1.

NERVOUS SYSTEM
a. Signal Processing
i. Starts with sensory input from either external or internal stimuli,
which travels to the peripheral nervous system
ii. Integration, in which the brain understands the sensory input,
happens in the central nervous system
iii. Motor output is the action that results from the brains processing
of the stimuli, is carried out through the peripheral nervous system
b. Outline of nervous system
i. Central Nervous System
1. Brain
2. Spinal Cord
ii. Peripheral Nervous System
1. Somatic Nervous System
2. Automatic Nervous System
a. Sympathetic Division
b. Parasympathetic Division
c. Neurons
i. Mostly located in Central Nervous System, but can be in Peripheral
Nervous System
ii. Responsible for electrochemical transmission (communication)
iii. Sensory Neurons: transmit information from sensory organs and
internal stimuli
iv. Interneurons: located in brain processing centers and analyze and
interpret information from the sensory neurons
v. Motor Neurons: extend into the body and trigger muscles and
glands
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viii. Dendrites: named after the Greek word for trees, receive messages
from other neurons
ix. Cell body: the soma, contains the nucleus and organelles
x. Axon: Greek for axle, only one but it can split at the end, send
messages to other neurons
xi. Numbers
1. 10,000-100,000 neurons
2. 1,000-10,000 synapses per neuron
3. 4-100 micrometers long, however longest is 1-meter-long (in
leg)
xii. Connect at the synapse
1. The axon from the presynaptic cell (the end foot) connects to
the synapse of the postsynaptic cell (dendritic spine) with
the space between called the synaptic cleft (where
neurotransmitters are transferred)
d. Glia
i. Also called glial cells
ii. Take care of neurons by supporting them, helping with nutrition,
and repairing myelin insulation
iii. Constantly replacing themselves, unlike neurons which are
generally with a human for their entire life

e.

f.
g.

h.

iv. Can form gliomas, which are the most common form of brain
tumors
Neurotransmitters
i. Small molecules: amines, amino acids, acetylcholine
ii. Peptides: proteins, steroids, insulin, secretions
iii. Hormones and gases
Flow of information
i. Neurotransmitter, dendrites, axon, neurotransmitter,
Resting Neuron
i. Electrical signals come from ions moving across the cell membrane
ii. Charge comes from ions and negative anionic proteins
iii. This all depends heavily on electrochemical gradients, which are
generated by asymmetric charges
iv. Major ions: Na(+), K(+), Ca(2+), Cl (-)
1. There is more K(+) inside of the cell, and more of the other
ions outside of the cell
2. This makes the inside relatively negative when compared to
the outside, giving it the resting membrane potential of
-70mV, which means that the cell is polarized
v. Sodium channels in resting neuron are closed until the cell receives
a signal from another cell
Active Neurons
i. When activated, channels for ions open and close when the voltage
of the cell changes
1. This happens because the neurotransmitters that the cell
receives bind to receptors to open certain channels on the cell
that flood it with ions to make the cell more positive for a bit
2. Which ions flow in and out is decided by the electrochemical
gradient
ii. Neurotransmitter receptors (ligand gated receptors) bind to
neurotransmitters and open their channels
1. Called ionotropic
iii. Metabotropic is when the neurotransmitters bind to the receptors
and cause a cascading reaction that causes a protein channel to
open and allow ions to pass
iv. Changes in membrane charge (graded potential)
1. Depolarization happens when the cell gets more positive,
generally when more Na(+) and Ca(2+) enter the cell, is an
EPSP (excitatory postsynaptic potential), this allows the cell

to come closer to reaching the threshold (-50 mV) for an

electrical impulse
2. Hyperpolarization is when the cell gets more negative,
generally when more Cl(-) ions enter the cell or K(+) ions
leave the cell, is an IPSP (inhibitory postsynaptic potential),
this allows cell a rest period after the action potential of the
electrical impulse passes
v. When the cell reaches -50mV, the voltage of the cell reverses and
becomes extremely positive which is called the action potential
1. This is the start of the electrical impulse in the cell
2. The potential of the cell, however, drops shortly after and
then returns to the resting state
i. Action Potential
i. Three phases: rising (upstroke), falling (downstroke), undershoot
(hyperpolarization)
ii. Controlled by voltage sensitive (voltages gated) ion channels
(mainly Na(+) and K(+)) which open at -50mV
iii. In upstroke, the Na(+) channels are opened, while the K(+)
channels remain closed
iv. In repolarization, the Na(+) channels close, while the K(+) channels
open, as is the same in hyperpolarization
v. In the resting state, however, both channels are closed
vi. Action potential propagation is unidirectional, which means that it
can only travel in one direction down the axon
vii. There are many factors that affect the speed of the action potential
1. The diameter of the axon (larger means that it can travel
faster)
2. Travel between myelin sheaths is faster because of how
concentrated voltage sensitive channels are in the Nodes of
Ranvier (120 m/s vs 30m/s)
viii. Steps:
1. Action potential starts in the axon hillock and travels down
axon until it reaches the terminal
2. Terminal is depolarized which allows voltage sensitive
channels to open and allow Ca(2+) to flood into the cell,
which triggers vesicular fusion and the release of
neurotransmitters
ix. This is how chemical signals turn into electrical signals turn into
chemical signals

