College Websites as Artifacts:

Self-Conscious Glimpses of Organizational Culture

Amanda Sigel
Shippensburg University
asigel@messiah.edu

Prepared for the 2011 PAT-Net Conference

Norfolk, VA

College Websites as Artifacts

Abstract
According to Scheins (1999) theory of organizational culture, artifacts that are produced by an
institution are readily observable but easily misconstrued.1 This paper briefly highlights recent
scholarship on organizational culture and then applies it to elements of higher education websites
Eastern University, Messiah College, Regent University, and Shippensburg University. While
considering website content and design in general and graduate landing pages in particular may
not uncover deeply embedded assumptions, it may give a good idea of each institutions
carefully crafted message to its perceived target audience. That message can be a window to
deeper values and distinctives. It is vital for institutions to recognize, manage, and articulate
their distinctives skillfully to survive in an increasingly competitive market. Taking a closer
look at particular websites for both private and public institutions will supply concrete,
comparative examples to inform future scholarship and practice.

All page citations and quotations are taken from the 1999 edition of The Corporate Culture Survival Guide. San
Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Publishers.

College Websites as Artifacts

College Websites as Artifacts:

Self-Conscious Glimpses of Organizational Culture
As technology becomes more and more pervasive, internet media increases its ability to
draw and engage potential audiences. Online advertising is only about 15 years old, but it has
seen explosive growth in that time. While outlets like radio and newspaper blanket a geographic
area, internet advertising can be finely targeted as keystrokes are recorded and categorized by
social networking sites and search engines. Technology advances at an astonishingly rapid rate.
Building data about a users preferences is no longer cutting edge. Todays programming allows
for adaptive navigation support where sites are able to determine the level of the users
knowledge of the subject and supply targeted navigation support accordingly (Brusilovsky,
2003).
While multiple web pages of detailed information on virtually any topic are only a click
away, the pool of traditional undergraduate students from families with incomes of $100,000 or
more, for many years the bread and butter of private colleges, has been declining. External
pressures include increased competition for prospective students and the need for new revenue
streams to augment decreasing endowments affected by the recent economic downturn. Internal
pressures specifically related to adding graduate programs can include horizontal departmental
subgroup friction as well as disagreement over who can legitimately sow the seeds of new
programs. For some, a program that is initiated by executive officers rather than faculty is a
money-making sham masquerading as a worthwhile academic endeavor. In time, if the new
endeavor proves successful, most naysayers will at least grudgingly support it (Dittmar, 2009).
In this environment, Messiah College recently launched its first three masters level
graduate programs and projects that the fourth, an M.Ed. with tracks in Special Education or

College Websites as Artifacts

Teaching English as a Second Language will enroll its first students in early to mid 2011. At this
time of expansion and new direction for Messiah, it will be helpful to consider organizational
culture as it relates to web content and design. Messiahs first three graduate programs have
been launched successfully with each one meeting or exceeding enrollment targets. Since my
position hinges, at least in part, on the success of the M.Ed. program, I would like to assist my
employer by providing a comparison between Messiah and a few competitors. The data for
comparison will be selected elements of the institutions websites. The other universities that will
be considered, Eastern, Regent, and Shippensburg, were chosen because each of them has a
similar M.Ed. program. In addition, all of the institutions except Regent are in the same
geographic area. While Regent is in Virginia, online offerings allow them to serve students
around the world.
As mentioned above, interest in this topic stems from my role as support staff for the
development and implementation of Messiahs M.Ed. program. I realize that this connection
could easily color my interpretations of website content and design. To bypass that hurdle, it is
my objective to limit evaluation to precisely defined areas and avoid the temptation to base
remarks on other experiences and information that I will not have access to with regard to
Eastern, Regent, or Shippensburg.
Organizational Culture: Building on Schein and Others
In this literature analysis, recent scholarship on organizational culture will be highlighted
on three levels: higher education, shared assumptions, and artifacts and symbols. The work of
Schein continues to be influential in research on organizational culture. Scheins theory
identifies three levels of culture: assumptions, values, and artifacts, all of which are relevant to

College Websites as Artifacts

the present study because they affect and build on one another. It would be difficult to isolate
artifacts from the bigger picture of shared values and unspoken assumptions.

Organizational Culture in Higher Education

Beginning with organizational culture in higher education, Dittmar (2009) studies the
dramatic change in culture at Waynesburg College/University over the course of 25 years. He
explores resistance to change and ways of overcoming, especially related to leadership, based on
Scheins work. Leadership is a crucial factor in college athletics, and Schroeders work (2010)
explores culture in collegiate athletics centering on head coaches who have turned losing
programs into winning ones over a short timeframe. Schroeder also draws on Scheins theories
about change and looks at primary as well as secondary change methods emphasizing a groups
need for psychological safety to change (p. 66). Exploring another aspect of higher education,
Salvatore (2002) studies distance education culture and finds that community building and
identity establishment are key.
Scheins theory is only one of many generally accepted perspectives in the area of
organizational culture. While Scheins theory encourages probing from the superficial level of
artifact to the underlying level of values and finally the often subconscious level of assumption,
the focus of this paper is limited to the superficial layer . Other theorists, however, give hope
that useful comparisons can be made even at the uppermost observable level of culture. Geertz
(1979) says that humans are suspended in webs of significance of their own making. In this
metaphor, the webs are culture, and the analysis of culture is an interpretative exercise in search
of meaning rather than a scientific exercise in search of law . Van Maanen (1992) also views
cultures as subjective phenomena. In his interesting study of Disney theme park displacement

