 28].
For nuclei with atomic mass above 16 one assumes the Wood-Saxon distribution
[26]:

n(~b, z) = n(r) =

C
1+e

with the parameters from table 5.2.

31

rR0

(5.5)

Al
Table 5.2.

5.3. Forward

M ( g/mol)

R0

26.98

2.84

0.569

0.201

Parameters used in Wood-Saxon distribution. Data from [18].

K0

and

0
K

scattering amplitudes on proton and

neutron

In addition to the lack of data for neutral kaon-nucleus scattering at low momenta, data for kaon-nucleon scattering are also lacking. solve this problem we use
data available on K + and K scattering on nuclei and the isospin symmetry. Forward K + and K scattering amplitudes on proton and neutron are related to K 0
0 scattering amplitudes on proton and neutron by rotation in the isospin space
and K
:

fK + n () + fK n ()
2
fK + p () + fK p ()
fKL nKL n () =
2
fK + n () fK n ()
fKL pKS p () =
2
+
fK p () fK p ()
,
fKL nKS n () =
2
fKL pKL p () =

(5.6)

which leads to the following relationships:

fK 0 p () = fK + n ()
fK 0 p () = fK n ()
fK 0 n () = fK + p ()
fK 0 n () = fK p ()

(5.7)

The amplitudes can be written at low momenta in terms of a few rst partial
waves l and scattering lengths I (k):

f (k, ) =

(2l + 1)fl (k)Pl (cos )

(5.8)

fI (k) =

I
,
1 ikI

(5.9)

where I is the isospin and the scattering lengths I correspond to the scattering
amplitudes calculated at k = 0. In KLOE ka 2 110/197 1, k ' 110 MeV, a =
32

2 fm - nuclear interaction radius. The scattering lengths I (0) have been calculated
by A. D. Martin by means of dispersion relations [19].
The K p and K + n elastic amplitudes are calculated as a superpositions of states
with isospin I = 0 and I = 1:

1
f0 + f1
2


1 +
=
f0 + f1+
2

fK p =
fK + n

(5.10)

Only I = 1 amplitudes contribute to the transitions K + p K + p and K n

K n:
fK + p = f1+
(5.11)

fK n = f1

According to R. Baldini and A. Michetti [18], forward scattering amplitudes on

protons and neutrons for kaons with momenta in range 50 - 300 MeV/c:
p ( MeV/c)

fK 0 p (0) ( fm)

fK 0 n (0) ( fm)

fK 0 p (0) ( fm)

fK 0 n (0) ( fm)

50

-0.24 + 0.014 i

-0.504 + 0.028 i

0.47 + 0.86 i

-0.75 + 1.15 i

100

-0.24 + 0.027 i

-0.501 + 0.055 i

0.39 + 0.81 i

-0.52 + 1.16 i

150

-0.23 + 0.041 i

-0.497 + 0.081 i

0.33 + 0.76 i

-0.36 + 1.11 i

200

-0.23 + 0.053 i

-0.491 + 0.106 i

0.29 + 0.72 i

-0.26 + 1.03 i

250

-0.23 + 0.065 i

-0.484 + 0.129 i

0.25 + 0.69 i

-0.19 + 0.96 i

300

-0.22 + 0.076 i

-0.476 + 0.151 i

0.23 + 0.66 i

-0.14 + 0.90 i

Table 5.3.

Forward scattering amplitudes on protons and neutrons for neutral kaons at

momenta in range 50 - 300 MeV/c.

Missing values (points between data from above table - especially in range from
100 to 150 MeV/c) were interpolated using cubic polynomials.

5.4. Results

The nal results are presented as blue lines in gures from Fig. 5.1 to Fig.
5.12 and were obtained using Mathematica 8.0 software. Red dots in the gures
for beryllium and aluminium represents the data points obtained by R. Baldini, A.
Michetti and are consistent with our calculations. Presented data are also in good
33

agreement with data available in ref. [29] and can be used in further calculations.
Tabulated data can be nd in Appendix C.

Figure 5.1.

Figure 5.2.

The real part of the forward K 0 scattering amplitudes on beryllium nuclei.

The imaginary part of the forward K 0 scattering amplitudes on beryllium

nuclei.

34

Figure 5.3.

Figure 5.4.

0 scattering amplitudes on beryllium nuclei.

The real part of the forward K

0 scattering amplitudes on beryllium

The imaginary part of the forward K
nuclei.

35

Figure 5.5.

Figure 5.6.

The real part of the forward K 0 scattering amplitudes on aluminium nuclei.

The imaginary part of the forward K 0 scattering amplitudes on aluminium

nuclei.

36

Figure 5.7.

Figure 5.8.

0 scattering amplitudes on aluminium nuclei.

The real part of the forward K

0 scattering amplitudes on aluminium

The imaginary part of the forward K
nuclei.

37

Figure 5.9.

The real part of the forward K 0 scattering amplitudes for beam pipe material.

Figure 5.10.