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l.

m.

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Myelin
i. Facilitates current
ii. Created by Schwann cells in the peripheral nervous system, and
Oligodendroglia cells in the central nervous system
iii. The gaps between myelin sheaths are called Nodes of Ranvier
Toxins in nervous system
i. Can bind to voltage gated channels and block entry of ions
ii. TEA (tetraethylammonium) blocks K(+)
iii. TTX (tetrodotoxin) blocks Na(+)
Grey vs White Matter
i. Grey matter is the soma of the neuron cells
ii. White matter is the axons
1. White color is due to the myelin sheaths
iii. This causes layers of tissue in the brain (striated tissue)
1. These layers have different densities and cell types
Cerebral Spinal Fluid
i. Helps brain and central nervous system stay hydrated
ii. Is produced by choroid plexus cells and circulates through the
ventricular cavities of the brain and spinal cord
iii. It is part of the protective layer called the meninges
iv. Can accumulate in ventricles and cause hydrocephalus
1. This can be treated by using a shunt
Meninges
i. Dura Mater
1. A thick, though, but flexible layer that is right next to the
skull
ii. Arachnoid Mater
1. Middle layer of the meninges, is soft and spongy
2. Cerebral Spinal Fluid is located between the Arachnoid
Mater and the Pia Mater
iii. Pia Mater
1. This layer is thin and closely attached to the brain
3 Sections of the Brain
i. Forebrain
1. Cerebrum or Cerebral Cortex
a. Frontal Lobe: controls reasoning, planning, problem
solving, emotions, movement
b. Parietal Lobe: perception of stimuli
c. Temporal Lobe: auditory stimuli and memory

d. Occipital Lobe: visual stimuli and vision

2. Primary cortices and association cortices
a. If a cortex is not a primary cortex, it is an association
cortex
b. Signals go to primary cortices first, then the
information is processed and sent to the association
cortices
3. Corpus Callosum
a. Fiber network that connects two brain hemispheres
b. Right brain controls left side of body and vice versa,
but they are not completely separated, left brain/right
brain is not completely correct
4. Limbic system
a. Amygdala
i. Fear center and emotions
b. Hippocampus
i. Learning and memory
5. Thalamus and hypothalamus
a. Located at the posterior end of the forebrain
b. Thalamus
i. Major processing center
c. Hypothalamus
i. 22 nuclei control things like feeding, sleep, sex,
urine, etc.
ii. Also controls pituitary gland, a gland that
releases hormones to far away tissues
ii. Midbrain
1. Receives almost all sensory input and sends outputs to
motor nerves
iii. Hindbrain
1. Receives almost all sensory input and sends outputs to
motor nerves
2. Medulla
a. Breathing, vital functions
3. Pons
a. Controls homeostasis, fibers pass through it
4. Cerebellum
a. Movement control, connections to both cerebral cortex
and spinal cord

5. Cranial Nerves
a. 12 pairs of nerves control head and neck functions
and senses, as well as visceral controls
p. Gyri/Sulci
i. Plurals of gyrus and sulcus
ii. Central Sulcus divides frontal and parietal lobes
iii. A gyrus is like the crest of a wave but in the brain
iv. A sulcus is like the trough of a wave but in the brain
q. Spinal Cord
i. Comprised of 31 spinal vertebrae nerves
1. 8 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar, 5 sacral, 1 coccygeal
2. Cervical nerves control arms, lower lumbar and higher
sacral nerve control legs
ii. Each segment between vertebrae gets sensory input from the
nearby body parts
iii. Ventral root has communication between the spinal cord and
muscles
iv. Dorsal root has communication between the body and the spinal
cord