College Websites as Artifacts

into different cultures, Van Maanen emphasizes the transitory, shifting nature of culture. His
look at the parks is a snapshot in an ever evolving shifting scene of meaning. Similarly, the
websites that are observed in this paper provide snapshots of their respective institutions.
Organizational Culture as Shared Assumptions
Langan-Fox and Tan (1997) identify four core issues underlying definitions of
organizational culture: stability and resistant to change, held consciously, derived from
organizational members, and inclusive of shared understandings. For Langan-Fox and Tan,
culture is stable, while Van Maanen (1992) believes that it is shifting. Pettigrew (1979) writes
that organizations need a common understanding of what reality is so that they can function
within that reality. He writes: Culture is the system of such publicly and collectively accepted
meanings operating for a given group at a given time (Pettigrew, 1979, p. 574).
Successful college coaches that Schroeder (2010) interviewed have much more control
over their followers than most leaders enjoy. They make a conscious effort to set and encourage
shared assumptions through varied teaching strategies and selective recruitment. The coaches
mete out rewards and punishments consistent with the team assumptions they set. It is possible
that the role and control of coaches in setting team assumptions is overstated in Schroeders
study since no players or assistant coaches were included in interviews.
When Dittmar (2009) studied Waynesburg University, he found strong evidence of
changed assumptions when faculty members who had been at the college prior to changes
advocated for incorporating newly adopted assumptions into the tenure and promotion process.
With his insider knowledge, Dittmar was able to directly address all three of Scheins levels.
While Schroeder admitted that he was not sure whether he had been able to reach the deepest
level of assumptions in his research, it will certainly not be possible to reach that level with the

College Websites as Artifacts

analysis of the websites highlighted in this article.

The websites explored here are, however,

important artifacts that give hints of their respective organizational cultures.

Artifacts Cultures Visible Signs

Artifacts are the surface signs of organizational cultures that run much deeper and,
according to Scheins popular theory, also include commonly held values and core assumptions.
While artifacts are easily observed and elicit emotional reactions, Schein cautions that it is
difficult to know their meaning without personally experiencing and interacting with the culture.
While I understand Scheins point, Van Maanens (1995) words resonate more deeply with me:
How organizational worlds are represented in print is not thought to be much of an issue.
Writing is seen as a secondary or mop-up activity in our professional pursuits. This is, I
think, a mistake and overlooks what might be learned if we were to take the textuality of
our organizational theories and facts more seriously (p. 134)
Pettigrew lists the offsprings of culture: symbol, language, ideology, belief, ritual, and
myth (1979, p. 574). Cohen (1974) defines symbols as objects, acts, relationships, or linguistic
formations that stand ambiguously for a multiplicity of meanings, evoke emotions, and impel
men to action" (p. 23). Emotional reactions to artifacts have strong implications for web design.
According to Lindgaard and Dudek (2002) reactions are pre-attentive and precede cognitive
responses. If a user has an initial negative emotional reaction to a website, he will click onto
another one in a matter of milliseconds without ever taking in any of the information the
undesirable site offers.
Considering Selected Website Examples
Knowledge and expertise in several fields can contribute to the design of appealing,
successful web pages. Taylor and colleagues (2005) explain that traditionally web design, as a
form of an IT system, has been regarded as a technical activity. Unlike internal IT systems,

College Websites as Artifacts

though, an organizations website is available to the general public and as a result must have far
more emphasis on presentation and ease of use (p. 331). Taylor et al. strive to incorporate
aesthetic as well as technical aspects into teaching web design at the undergraduate level. This
takes time and patience since many computer science majors are not naturally attuned to artistic
elements initially. In addition to computer science and visual arts, website design is also heavily
driven by marketing. Navigating to www.wherever.com is one early step people take as they
begin to compare higher education choices. Each institutions home page creates an important
first impression.

Home Pages: Pictorial Oases in an Academic Paper

College Websites as Artifacts

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10

As a beginning point, the top screen shot of the home pages of Eastern University,
Messiah College, Regent University, and Shippensburg University are shown above.2 At first
glance, which site is most attractive to you? Color choice is significant in web design as it is in
the physical design of living spaces. Easterns burgundy and gray color scheme can be traced to
their team colors. Messiah blue was carefully identified as part of a 2002 visual identity
campaign and forms the background for the college logo at the top of the page. Blue and white
are also the colors for Messiahs sports teams. Shippensburgs website echoes their team colors
displaying bright shades of red and blue. Regent does not have an athletics program other than
intramurals so a deep red was probably chosen for its symbolic association with royalty.
2

All references to web sites can be accessed from: www.eastern.edu, www.messiah.edu, www.regent.edu, and
www.ship.edu.