The imaginary part of the forward K 0 scattering amplitudes for beam pipe
material.

38

Figure 5.11.

Figure 5.12.

0 scattering amplitudes for beam pipe mateThe real part of the forward K
rial.

0 scattering amplitudes for beam pipe

The imaginary part of the forward K
material.

39

6. Determination of the coherent and diraction regeneration intensity in case of K 0 beam traversing
spherical regenerator.
Before examination of more complicated case with entangled neutral kaons state
propagating through the KLOE beam pipe, a simpler case with single kaon state and
one spherical regenerator was considered. The case is similar to the one presented
in chapter 3.6.

6.1. Detailed description of the case

Spherical regenerator has thickness L around 500 m (the same as KLOE beam
pipe) and is situated 10 cm from the kaon's creation point (which is approximately
17 KS decay lengths before). Neutral kaon enters the regenerator of thickness L (see
Fig. 3.5) at proper time 1 0 with momentum p = 110 MeV/c and leaves it at:

2 = 1 +

L
,

Before entering the regenerator the KL and KS mass components evolve separately in vacuum according to:

|KL,S (1 )i = eiL,S 1 |KL,S i,

whereas inside the regenerator the states evolve as follows:



f
)L
i
(f
+
f
i
L
i
L
i
L
|KL,S (2 )i = e m
e L,S |KL,S (1 )i +
e L e S |KS,L (1 )i
m
After leaving the regenerator, the states propagate through vacuum again and for
life times 2 :

|KL,S ( )i = eiL,S ( 2 ) |KL,S (2 )i

(6.1)

The two-pion decay rate of |i = L |KL i+S |KS i state, with included coherent
and incoherent regeneration can be expressed by corresponding time-independent
decay rate S , of the KS eigenstate:


I( + , ) = S ||KS ( )i + + |KL ( )i|2 + Iinc ( 2 )eS ( 2 ) ,

(6.2)

where + is the ratio of the CP violating to the CP conserving decay amplitude

[8]:

+ |+ | ei+ =

h + | T | KL i
h + | T | KS i

40

and |+ | = (2.2850.019)103 , + = (43.70.6) . The Iinc ( 2 ) is dened by eq.

3.14 with the angular resolution the same as discussed in chapter 3.5 ( ' 50 mr).
The KS part of the state |i can be neglected for long distance due to its
rapid decay. Assuming this, eq. 6.2 with included coherent regeneration and without
incoherent part can be rewritten as:
2
I( + , t) = |h + | T | KS i| | |2 eL t + |coh |2 eS t
i
L +S
+| ||coh |e 2 t cos[m t + coh ] ,

(6.3)

where t = 2 . For the detailed calculations the reader is referred to Appendix

A.1.

6.2. Dealing with small and big numbers

Due to the presence of small physical parameters in the calculation, such as

S = 0.8958 1010 s, a special way of handling them is needed to avoid numerical

problems. For this reason all parameters are handled in the natural units, dened
by xing ~ = 1 and c = 1. The remaining unit is chosen to be length (m).
In addition, the GiNaC numerical library [30] was used to handle all numerical values. This allows to further reduce the numerical errors coming from large
dierences between numerical values which are still possible to occur during the
calculations.
Quantity

Symbol

SI units

natural units

KS decay time

0.8958 1010 s

0.026855408 m

KL decay time

511.6 1010 s

15.337382151 m

KL , KS mass dierence

0.5290 1010 ~s

17.645540636

Table 6.1.

1
m

Examples of physics parameters in natural units used in the simulation.

6.3. Results

Fig. 7.4 presents histogram of intensity distribution for neutral kaons propagating
in a vacuum as a function of the proper time t and is shown for further references.
Figure 7.7 shows histogram of intensity distribution for kaons propagating in space
and through spherical regenerator as a function of proper time t. As one can see,
41

after t = 17 S coherent and diraction regeneration phenomena create visible peak

which comes from decays of KS particles regenerated from KL beam. In Fig. 6.3
we present the peak extracted from previous spectrum by subtracting this spectrum
from that of Fig. 7.7. The additional KS mesons decay rapidly and after t = 21 S
one can see deciency of neutral kaons decays relative to case without regenerator.
In the next chapter the calculation for the KLOE beam pipe are presented.

Figure 6.1.

Intensity distribution for kaons propagating in vacuum as a function of proper

time.

42

Figure 6.2.

Figure 6.3.

Intensity distribution for kaons propagating in space as a function of proper

time. The regenerator is situated around 17 S

Histogram of the subtracted intensity distributions for kaons propagating in

space as a function of proper time. The regenerator is situated around 17 S

43

7. Determination of the coherent regeneration intensity occurring in the KLOE beam pipe
The spherical and cylindrical beam pipe and the drift chamber of the KLOE
detector act as regenerators while neutral kaons are traversing them. In this thesis
only the beam pipe part is taken into account. The main reason is that the beam
pipe is very close to the interaction point and regeneration occurring in it has the
main impact on the shape of the intensity for decay of entangled kaons state (As
mentioned in chapter 2.6, part of the intensity spectrum close to 0 is the most
sensitive to decoherence eect. See Figure 2.3). In the calculation only coherent
regeneration was included due to the issues with proper implementation of incoherent
regeneration at the level of the neutral kaon pair wave function.

