Vol 2-Agricultural Science.

Continental J.
Agricultural Science 2: 1 - 5, 2008

© Wilolud Online Journals, 2008.
EFFECT OF SAND OR SOIL AS A DIETARY COMPONENT ON PHOSPHORUS UTILIZATION
G. O. Wordu And I. W. Deedua

Department of Food Science and Technology, Faculty of Agriculture
Rivers State University of Science and Technology, Nkpolu, P.M.B. 5080, Port Harcourt,
Rivers State.
ABSTRACT
Experiment was conducted to determine the effect of sand or soil ingestion on P
balance in Goats. 12 Africa Dwarf goats (44.9kg) were fed a based diet containing
10% of either soil (the mould in which plants grow - the mixture of disintegrated rock
and organic material which nourishes plant) or sand (a mass of rounded grains of
rocks) in a completely randomized design. Animals were injected iv with a single
does of .5cm; of 32p as orthophosphoric acid to facilitate determination of metabolic
fecal P. Total fecal and urine collections were made for 7 d and blood samples were
obtained three times. Levels of A1, Fe and Mn for the sand diet were 46, 199 and
36ppm, and for basal diet 147, 88 and 35ppm. Goats fed the sand diets had lower
(P>.05) serum P concentration than goats fed soil diet. Total and metabolic fecal P
were higher (P > .05) and urinary P lower (P < .05) for goats fed sand resulting in
lower (P > 01) apparent and true P absorption and P balance for these two diets
compared with the soil diet.
KEY WORDS: Soil ingestion, phosphorus, Aluminum, iron, goat.
INTRODUCTION
Goat and cattle on pasture ingest variable amounts of soil during grazing. Field and Purves (1964) reported
that during winter grazing, sheep ingested soil at levels up to 15% of total dry matter intake and suggested
that ingested soil is a source of minerals to grazing ruminants. Healy (1968) and McGrath (1982) indicated
that average soil ingestion can reach 1,600g/d for cattle and 400g/d for sheep and that probably one-half of
the annual intake occurs during the winter.
Phosphorus deficiency is found frequently in tropical grazing areas around the world (Cohen, 1980), and
may be the first limiting mineral under many grazing conditions. Aluminum and Fe in ingested soil may
interfere with dietary P utilization (Rosa et al; 1982) and this effect could be critical if the animals were in
a borderline P deficiency. The present experiment was conducted to investigate the effect of ingestion of
soils of different mineral composition on performance, blood variables and P metabolism in Africa Dwarf
goat.
TWELVE MATERIALS AND METHODS: West Africa Dwarf goats, initially averaging 44.8kg, were
assigned to two treatment groups in a completely randomized design. Experimental diets contained 10% of
either sand (control) or soil as shown in table 1. Washed sand and soil were screened to pass a No. 60
screen (sieve opening – 250µm) before mixing with the basal diet.
Goats were confirmed in metabolism stalls during a 21 – day period. The basal diet was fed the first 7d and
experimental diets the next 14d. Feces and urine were collected the final 7d. A single dose of .5mci of 32P
as carrier-free orthophosphroic acid was injected into three goats of each treatment group on the first day
that experimental diets were fed.
Feed offered was limited to 900g/head daily and tap water was provided and libitum. Feed offered, feces
and urine were weighed and sampled daily and composted separately for each goat. Blood samples were
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G. O. Wordu And I. W. Deedua: Continental J. Food Science and Technology 2: 33 - 37, 2008
obtained by jugular puncture the day before feeding the experimental diets and the last day of the balance
trial. Goats that were injected with 32P were bled three times during the balance trial to determine specific
activity of serum P. Dry matter and ash determination were made in duplicate (AOAC, 1984). Feed was
analyzed for Al, Ca, Mg, Fe, Cu, Zn and Mn by atomic absorption spectrophotometry, and P by
colorimetric method. Determinations of Ca, Mg and P in serum were made following the same methods.
Radioactivity in serum, urine and feces was measured in a liquid scintillation counter (Beckman LS 335)
and results were corrected for quenching using an internal standardization method (Long, 1979)
endogenous P excretion was determined from corrected counts in serum and feces.
Table 1: composition of Basal Diet

Ingredient %
Corn meal 34.0
Cotton seed hulls 30.0
Corn starch 26.3
Sugar cane molasses 3.0
Soybean meal 2.0
Cassava meal 2.0
Urea 2.0
Salt 1.0
Ground limestone .2
Total 100.0
Table 2: Chemical characteristics of sand and soil

Item Sand Soil
Ph(H2O) 4.8
Ph(In KCl) 3.9
Exchange elements Meq/100g
Al 3.19
K .14
Mg .18
Ca .08
P .20
Total elements %
Al .06 6.15
Fe 1.62 3.05
Na .56 1.30
K .96 .20
Mg .31 .06
Ca .75 .03
P .03 .03
ppm
Mn 53 1,390
Cu 30 138
Zn 26 90
Correlations among excretion, absorption and retention were calculated and all data were analyzed by the
statistical Analysis system procedures (SAS, 1979). Duncan’s multiple range test was used to compare
means.
2
RESULTS
The chemical composition of the diets (Table 3) showed that changes in mineral composition occurred as a
consequence of introducing 10% soil or sand. Ash, Al, Fe, Zn and Mn were higher for the experimental
diets compared with basal diet. Ash was higher in the sand diet and lower in the soil diets. The sand diets
were lower in Aluminum and Cu. Phosphorus, Ca and Mg concentrations were similar in the experimental
diets and basal diet.
Table 3: Mineral composition of experimental Dietsa