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11

Each college is represented by a distinctive logo. For Eastern University a new logo, just
launched in 2010 as part of a visual identity campaign, depicts a shield filled by an E divided
horizontally by a curved line. Below the E, but still within the shield, is the date 1925
intersected by a cross. Easterns site explains that the shield represents academic strength and
the theme of biblical protection while lending a sense of history to the university. The curving
line symbolizes a horizon which signifies both a forward-looking ethos of education and a
global-focus in the areas of outreach, impact, and programs.
Eastern was founded in 1925, and the website again emphasizes the need to cultivate a
historic flavor when it notes that the date conveys the fact that Eastern has been involved with
higher education for the better part of a century. The cross points to the institutions dedication
to Christ-centered education. Messiah celebrated its centennial last year and keeps a link to
donate to the centennial campaign on the home page serving a dual purpose of fundraising and
reminding viewers of institutional longevity. Messiah Colleges logo consists of a flame blazing
atop three columns that combine to resemble a single Doric column. The flame symbolizes
academic and spiritual knowledge, truth, and wisdom while the three columns are representative
of both the Christian trinity and the tri-part elements of Messiahs mission statement.
When Regent University adopted their name in 1990, every effort was made to
incorporate emblems relevant to our faith and historic surroundings. A regent is one who
represents a king in his absence. In like fashion, Regent University and her graduates are meant
to represent their king, Jesus Christ. Regent has an intricate logo that was truncated for the
purposes of the web display. Rather than a crown atop a shield divided into four sections resting
on a symbolic ribbon, the university name appears only with the crown, representing Christ, at
the top of the website.

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12

For Shippensburg University, a new logo was unveiled in 2008 as part of an institutional
identity campaign. According to Ships online Graphics Standards Manual the outcome of the
campaign was based on a concise statement of identity that resulted from extensive market
research and subsequent discussion:
Shippensburg University is a familiar,welcoming place with an entrepreneurial spirit
whose finger is on the pulse of an evolving regional economy. Ship seeks to educate and
prepare students for emerging industries and jobs that will strengthen our nations
economy.
The logo highlights the cut out shape of a clipper ship against a red sky skimming through bright
blue water. The clipper ship not only represented trade in its time but also cutting edge
technology. It was fast and agile which seems to align well with the Shippensburgs stated
identity.
Each institution seeks to portray its perceived identity or projected image clearly and
concisely through carefully chosen phrases. For Eastern the message is: grow in faith, learn to
reason, help bring justice. Messiah advertises that it sharpens intellect, deepens Christian faith,
and inspires action. At Regent, the motto is Christian leadership to change the world.
Shippensburg emphasizes -ship words like leadership, mentorship, scholarship, partnership,
friendship, and internship.
In comparing the three Christian institutions, each of their synopses include a faith-based
element. The short messages of Eastern and Messiah are very similar incorporating academics
and justice (action) along with faith. Regent stands apart with its primary aim of developing
globally transformative leaders. These differences should be considered in light of the
populations that the institutions enroll. Eastern and Messiah, while offering Masters degree
programs, serve predominantly undergraduate populations; the majority of students studying at

College Websites as Artifacts

13

Regent are pursuing graduate or professional programs. The great majority of Shippensburgs
students are undergraduates.
Another aspect of home pages that varies is the type and quantity of text that they
display. One observer who was asked which of these home pages she was attracted to most at
first glance chose Easterns page. When asked why, she responded that Easterns page looked
the least cluttered. On closer inspection, the fonts are slightly larger and there does seem to be
slightly more empty space on the front page of Easterns site compared to the other three. It is
important to note, though, that to capture the entire Eastern home page, three screen shots are
required while only two shots capture the entire page for the other institutions.
After following these websites for a few weeks, patterns emerge of which portions and
how often the content on the home page is changed. For Messiah, new photos are loaded onto
the nine image slide show on the home page at least once a week. Below the slide show, there is
space for a current Messiah event and a news item, changed out about every two weeks. This
spot offers headlines and pictures to entice visitors to click ahead for the rest of the story. The
home page for Eastern is mostly static although a three picture slide show scrolls when the site is
opened. The feature images change occasionally. The information on Easterns home page is
generic enough that the only noticeable change after a month of observation was the date in the
central sentence declaring that todays date is a good day for a campus visit. Shippensburg has a
nine image slide show that has not changed in months. Items under the headings news, events,
and features change in a timely fashion.
Both Eastern and Messiah tout their U.S. News and World Report rankings prominently
on their home pages. While there are no rankings on Regents home page, there is an eye
catching slide show offering seven or eight slides large enough to incorporate descriptive text.