7.1. Description of the simulation algorithm

Now the exact algorithm for the simulation of coherent regeneration in the beam
pipe will be described. Description has been divided into four steps.

7.1.1. Step one - meson decay

In the rst step of the computation procedure decay of meson into two neutral
kaons is simulated. This is needed to determine kaons proper kinematic parameters
such as momenta.
As was mentioned in chapter 4, at KLOE, the e+ e beams collide at an angle
of 25 mrad. This results in nonzero boost along x axis of the produced meson.
According to article [31], the boost uctuations can be approximated by gaussians
with average momentum:

< Px >= 12.75 MeV/c, < Py >=< Pz >= 0 MeV/c

and with r.m.s widths:

Px = 0.014 MeV/c, Py = 0 MeV/c, Pz = 1.043 MeV/c,

where x, y, z are radial, vertical and longitudinal axes.
The boost uctuations were taken into account in the simulations of mesons
decays. From Fig. 7.1 it is visible that kaons momentum varies in the range 104-116

MeV/c with an average value around 110 MeV/c.

44

Figure 7.1.

Distribution of neutral kaons momenta generated in simulation.

7.1.2. Step two - propagation and decays of neutral kaons

Decays of KS and KL mesons are simulated in a very simple manner. Once the
kaons four-momenta are known, kaons propagation directions are determined. Only
events for which propagation directions of kaons satisfy the following relationship
are taken for further calculations:

tan <

4.4 cm
45 cm

(7.1)

This allows to include only these events that can be registered in the real detector. Fig. 7.2 presents distribution of angle between beam direction (z axis) and
kaons created in the decay. Because meson decays almost at rest (with very small
momentum around 13 MeV/c), angle has isotropic cosine-shaped distribution.
Applied cuts are visible for 5 > > 175 .
The times in which kaons propagate through detector before decays are drawn
from uniform distribution over the half-closed interval (0, 30] S .
Once the directions and decay times are obtained, the regenerators through which
neutral kaons pass and the times they spent inside these regenerators are determined.
These informations are then used in the next step. Times and regenerators parameters are found using KLOE beam pipe model created with using ROOT Geometry
package library - GEOM (see Fig. 7.3).

45

Figure 7.2.

Figure 7.3.

Distribution of angle between beam direction (z axis) and kaons created in

meson decay.

Visualisation of one event. Light blue shape is the beam pipe; lines represents
kaons and pions propagation paths.

7.1.3. Step three - calculations of double decay rate

In this step the decay amplitude for entangled kaons state is calculated using the
procedure described in section 3.6. This procedure is broken down into smaller steps,
performed recursively in a loop. In each such step evolution of KL and KS states is
updated according to the formulas 3.4 and 3.5. These formulas require informations
about particular regenerator such as regeneration amplitudes (see sections 3.2 and
5) and regenerator thickness seen by kaons expressed in terms of their proper times.

46

Finally double dierential decay rate can be readily computed from equation 3.16.
These calculation takes into account only coherent regeneration. Attempts to
include the diraction regeneration has been made, unfortunately without success.
The main reason for this is that the diraction regeneration must be included at
the level of kaons wave function, opposite to the calculations from previous chapter,
where incoherent regeneration was introduced into eq. 6.2 as an additional intensity
part. This is due to several reasons. Firstly, the intensity in chapter 6 refers to decays
of individual kaons, which are not correlated opposite to the decays of entangled
kaons. Secondly, the previous example was simplied signicantly and concerned
regeneration occurring in single spherical regenerator. In real case (the KLOE beam
pipe), the number of regenerators as well as their scattering amplitudes seen by
propagating kaons vary depending on the kaons propagation directions and their
life times. All this means that the form of double dierential decay rate in the
considered case varies from event to event and it is not clear how the diraction
regeneration part at the level of decays' intensity should looks like.
It seems that the correct way to implement incoherent regeneration in the simulation, is to use formalism similar to presented in ref. [32]. Unfortunately, formulas
from mentioned paper was not properly implemented because of problem with their
understanding and the insucient amount of time.

7.1.4. Step four - histograming

The double dierential decay rate is then numerically integrated to achieve the
result described in terms of intensity as a function of time dierence between propagation proper times of neutral kaons. To see an example for the vacuum, look at the
Fig. 2.2. The integration is achieved by lling one dimensional histogram with computed dierences between kaons propagation times and related double dierential
decay rates.