College Websites as Artifacts

14

These slides change about every two weeks and highlight institutional events, news, and
initiatives. Recent topics include: relief for Pakistan, spiritual formation, Impact newsletter,
record enrollment, undergrad youtube contest, military friendly, and Hispanic Heritage Month.
In the next session, images in particular will be the focus.
Images: What is Deemed Important Enough to Show?
Images probably have a larger impact on our understanding and decision-making
processes than we realize. In Knight, Gunawardena, and Aydins 2009 study, images and icons
common to north American academic websites were presented to undergraduates from four
different cultures to evaluate how perceptions vary. With only pictures to guide them, the
majority of students from a single culture will make similar cultural-based choices. Students
from the Middle East would most like to study with a professor who is dressed formally in a suit
symbolizing professionalism to them while American undergraduates indicate that they would
prefer to study with a professor who is dressed more casually.
While in the Knight et al. study students were making choices based only on images, it is
often the case today that images on a website will be one of the first pieces of organizational
information to which potential students are exposed. In a 2007 study, Alessandri, Yang, and
Kinsey found evidence that rather than just using one image for a universitys visual branding, it
is effective to use several recurring images to address varying audiences. Ogbonna and Harris
(2006) found that it is easier for an organization to change its external image through minor or
drastic changes to its website than it is to change internal culture. Next, Easterns, Messiahs,
Regents, and Shippensburgs websites will be examined to learn how each one endeavors to
convey a positive image to their external audiences through images.

College Websites as Artifacts

15

All of the sites show ethnic diversity in the images they display. On Easterns home
page, sample slide show images included shots of a professor assisting a student, three AfricanAmerican men with a brick faade in the background, and a student taking a moment from his
study of Latin to speak to another student. The choice of the Latin text seems almost sure to be
aimed at supporting and enhancing Easterns historical image. The smaller images on Easterns
home page include a few simple icons and happy people including alums, a Mom, students
(prospective and current), and a gray-haired, friendly-looking professor. A comparison of fifty
easily accessible images from each website yielded the following table:
Not surprisingly, there are no homesick students or students ready to transfer out on
websites. Undergraduates are pictured in classrooms listening intently to their professors. When
not in class, students are pictured in harmonious groups participating in activities like athletics or
worship. Both Eastern and Messiah display a graduation image of students dressed in caps and
gowns on their home pages giving viewers a clear depiction the culminating goal of the college
experience. Shippensburg seems more realistic in their images by showing students in class or in
labs, often without smiles. As with other aspects of websites, the intent is always in question.
Did Shippensburg decide to show realistic pictures of students or were these the best shots of the
ones from which they were choosing?
For Regent, student-run stage and television productions are one of the highlights of their
fifty photo slide show that is prominently linked to the home page. See Table 1 for a detailed
breakdown of the image content of the Regent slide show as well as fifty easily accessible
images from the other three sites. Whereas Messiah and Eastern are more apt to show students
in groups, Regent often pictures students singly. Again, this is probably indicative of Regents

College Websites as Artifacts

16

greater focus on graduate programs and continuing education. Shippensburgs shots of students
are a mix of single and group shots.
Table 1 yields intriguing results. The Messiah images cover a wider range of categories
than the other institutions. While three Christian institutions are represented, Messiah is the only
one that includes website images in the category of spirituality. Two of Regents strengths
emphasized in their slide show are a beautiful, architecturally uniform campus and high-caliber,
famous professors. The number of athletics images is almost identical at the three institutions
that offer athletics. Shippensburgs shots focus on buildings and students while Easterns images
are more scarce with twenty visual thumbnail headings showing things like a shot of a hand
holding a folded newspaper to depict News and Events.3 While home page design and images
are significant, it is certainly also important to explore textual information that is readily
available on institution websites.
Table 1 Images Sorted by Category for Selected Institutions
Category
Eastern
Administration/Staff
Architecture/flags
Athletics
Broadcasting/Theater/Concert
Cross-cultural experiences
Events
Miscellaneous
Professors (some famous) talking to
students
Service
Spirituality
Students in class
Studying outside, happy students
Visual thumbnail headings
Total

2
7

1
1
4

2
13
20
50

Number of images
Messiah Regent
6
8
3
2
3
2
5

20

Ship
2
12
7

2
9

1
3

5
4
2
10

1
6
8

10
14

50

50

50

While images are limited on Easterns site, there is an appealing 192 Second Tour admissions video that gives a
very positive, though slow to load, pictorial representation of the university.

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17

What is the Mission?