7.2. Results

Fig. 7.4 presents histogram of intensity distribution for kaons propagating in

vacuum as a function of t with tted function from eq. (2.25). Bins width (1 S )
was chosen to correspond to time resolution of KLOE detector.
Fig. 7.7 shows similar decay spectrum but for kaons propagating in the KLOE
beam pipe. Fitted parameter is consistent with 0, which means that coherent
regeneration phenomenon is negligible for this time resolution and number of events
47

107 . Next Figure (7.6) presents ratio of the two previous intensity distributions with
tted linear function. The parameter a of the function is consistent with 0 and the
parameter b with 1. Thus, one can see once again, that coherent regeneration is
completely negligible in the KLOE experiment.
In order to illustrate the inuence that coherent regeneration has on decay intensity spectrum, in the last Figure (7.7) one presents histogram of dierences between generated intensity distributions for kaons propagating in the KLOE beam
pipe and vacuum. Dierences were calculated and histogramed for each event separately. Additional decays for KS mesons regenerated coherently are clearly visible for

|t| 5 S (beryllium foil regenerator) and for |t| 15 S (beam pipe regenerator).

Figure 7.4.

Generated intensity distribution for kaons propagating in vacuum as a function of t with tted function from eq. (2.25).

48

Figure 7.5.

Figure 7.6.

Generated intensity distribution for kaons propagating in the KLOE beam

pipe as a function of t with tted function from eq. (2.25).

Ratio of generated intensity distributions for kaons propagating in the KLOE

beam pipe and vacuum as a function of t with tted linear function.

49

Figure 7.7.

Histogramed dierences between generated intensity distributions for kaons

propagating in the KLOE beam pipe and vacuum as a function of t. Differences were calculated for each event separately.

50

8. Conclusions
This thesis aimed at investigating the inuence of regeneration phenomenon on
decoherence in neutral kaons system occurring in the KLOE beam pipe using the
formalism of quantum mechanics. This goal was obtained by writing and running the
simulations of the phenomenon and by analysing obtained results. Also the forward
scattering amplitudes for beryllium, aluminium and beam pipe material (berylliumaluminium alloy) in function of kaons momentum (between 50 MeV/c and 300

MeV/c) were obtained. The evaluation of scattering amplitudes were necessary for
further calculations.
Evaluated forward scattering amplitudes are in good agreement with data available in other works.
Before investigating entangled kaons state, much simpler case was considered in
order to verify correctness of the calculations and used methods. Shapes of obtained
intensity spectra suggest that the used methods are in fact correct.
The simulation of regeneration occurring in the KLOE beam pipe was written
and performed as a next step of investigation. Unfortunately only the coherent
regeneration was taken into account. The results conrmed the earlier assumptions
that coherent regeneration was completely insignicant in the KLOE experiment
and had no noticeable eect on research.
Obtained results should be now compared with existing experimental results and
other theoretical evaluations as well as extended to include diraction regeneration.

51

A. Regeneration of KS 's from KL's beam

A.1. The intensity of

(KL + coh KS ) +

decays per time

unit

The intensity of (KL + coh KS ) + decays per time unit is given by:
(A.1)

I( + , t) = A( + , t)A ( + , t)
where
0

A( + , t) = h + | T | KL (t)i
= h + | T | KL (t)i + coh h + | T | KS (t)i
= h + | T | KL ieiL t + coh h + | T | KS ieiS t
1

= h + | T | KL ieimL t e 2 L t
1

(A.2)

+coh h + | T | KS ieimS t e 2 S t
1

A ( + , t) = h + | T | KL i eimL t e 2 L t
1

+coh h + | T | KS i eimS t e 2 S t

(A.3)

f
and coh = (1 eil )
is the regenerated KS amplitude relative to KL at t = 0
m

(moment of leaving the regenerator). l - thickness of the regenerator.

After inserting (A.2) and (A.3) to (A.1) one can obtain:
i
h
1
1
I( + , t) = h + | T | KL ieimL t e 2 L t + coh h + | T | KS ieimS t e 2 S t
h
i
1
1
h + | T | KL i eimL t e 2 L t + coh h + | T | KS i eimS t e 2 S t

= h + | T | KL ih + | T | KL i eL t
+ h + | T | KL ih + | T | KS i coh eimt e
+ h + | T | KS ih + | T | KL i coh eimt e

L +S
2

L +S
2

+ h + | T | KS ih + | T | KS i coh coh eS t
 +
+

+
+
h | T | KL i h | T | KL i L t
= h | T | KS ih | T | KS i
e
h + | T | KS i h + | T | KS i
h + | T | KL i mt L +S t
2
+ +
e
e
h | T | KS i coh

+
h + | T | KL i

S t
mt L 2 S t
+ coh coh e
+ +
coh e
e
h | T | KS i

52


2 
= h + | T | KS i | |2 eL t + |coh |2 eS t
L +S

+| |ei |coh |eicoh eimt e 2 t + | |ei |coh |eicoh eimt e


2 
= h + | T | KS i | |2 eL t + |coh |2 eS t

i
L +S
+| ||coh |e 2 t ei eicoh eimt + ei eicoh eimt

2 
= h + | T | KS i | |2 eL t + |coh |2 eS t
i
L +S
+| ||coh |e 2 t cos[m t + coh ]

L +S
2

where

= | |ei =

h + | T | KL i
h + | T | KS i

B. Kaons regeneration in homogeneous matter in case

of entangled kaons state.
B.1. Double decay rate

I( + , + ; t1 , t2 )

nh
1
1
N
A(2s; t1 , t2 ) = ei b t1 ei b t2 eimS t1 e 2 S t1 hs|T |KS i eimS t1 e 2 S t1 rhs|T |KL i
2
i
imL t1 21 L t1
+e
rhs|T |KL i
e
h
1
1
eimL t2 e 2 L t2 hs|T |KL i + eimL t2 e 2 L t2 rhs|T |KS i
i
1
eimS t2 e 2 S t2 rhs|T |KS i
h
1
1
eimL t1 e 2 L t1 hs|T |KL i + eimL t1 e 2 L t1 rhs|T |KS i
i
1
eimS t1 e 2 S t1 rhs|T |KS i
h
1
1
eimS t2 e 2 S t2 hs|T |KS i eimS t2 e 2 S t2 rhs|T |KL i
io
1
+eimL t2 e 2 L t2 rhs|T |KL i ,
where b =

(f
m

+ f) and r =

f
.
m

After multiplying the expressions in brackets and neglecting expressions with r2 :

53

n
1
1
N
A(2s; t1 , t2 ) = ei b t1 ei b t2 hs|T |KS ihs|T |KL ieimS t1 e 2 S t1 eimL t2 e 2 L t2
2
1
1
hs|T |KL ihs|T |KS ieimL t1 e 2 L t1 eimS t2 e 2 S t2
h
1
1
+hs|T |KS ihs|T |KS ir eimS t1 e 2 S t1 eimL t2 e 2 L t2
i
1
1
eimL t1 e 2 L t1 eimS t2 e 2 S t2
h
1
1
hs|T |KL ihs|T |KL ir eimS t1 e 2 S t1 eimL t2 e 2 L t2
io
1
1
eimL t1 e 2 L t1 eimS t2 e 2 S t2
To obtain eq. 3.17 one must calculate:

I(2s; t1 , t2 ) = A(2s; t1 , t2 )A (2s; t1 , t2 )

n
1
1
N

= ei (bb ) (t1 +t2 ) hs|T |KS ihs|T |KL ieimS t1 e 2 S t1 eimL t2 e 2 L t2

2
1
1
hs|T |KL ihs|T |KS ieimL t1 e 2 L t1 eimS t2 e 2 S t2
h
1
1
+hs|T |KS ihs|T |KS i r eimS t1 e 2 S t1 eimL t2 e 2 L t2
i
imL t1 12 L t1 imS t2 21 S t2
e
e
e
e
h
1
1
hs|T |KL ihs|T |KL i r eimS t1 e 2 S t1 eimL t2 e 2 L t2
io
imL t1 12 L t1 imS t2 21 S t2
e
e
e
e
n
1
1
hs|T |KS i hs|T |KL i eimS t1 e 2 S t1 eimL t2 e 2 L t2
1

hs|T |KL i hs|T |KS i eimL t1 e 2 L t1 eimS t2 e 2 S t2

h
1
1
+hs|T |KS i hs|T |KS i r eimS t1 e 2 S t1 eimL t2 e 2 L t2
i
imL t1 12 L t1 imS t2 12 S t2
e
e
e
e
h
1
1
hs|T |KL i hs|T |KL i r eimS t1 e 2 S t1 eimL t2 e 2 L t2
io
1
1
eimL t1 e 2 L t1 eimS t2 e 2 S t2
After multiplying the expressions in brackets and neglecting expressions with

r r = |r|2 :

54

I(2s; t1 , t2 ) = ei (bb ) (t1 +t2 ) {

2
|hs|T |KS ihs|T |KL i|2 eS t1 L t2 + |hs|T |KL ihs|T |KS i|2 eL t1 S t2
hs|T |KS ihs|T |KL ihs|T |KL i hs|T |KS i eim(t1 t2 ) e

S +L
(t1 +t2 )
2
S +L

hs|T |KL ihs|T |KS ihs|T |KS i hs|T |KL i eim(t1 t2 ) e 2 (t1 +t2 )
h
i
S +L
+hs|T |KS ihs|T |KS ihs|T |KS i hs|T |KL i r eS t1 L t2 eim(t1 t2 ) e 2 (t1 +t2 )
h
i
+
im(t1 t2 ) S 2 L (t1 +t2 )

S t1 L t2
e
e
hs|T |KL ihs|T |KL ihs|T |KS i hs|T |KL i r e
h
i
S +L
hs|T |KS ihs|T |KS ihs|T |KL i hs|T |KS i r eL t1 S t2 + eim(t1 t2 ) e 2 (t1 +t2 )
i
h
+
im(t1 t2 ) S 2 L (t1 +t2 )