The word mission has deeply religious overtones. The addition of the phrase mission
statement to the lexicon of the corporate world is a relatively recent phenomenon. When this
word was first applied to corporations, it may have been intended to elicit a greater sense of
purpose and dedication from workers who increasingly were absorbing risks and costs that only
decades before had been assumed by their employers. A mission statement is one way to
encourage integration, or at least unity of purpose, in a climate like higher education where
different departments tend to function as isolated silos. See the Attachment at the end of this
paper for the Eastern, Messiah, Regent, and Shippensburg mission statements that are accessible
from the About links on their respective home pages.
Since mission statements are by definition concise statements of purpose, they are useful
comparative elements of the website artifacts that have been chosen for this paper. The italicized
portion (chosen by researcher) of the lengthy Shippensburg mission statement seems to be the
part that most directly addresses mission. Of the institutions included, three are universities
while the other one is a college. The distinction between the two terms is that universities award
both undergraduate and graduate degrees. The three Christian institutions include that aspect as
part of their identity. Eastern is a Christian university, Messiah is a Christian college, and
Regent aims to be a center of Christian thought and action. Shippensburg is a regional statesupported institution.
Service is mentioned in all of the mission statements. Eastern and Messiah seek to
prepare students for lives of service. For Regent and Shippensburg, service is something that
their institutions provide to their students or to the public. Another common emphasis is on
leadership, but while Eastern and Messiah want to prepare students for lives of leadership,

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18

Regent proposes to equip Christian leaders through an excellent education. The implication is
that Eastern and Messiah want to help their students to think of themselves as leaders while
Regent assumes that their students have already begun identifying themselves as leaders when
they arrive on campus. Shippensburgs statement does not mention leadership although it is one
of the key words that is featured on the home page slide show.
It is interesting to note how the mission statements are presented. On Easterns page, the
brief mission paragraph ends by stating that the mission is only fulfilled when the university
manages effectively and justly the resources with which it has been entrusted. Immediately after,
the university lists ten bulleted responsibilities of students to ensure that the mission is
accomplished. The balance of responsibilities between institution and students is weighted
heavily on the side of the students.
Rather than listing only its mission, Messiah chooses to publish a combined identity and
mission page. Unfortunately there is a problem with the layout of the page causing a large
awkward chunk of white space at the top. Consequently if anyone is looking for the mission of
the college on the page and neglects to scroll down, they will miss it. While Messiah combines
identity with mission, Regent appears to be more forward-oriented as they list the universitys
vision immediately before the mission. It would be helpful for Shippensburg to edit their
mission statement so that inside and outside audiences have a clear idea of universitys common
purpose.
Certain words and ideas are unique to each mission statement. Eastern names three
constituencies of students: undergraduate, theology, and graduate. This is the only institution of
those selected that mentions scholarship in its mission. There are subtle homages paid to
Christianity and capitalism respectively in the words stewardship and productive.

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19

Messiah aims to educate men and women toward maturity in three areas. All of the
institutions enroll female students, but it is noteworthy that it is deemed important enough to
specify both genders here rather than substituting a general term that is inclusive of both.
Messiah is also dedicated to an embracing evangelical spirit rooted in the Anabaptist, Pietist,
and Wesleyan traditions. Many might be surprised or even dubious about the pairing of the
word embracing with evangelical. The traditions that are listed must be significant to an
audience other than the general public since they are a part of Christian heritage but not widely
known today.
The Bible is an important Christian symbol. Of the Christian institutions, only Regent
refers to the Bible in its mission statement. There is one picture of a student reading a Bible in
Regents fifty picture slide show also. The other two sites do not have prominent pictures of
students with Bibles.
Regent claims to provide education in pivotal professions. By looking over Regents site
and program offerings, pivotal professions may include: leadership, management, law, military,
broadcasting, government, education, and information systems. In addition to those programs,
there are also programs offered in more general liberal arts areas like psychology, English, math
and religious studies. Regents statement also includes a global emphasis that is absent from the
other two institutions. While Messiah often includes a picture of a student serving cross
culturally on its home page slide show, recognition of a global context for education is not
explicitly included in Messiahs or Easterns mission statement.
Shippensburgs full mission statement hits on many points but seems most focused on
students personal development and vocational preparation. The goal of producing competent
citizens is certainly an important aspect of the lives of service that Eastern and Messiah hope

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their graduates will exemplify. All of these institutions offer both undergraduate and graduate
programs so students have the option to remain at the institution after a bachelors degree is
earned to purse graduate work. Another element of websites that can be compared is graduate
landing pages.
Graduate Landing Pages
As mentioned earlier, Messiah College has recently begun offering masters programs.
As the college expands, it will be informative to observe how Messiahs graduate program
landing page compares with Easterns, Regents, and Shippensburg. All three have directly
competitive, established programs. Easterns page features a large image of the top of a building
against a backdrop of sunlit white clouds on a deep blue sky. The text on the picture reads,
Engage with Eastern University in Your Way. Your Schedule. Your Choice. Your Future.
The image suggests that the sky is the limit at Eastern.
Easterns site offers three large buttons beneath the featured image for moving forward:
inquire, apply, or join this community. There are also short video clips offering reasons why
Eastern is the right choice. Stated reasons include small classes, a combination of experience
and theory, and preparation for a secular field from a Christian perspective. Other topics of
personal video testimonials are using education in the real world, the benefits of a diverse
learning community, reassurance that potential students can return to school many years later,
and reassurance that studying business at a Christian college is a good idea. Little to no
identifying information is given about the speakers so in some cases it is difficult to put their
comments into programmatic context.
Messiah has not yet built a base of program completers with their graduate programs so
no video testimonials or blogs appear. There are two generic featured photo spots at the top of