L t1 S t2
+e
e
+hs|T |KL ihs|T |KL ihs|T |KL i hs|T |KS i r e
h
i
S +L
+hs|T |KS ihs|T |KL ihs|T |KS i hs|T |KS i r eS t1 L t2 eim(t1 t2 ) e 2 (t1 +t2 )
i
h
S +L
hs|T |KS ihs|T |KL ihs|T |KL i hs|T |KL i r eL t1 S t2 eim(t1 t2 ) e 2 (t1 +t2 )
h
i
+

S t1 L t2
im(t1 t2 ) S 2 L (t1 +t2 )
hs|T |KL ihs|T |KS ihs|T |KS i hs|T |KS i r e
+e
e
i
h
S +L
+hs|T |KL ihs|T |KS ihs|T |KL i hs|T |KL i r eL t1 S t2 + eim(t1 t2 ) e 2 (t1 +t2 )
}
After substitution C12 =

|hs|T |KS i|4 , = || ei =

hs|T |KL i
hs|T |KS i

and further

transformations:
) (t +t )
1
2

I(2s; t1 , t2 ) = C12 ei (bb

||2 eS t1 L t2 + ||2 eL t1 S t2
S +L

S +L

||2 eim(t1 t2 ) e 2 (t1 +t2 ) ||2 eim(t1 t2 ) e 2 (t1 +t2 )

i
h
S +L
+r || ei eS t1 L t2 eim(t1 t2 ) e 2 (t1 +t2 )
h
i
+
3 i
S t1 L t2
im(t1 t2 ) S 2 L (t1 +t2 )
r || e e
e
e
h
i
S +L
+r || ei eL t1 S t2 + eim(t1 t2 ) e 2 (t1 +t2 )
h
i
S +L
r ||3 ei eL t1 S t2 + eim(t1 t2 ) e 2 (t1 +t2 )
h
i
+

i
S t1 L t2
im(t1 t2 ) S 2 L (t1 +t2 )
+r || e e
e
e
h
i
S +L
r ||3 ei eL t1 S t2 eim(t1 t2 ) e 2 (t1 +t2 )
h
i
S +L
+r || ei eS t1 L t2 + eim(t1 t2 ) e 2 (t1 +t2 )
h
io
+
3 i

L t1 S t2
im(t1 t2 ) S 2 L (t1 +t2 )
r || e
e
+e
e

55

 ) (t +t )
1
2

= C12 ei (bb


 2
|| + r || ei r ||3 ei + r || ei r ||3 ei {

eS t1 L t2 + eL t1 S t2
eim(t1 t2 ) e

S +L
(t1 +t2 )
2

eim(t1 t2 ) e

S +L
(t1 +t2 )
2



= C12 e2 Im b(t1 +t2 ) ||2 + 2 |r| || cos ( r ) 2 |r| ||3 cos ( + r ) {
o
S +L
eS t1 L t2 + eL t1 S t2 2e 2 (t1 +t2 ) cos (m(t1 t2 ))

C. Scattering amplitudes tables

In this appendix scattering amplitudes are reported as obtained from the eikonal
approximation for nuclei.
p (MeV)

fK 0 (0) (fm)

fK 0 (0) (fm)