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Messiahs page that each scroll through three images of happy people. Diversity is shown in the
pictures but not mentioned in the text of this page. Messiahs slogan reads, Pursue your goals.
Live your life. Messiah College graduate programs make it possible.
This page is lengthy since it would require two screen shots to capture the whole thing.
Length would not be an issue if content warranted it, but that doesnt seem to be the case. The
right column of the main part of the page lists distinctives repeated from Messiahs home page.
It could be argued, though, that many people will be coming directly from a search to the
graduate landing page.
There are some bulleted points near the bottom proclaiming the programs are affordable,
flexible, and designed in the tradition of Messiahs academic quality. That phrase is
ambiguous and, while intended to build on a reputation for challenging academics, could cause
confusion. The graduate page says that Messiah programs mark of high quality is the faculty.
Unfortunately, one of the three existing graduate programs does not list any information about
their faculty on their program pages. This discrepancy should be reconciled.
Easterns graduate programs fall under the purview of the Campolo College of Graduate
and Professional Studies. Messiahs programs are currently housed in the schools where their
undergraduate counterparts are located. Regent has seven graduate schools and one
undergraduate school located on a seventy acre campus. Each of the Regent schools offers
online degrees. There are also online options at Eastern and Messiah but not at Shippensburg.
At Shippensburg, there is a School of Graduate Studies with its own Dean.
The four images that Regent has chosen for the banner atop its graduate landing page are
of Greek honor society flags flying from balconies that flank a formal indoor courtyard, a large
Georgian style academic building, students gathering below an American flag, and a close up of

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two grinning, ethnically diverse adult students. The page is clean and uncluttered listing links to
the seven schools inviting guests to click on a particular school for more specific information.
Rather than simply listing the benefits of an advanced degree from Regent, this site describes
successful graduate students. Regent says that their most successful students are those who have
learned to balance priorities, have a clear sense of purpose, and are committed to the
requirements of a rigorous academic program.
In addition to listing schools and describing qualities of successful students, Regent adds
the story of one Ed.D. candidate. Sharon Byrdsong, National Middle School Principal of the
Year for 2006, attests to Regents atmosphere of excellence, high expectations, and willingness
to help students reach their full potential. Byrdsong has led a low performing urban school
through a transformation that resulted in greatly improved student test scores and attitudes
toward learning. Byrdsong credits her Regent education with giving her the leadership and
practical skills that she needs to continue to succeed.
Shippensburgs graduate landing page is not accessible from the home page. Viewers
can click on Academics and then find a link to the Graduate Studies among others on the right
side of the page. The Graduate Programs page is accessible from at least two spots on the home
page. While this page is has useful content listing all programs with links to more information, it
is set up with information in mind rather than aesthetics. The more attractive Graduate Studies
page has a picture of and message from the Dean as well as an image of a graduate student. The
ship words figure prominently on this page that also offers connections to graduate admissions
and an email link for questions. This is the most interactive page of the four giving visitors a
number of options to click and do something immediately schedule an appointment, ask a
question, view classes and register or sign up for text message alerts. In addition to home pages,

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23

images, mission statements, and graduate landing pages, another significant organizational
element is the voice of leadership.
What does the CEO have to say?
While there is insufficient space to address the topic in detail, the role of leadership
should not be overlooked. Pettigrew in his 1979 study of organizational culture says that a
leaders greatest influence may well be in his words. Pondy (1975) refers to leadership as a
language game where the most effective individuals are the ones who bring order by
explaining common experience in narratives that are understandable to followers. Martin (2009)
says that organizations have Official Narratives that must be upbeat to inspire confidence in both
inside and outside audiences.
In light of the importance of organizational narratives and the executive heads who have
power to mold those narratives through written communication and speaking opportunities, the
message of Easterns president will be considered first. David Black is the president of Eastern
University and has been in that position since 1997. Similar to Easterns graduate landing page
testimonials that lacked background information, there is no biographical information about Dr.
Black that is easily accessed on the universitys site.
Black writes a personal letter that contains many references to words that are especially
meaningful to evangelical Christians. Words that are used include inspire (appears twice in the
first paragraph), red letters, Gospels, Biblical, Holy Spirit, and deep faith. He explains that what
separates Eastern from other Christian colleges is its integration of faith, reason, and justice.
Others only integrate faith and reason. Black gives a concrete example to illustrate of the
Stevenson brothers who entered Eastern as honors students. After graduating, one brother
became a professor at University of Pennsylvania and researches African-American male anger