50

0.610 + 1.253i

0.104 + 1.755i

55

0.681 + 1.393i

0.108 + 1.876i

60

0.780 + 1.520i

0.111 + 1.992i

65

0.894 + 1.626i

0.113 + 2.103i

70

1.017 + 1.710i

0.115 + 2.211i

75

1.141 + 1.774i

0.116 + 2.314i

80

1.262 + 1.819i

0.116 + 2.414i

85

1.377 + 1.851i

0.116 + 2.511i

90

1.485 + 1.870i

0.116 + 2.604i

95

1.585 + 1.880i

0.115 + 2.694i

100

1.677 + 1.882i

0.113 + 2.780i

105

1.761 + 1.880i

0.112 + 2.864i

110

1.838 + 1.872i

0.109 + 2.945i

115

1.907 + 1.863i

0.107 + 3.022i

120

1.970 + 1.850i

0.104 + 3.097i

125

2.028 + 1.837i

0.101 + 3.169i

130

2.080 + 1.823i

0.098 + 3.239i

135

2.127 + 1.808i

0.094 + 3.305i

140

2.169 + 1.794i

0.090 + 3.369i

145

2.208 + 1.780i

0.086 + 3.431i

150

2.244 + 1.766i

0.082 + 3.490i

155

2.277 + 1.754i

0.078 + 3.546i

56

160

2.307 + 1.743i

0.073 + 3.600i

165

2.336 + 1.732i

0.069 + 3.652i

170

2.362 + 1.722i

0.064 + 3.702i

175

2.386 + 1.713i

0.059 + 3.749i

180

2.408 + 1.705i

0.054 + 3.794i

185

2.429 + 1.697i

0.049 + 3.838i

190

2.448 + 1.690i

0.044 + 3.879i

195

2.465 + 1.684i

0.039 + 3.918i

200

2.482 + 1.678i

0.034 + 3.956i

205

2.497 + 1.673i

0.029 + 3.993i

210

2.512 + 1.668i

0.024 + 4.029i

215

2.525 + 1.664i

0.019 + 4.063i

220

2.537 + 1.661i

0.014 + 4.096i

225

2.548 + 1.657i

0.010 + 4.127i

230

2.558 + 1.655i

0.005 + 4.157i

235

2.568 + 1.652i

0.000 + 4.185i

240

2.576 + 1.650i

0.005 + 4.212i

245

2.584 + 1.648i

0.010 + 4.238i

250

2.591 + 1.647i

0.016 + 4.263i

255

2.597 + 1.645i

0.021 + 4.286i

260

2.602 + 1.644i

0.027 + 4.309i

265

2.606 + 1.643i

0.033 + 4.330i

270

2.609 + 1.642i

0.039 + 4.350i

275

2.612 + 1.642i

0.045 + 4.369i

280

2.614 + 1.641i

0.052 + 4.386i

285

2.615 + 1.640i

0.059 + 4.403i

290

2.614 + 1.640i

0.067 + 4.419i

295

2.613 + 1.640i

0.075 + 4.434i

300

2.611 + 1.639i

0.084 + 4.447i

Table C.1.

Forward scattering amplitudes for beryllium.

p (MeV)

fK 0 (0) (fm)

fK 0 (0) (fm)

50

1.086 + 2.428i

0.123 + 3.134i

55

1.255 + 2.544i

0.127 + 3.366i

60

1.359 + 2.614i

0.129 + 3.591i

57

65

1.399 + 2.694i

0.131 + 3.809i

70

1.403 + 2.813i

0.132 + 4.022i

75

1.402 + 2.977i

0.131 + 4.229i

80

1.416 + 3.176i

0.131 + 4.430i

85

1.458 + 3.398i

0.129 + 4.627i

90

1.531 + 3.628i

0.127 + 4.818i

95

1.634 + 3.856i

0.124 + 5.005i

100

1.763 + 4.073i

0.121 + 5.187i

105

1.912 + 4.274i

0.117 + 5.364i

110

2.076 + 4.456i

0.112 + 5.538i

115

2.250 + 4.619i

0.107 + 5.707i

120

2.430 + 4.762i

0.102 + 5.872i

125

2.612 + 4.886i

0.097 + 6.033i

130

2.793 + 4.992i

0.091 + 6.190i

135

2.972 + 5.082i

0.084 + 6.344i

140

3.146 + 5.158i

0.078 + 6.493i

145

3.315 + 5.222i

0.071 + 6.639i

150

3.478 + 5.275i

0.064 + 6.781i

155

3.633 + 5.321i

0.056 + 6.920i

160

3.782 + 5.359i

0.049 + 7.055i

165

3.924 + 5.391i

0.041 + 7.187i

170

4.060 + 5.417i

0.033 + 7.315i

175

4.189 + 5.439i

0.025 + 7.440i

180

4.312 + 5.456i

0.017 + 7.562i

185

4.429 + 5.470i

0.009 + 7.681i

190

4.540 + 5.481i

0.001 + 7.797i

195

4.645 + 5.490i

0.007 + 7.910i

200

4.745 + 5.497i

0.016 + 8.021i

205

4.841 + 5.502i

0.024 + 8.130i

210

4.931 + 5.505i

0.031 + 8.236i

215

5.017 + 5.507i

0.039 + 8.341i

220

5.098 + 5.508i

0.047 + 8.442i

225

5.175 + 5.508i

0.055 + 8.541i

230

5.248 + 5.507i

0.063 + 8.638i

235

5.317 + 5.505i

0.071 + 8.733i

240

5.382 + 5.502i

0.079 + 8.825i

245

5.444 + 5.499i

0.088 + 8.914i

58

250

5.502 + 5.495i

0.096 + 9.002i

255

5.557 + 5.490i

0.105 + 9.087i

260

5.608 + 5.485i

0.115 + 9.170i

265

5.656 + 5.478i

0.125 + 9.250i

270

5.701 + 5.472i

0.135 + 9.329i

275

5.742 + 5.464i

0.146 + 9.405i

280

5.780 + 5.456i

0.158 + 9.479i

285

5.815 + 5.448i

0.171 + 9.551i

290

5.846 + 5.438i

0.184 + 9.620i

295

5.875 + 5.428i

0.199 + 9.688i

300

5.900 + 5.417i

0.215 + 9.753i

Table C.2.