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24

while the other brother is a Harvard lawyer whose practice has grown into the Equal Justice
Alternative.
While at Eastern, the Holy Spirit transformed the brothers faith, abilities, and passion
into careers that demand exceptional minds and hearts. Dr. Black says that stories like this are
common at Eastern, and he hopes that the readers inspiring story can be added to the list.
Through this transformative narrative, it should be noted that the major work of Eastern is said to
be transforming abilities into careers. While sending young adults to Christian college is
important to some parents and grandparents, moving smoothly into a career after graduation is
also a major concern. This statement is along the same lines as the video clip of the student on
the graduate landing page who said that she wanted to prepare for a secular career in a faithbased environment.
There is no message from Messiahs president, Dr. Kim Phipps, linked to the home page.
There is a great deal of information about the president on web pages for the office of the
president, but unfortunately there is no comparable letter written as an introductory piece to an
outside audience. I did have the opportunity to bring this to Pres. Phipps attention recently. Her
response was that a letter of welcome had simply not been considered. Both Phipps and
Regents president, Dr. Carlos Campo make their vitae available online. Both are six pages long.
Dr. Carlos Campo became Regents president in August 2010 and his recent inauguration
may explain why his letter so closely follows the Regent script from other areas of the website.
Echoing the mission statement, Campo says that in just over three decades Regent has become a
leading academic center for Christian thought and action. He lists distinguished faculty and
guest lecturers like John Ashcroft and Steve Forbes. Alumni have done well too including a

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25

governor, a senator, and the middle school principal whose story appears on the graduate landing
page.
Dr. William Ruud is in his fifth year of service as Shippensburgs President. Dr. Ruud
highlights recent university accomplishments including the Universitys ranking in national
publications, progress on the academic master plan, accreditation updates, an athletic program
award, renovation/construction projects, and the cultural contributions of the Luhrs Performing
Arts Center. In conclusion, Ruud characterizes Shippensburgs focus as student-oriented and
adds an invitation to visit the campus. So each of the messages that were available could be
characterized succinctly Eastern: transformational, Regent: emerging, Shippensburg:
accomplishment-driven. Now that five distinct, easily accessible elements have been compared,
it is time to draw some conclusions and look to future research.
So What?4
In Scheins organizational culture model, artifacts are listed below deeper held
assumptions and values. Hatch proposed a model in 1993 that upset that hierarchy and listed
symbols, artifacts, values, and assumptions on the same level. This perspective more clearly
recognizes the interplay between the elements. The content that organizations post on their
websites can affect values even while values are shaping future web content.
If you are not shopping for a college, a close look at elements of institutions websites
may seem pointless. As I mentioned before, one practical, specific application will be to present
portions of this paper to the president, the director of the M.Ed. program, and the webmaster at

Limitations of this paper include a literature analysis focused solely on organizational culture in higher education.
While that area is relevant, research on visual identity and branding would also be applicable. Secondly, a sample of
n=4 is manageable but very small. While web text and images can be studied in more detail, a view that divorces
web content from the complete organizational context is myopic.

College Websites as Artifacts

26

Messiah College. As they guide implementation of three new masters programs in the next
year, these observations could prove helpful.
The template that Messiah uses now for its website was put into place over the past two
years, and there is an even newer template that the college will be transitioning to in the next few
years. The task of moving all of the pages of web content from one format to another is
daunting, and each time departments on campus are asked to revamp their web material on top of
other initiatives and routine responsibilities, it becomes increasingly difficult to convince them of
the importance of prioritizing and accomplishing the work involved. Examples of competitors
quality websites could help to drive home the need to stay current.
Websites are enormous investments as evidenced by expensive branding campaigns and
copyrighted templates. While some will undoubtedly question paying such close attention to
introductory, informational text, Van Maanens (1995) idea of presence is applicable. Presence
is the literary tactic by which an author tries to get across his most salient points. In longer texts,
practices like repetition, enumeration, figuration and provision of concrete details are used to
increase presence (p. 138). These websites use those same tactics to emphasize the parts of their
stories that they deem most valuable or perhaps most palatable.
Eastern University has just undergone a visual identity makeover and promises a
transformational Christian education that integrates pursuing social justice along with faith and
reason. In addition to communicating strengths, there is a noticeable effort on Easterns pages
to enhance the perceived historicity and legitimacy of the institution. After considering
observations of competing sites, Eastern may want to allocate resources to post weekly updates
to their home page to encourage and sustain the attention of cyber visitors. To aid in establishing

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27

legitimacy, it would also be advisable for Eastern to provide more background information about
the president and students who are featured in video clips and articles.
Messiah is striving to blend the old with the new. The banner at the top of the home page
reads see anew superimposed over some distinctly new stained glass. Many younger people
may not even identify the pattern as evocative of stained glass but the association will be
recognized by older generations even if only subconsciously. The balance of old and new is also
evident in the static black and white image that appears beside the colorful home page slide
show. It is a balancing act for institutions to try to appeal to both young potential students and
older parents and donors.
Messiah should consider including an introductory message from the president on the
website. Another weakness is that Messiah is a college while the other institutions are
universities. Messiah appears to address this when they specify in their mission statement that
they are a college of the liberal and applied arts and sciences. Another place to consider
revision is the graduate landing page. A more parsimonious approach may be better received.
While both Messiah and Easterns sites have small technical problems with particular
pages, no errors were detected on Regents or Shippensburgs pages. Potential undergraduate
audiences are less tolerant of technical errors than older viewers so it is important to stay vigilant
and correct errors as soon as they are found. Regents website is directed to a more mature
audience. Although there are several indications that Regent is trying to attract more traditional
undergraduate students, presently the average age of their undergraduates is 29. One reason for
the higher than expected age is that Regent is a popular choice for military personnel.
Shippensburgs site, which was retooled within the last two years, is keeping pace with
the other three. Since Ship is a public rather than private enterprise, spending money on