Forward scattering amplitudes for aluminium.

p (MeV)

fK 0 (0) (fm)

fK 0 (0) (fm)

50

0.692 + 1.389i

0.082 + 1.873i

55

0.691 + 1.482i

0.086 + 2.015i

60

0.698 + 1.613i

0.089 + 2.153i

65

0.731 + 1.766i

0.091 + 2.286i

70

0.793 + 1.925i

0.094 + 2.416i

75

0.881 + 2.077i

0.095 + 2.541i

80

0.988 + 2.215i

0.096 + 2.664i

85

1.110 + 2.335i

0.097 + 2.783i

90

1.239 + 2.437i

0.097 + 2.899i

95

1.371 + 2.521i

0.096 + 3.011i

100

1.502 + 2.589i

0.095 + 3.121i

105

1.631 + 2.642i

0.094 + 3.227i

110

1.755 + 2.683i

0.093 + 3.330i

115

1.873 + 2.713i

0.091 + 3.431i

120

1.985 + 2.733i

0.089 + 3.529i

125

2.090 + 2.747i

0.086 + 3.624i

130

2.188 + 2.755i

0.083 + 3.716i

135

2.280 + 2.758i

0.080 + 3.805i

140

2.365 + 2.757i

0.077 + 3.892i

145

2.444 + 2.754i

0.073 + 3.976i

150

2.518 + 2.748i

0.070 + 4.058i

59

155

2.587 + 2.742i

0.066 + 4.137i

160

2.652 + 2.736i

0.062 + 4.214i

165

2.712 + 2.728i

0.057 + 4.288i

170

2.768 + 2.721i

0.053 + 4.360i

175

2.820 + 2.713i

0.048 + 4.429i

180

2.869 + 2.705i

0.044 + 4.496i

185

2.915 + 2.697i

0.039 + 4.561i

190

2.958 + 2.689i

0.034 + 4.624i

195

2.998 + 2.681i

0.029 + 4.685i

200

3.036 + 2.673i

0.024 + 4.744i

205

3.071 + 2.666i

0.020 + 4.802i

210

3.105 + 2.660i

0.015 + 4.858i

215

3.136 + 2.653i

0.010 + 4.913i

220

3.165 + 2.647i

0.005 + 4.965i

225

3.192 + 2.641i

0.000 + 5.016i

230

3.217 + 2.635i

0.005 + 5.066i

235

3.241 + 2.630i

0.010 + 5.113i

240

3.263 + 2.625i

0.015 + 5.159i

245

3.284 + 2.620i

0.020 + 5.204i

250

3.303 + 2.615i

0.026 + 5.247i

255

3.320 + 2.610i

0.032 + 5.289i

260

3.336 + 2.606i

0.038 + 5.329i

265

3.350 + 2.601i

0.044 + 5.367i

270

3.363 + 2.597i

0.050 + 5.404i

275

3.375 + 2.593i

0.057 + 5.440i

280

3.385 + 2.588i

0.065 + 5.474i

285

3.393 + 2.584i

0.073 + 5.507i

290

3.400 + 2.580i

0.081 + 5.539i

295

3.406 + 2.576i

0.091 + 5.569i

300

3.410 + 2.571i

0.101 + 5.598i

Table C.3.

Forward scattering amplitudes for beam pipe.

60

References
[1] P.K. Kabir.

CP Puzzle. ACADEMIC PRESS INC., 1968.

[2] Radoje Belusevic.

Neutral Kaons,

volume 153. Springer Tracts in Modern

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[4] H. J. Gerber M. Fidecaro1. The fundamental symmetries in the neutral kaon

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Fortschritte der Physik, 21:5784, 1973.

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61

CERN 67-18 Nuclear Physics

[15] L. B. (Lev Borisovich) Okun.

Leptons and quarks (Leptony i kvarki).

Elsevier

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Quantum Collision Theory.

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1975.
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Note, 156, 1996.

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[20] D. V. Bugg et al.
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KLOE

Nuclear Physics B, 197:3348, 1981.

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38(9):

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lnf.infn.it/kloe/emc.
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62

[31] A. Ferrari F. Ceradini, A. Di Domenico. Measurement of neutral kaon regeneration cross sections in the rst months of KLOE data taking.

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63

Wydzia Fizyki

Warszawa, dnia 10.01.2013r.

Politechniki Warszawskiej

OWIADCZENIE
Ja, niej podpisany:
Rafa Modonek, nr albumu 206926,
student Wydziau Fizyki Politechniki Warszawskiej, wiadomy odpowiedzialnoci
prawnej owiadczam, e przedoon do obrony prac dyplomow magistersk pt.:

Study of quantum decoherence in the K meson system

wykonaem samodzielnie pod kierunkiem Prof. dr hab. Wojciecha Wilickiego.
Jednoczenie owiadczam, e ww. praca:

nie narusza praw autorskich w rozumieniu ustawy z dnia 4 lutego 1994 o prawie
autorskim i prawach pokrewnych, oraz dbr osobistych chronionych prawem
cywilnym,

nie zawiera danych i informacji uzyskanych w sposb niezgodny z obowizujcymi przepisami,

nie bya wczeniej przedmiotem procedur zwizanych z uzyskaniem dyplomu

lub tytuu zawodowego w wyszej uczelni.
Owiadczam take, e tre pracy zapisanej na przekazanym noniku elektronicznym
jest zgodna z treci zawart w wydrukowanej wersji niniejszej pracy dyplomowej.

...........................
(podpis studenta)