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28

advertising and publicity may be frowned upon. Public dollars should be used for the public
good however factors like financial aid distribution and cuts in government funding force public
universities into increasingly tighter competition with their private university counterparts. I
would recommend that Ships web team works toward displaying a wider variety of images of
campus events and student experiences. Students working in various capacities should be
scattered across the website to remind viewers of the focus on professional preparation. Since
Shippensburg has created an attractive, interactive graduate landing page, changing one if the
home page links to lead to it should be considered.
While all of the sites strive to communicate distinctives to their target audiences, there is
no substitute for personal experience. Each home page urges viewers to come check out the next
open house so that they can move beyond the surface level and experience the culture in 3-D.
Websites are first impressions. They can be a good indicator of what is to come but sometimes
when you dig deeper, it turns out that your first impression was misleading.
Future research in organizational culture informed by college web design could combine
both quantitative and qualitative components. Quantitative studies of word use on these websites
and others could lead to increased understanding. Three of the websites proclaim that their
institutions are Christian and then seem to retreat into generalities so as not to offend particular
factions. By visiting the institutions and interviewing various stakeholders, much clearer
pictures of culture would emerge. Longitudinal studies of how particular websites have evolved
over time and adapted to internal and external changes would also be informative.
Websites are here to stay. The more successful an institution is at communicating its
particular culture through them, the more applicants it will attract. If applicants are a good fit for
the institution, they become happy undergrads who do not detract from retention statistics.

College Websites as Artifacts

Keeping up with technology can be harrowing, but the days of constant growth in higher
education are over. Whereas in the past, many times survival of higher education institutions
was assumed, present conditions dictate intentionality and business savvy.

29

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30

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Van Maanen, J. (1995). Style as Theory. Organization Science, 6(1), 133-143.

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Attachment
The Mission
Eastern University is a Christian university dedicated through teaching and learning,
scholarship, service, spiritual formation, student development and stewardship to the
preparation of undergraduate, theological and graduate students for thoughtful and
productive lives of Christian faith, leadership and service.

Identity and Mission

Messiah College is a Christian college of the liberal and applied arts and sciences. The
College is committed to an embracing evangelical spirit rooted in the Anabaptist, Pietist
and Wesleyan traditions of the Christian Church. Our mission is to educate men and
women toward maturity of intellect, character and Christian faith in preparation for lives
of service, leadership and reconciliation in church and society.

Mission (Regent)
Our mission is to serve as a leading center of Christian thought and action providing an
excellent education from a Biblical perspective and global context in pivotal professions
to equip Christian leaders to change the world.

Mission of the University

Shippensburg University of Pennsylvania is a regional state-supported institution. It is
part of the State System of Higher Education of Pennsylvania, which is made up of 14
universities located in various geographic regions throughout the Commonwealth.
Founded in 1871, Shippensburg University serves the educational, social, and cultural
needs of students primarily from south central Pennsylvania. The university enrolls
students from throughout the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, the Mid-Atlantic region,
the United States, and various foreign countries as well.
Shippensburg is a comprehensive university offering bachelor's and master's degree
programs in the colleges of arts and sciences, business, and education and human
services. The curricula are organized to enable students both to develop their intellectual
abilities and to obtain professional training in a variety of fields. The foundation of the
undergraduate curriculum is a required core of courses in the arts and sciences. These
courses prepare students to think logically, read critically, write clearly, and verbalize

College Websites as Artifacts

34

ideas in a succinct and articulate manner; they also broaden students' knowledge of the
world, past and present.
The university's primary commitment is to student learning and personal development
through effective and innovative teaching and a wide variety of high-quality out-of-class
experiences. The ultimate goal is to have students develop to their utmost the intellectual,
personal, and social capabilities they need to perform as competent citizens prepared to
embark on a career immediately upon graduation or after advanced study. The personal
attention given each student at Shippensburg is reflective of the strong sense of
community that exists on campus and the centrality of students within it. The university
encourages and supports activities which give students many opportunities to apply the
theories and methods learned in the classroom to real or practical situations, such as
faculty-student research and student internships. Student life programs and activities
complement the academic mission and further assist students in their personal, social, and
ethical development.
Committed to public service and community-centered in its relationships to the region,
the university works closely and collaboratively with other organizations at institutional,
programmatic and individual levels to develop common goals, share resources and invest
cooperatively in the future of the region.
Italics added