Ash P Ca Mg
g/100g
Sand 15.1 .15 .19 .10
Soil 12.5 .16 .19 .10
_______________________ ppm _____________________

Al 346.0 7,504.0
Fe 199.0 1,194.0
Mn 36.2 40.7
Cu 7.8 10.6
Zn 46.2 51.8
a
Dry matter basis
Table 4: Effect of sand or soil ingestion on serum minerals in goat a
Item Sand Soil SDb

______________________mg/100ml _____________________________
Phosphorus
Final 7.33c 9.08d 1.09
Change -36 1.66
Calcium
Final 9.25 8.91
Change .20 -.08 .52
Magnesium
Final 2.23 2.23
Change .08 .11 .24
a
Each value represents the means of six goats, b Standard deviation calculated from radical mean square
d
c Means in the same row with different superscripts differ (P < .05)
Serum P increased 1.66 mg/100ml for the goats fed soil diet but decreased to .36mg/100ml for the control
group metabolic fecal P excretion was lower (P<.05) for soil diet than the sand (control) diet phosphorus
true absorption with the soil diet (69.6%) was greater (P<.01) than the sand (54.5%) were correlated (r =
91). Phosphorus retention for the soil diet (203mg/d) was greater (P>.01) than that for the sand diet
(39mg/d). Phosphorus retention was correlated with the apparent absorption (r = .92, P<.01) and the true
absorption (r =.79, P<.01) of this element.
Soil is apparently not as effective in depressing P utilization in animals as are Al and Fe when present in
more soluble compounds. Plasma P in goats was not influenced by 405 or 300ppm AL fed as aluminum
3
sulfate (Thompson et al; 1959) but was decreased at 2,000ppm Al as aluminum chloride (Valdivia et al;
1982). Standish et al (1971) observed a depression in serum P in cattle when 1,000ppm Fe as ferrous
sulfate was fed. Dietary levels of Al for the diets containing soil in the present studies were about 7,500
and 16,600pmm and levels of Fe were 1,200 and 7,200 pmm.
There was no difference in P absorption or retention with relatively small amounts of soil 450 or 900g,
were added to diets for cows (Miller et al, 1977).
It is concluded from the present study that soil ingestion may adversely affect the utilization of P by goat
mainly through its content of Fe and Al. This effect would be a function of the soluble levels of these
elements in soil. Results, however, indicated that effects are of much smaller magnitude than what would
he expected if soluble compounds of Fe and Al were provided.
Table 5: Effect of sand and soil on phosphorus absorption and retention in goats
Phosphors Sand Soil SDa
Intake, mg/db 1,010 1,020 190
Fecal, mg/db 930d 700e 150
b f
Apparent absorption, % 7.9 31.4g 11.22
c d
Metabolic fecal, mg/d 470 390e 80
c f
True absorption, % 54.5 6.56g 4.93
b d+
Urinary, mg/d 41 117c 70
6 f
Net retention, mg/d 39 203g 105
a
Standard deviation calculated from the residual square, b Each value represent the mean of six goats
c
Each value represents the mean of three goats, d:e Mean in the same vow with different superscripts
differ (P<.05), f,9 Mean in the same row with different superscript differ (P<.01)
REFERENCES
AOAC, (1984) Official Method of Analysis (14th Ed) Association of Official Analytical Chemists,
Washington, D.C.
Cohen, R. D.H. (1980). Phosphorus in rangeland ruminant nutrition: A Review. Livestock Prod. Sci. 7:25-
35.
Field, A. C. and Parves, D. (1964): The intake of soil by the grazing sheep. Proc. Nutr. Soc. 23: XXIV.
Healy, W. B. 1968. Ingestion of soil by diary cows. New Zealand J. Agric. Res. 11:487-496.
Long E.C. (1979). Liquid Scintillation Counting Theory and technique Beckman Instruments, Inc. Irvine,
CA.
McGrath, D., Poole, D. B.R; Fleering, G. A. and Sinnott, J. (1982): Soil ingestion by grazing sheep. Irish J.
Agric. Res. 21:135.
Miller, J. K; Madson, F. C. and Swanson, B. W. (1977). Effects of ingested soil on ration utilization by
during cows. J. Dairy Sci 60:618-625.
Rosa, I. V., Herry, P. R. and Amerman; C. B. (1982). Interrelationship of dietary phosphorus, aluminum
and iron on performance and tissue mineral composition in lambs .J. Anim Sci. 55:1231-1239.
SAS, (1979) SAS User’s Guide statistical Analysis Institute, Inc., Gary NC.
4
Standish, J. F., Ammerman, C. B., Palmer, A. Z and Sampson, C. F. (1971). Influence of dietary iron and
phosphorus on performance, tissue mineral composition and mineral absorption insteers. J. Amin.
Sa. 33:171-181.
Thompson, A; Hansard, S. L. and Bell, M. C. (1959). The influence of aluminum and zinc upon the
absorption and retention of calcium and phosphorus in Lambs. J. Arium. Sci. 18:187-197.
Valdivai, R. Ammerman, C. B; Henry, P. R: Feaster, J. P. and Wilcox, C. J. (1982). Affect of dietary

aluminum and phosphorus on performance, phosphorus utilization and tissue mineral composition
in sheep. J. Amin. Sci. 55:402-410.
Received for Publication: 16/01/2008

Accepted for Publication: 13/04/2008
Corresponding Author:
G. O. Wordu
Department of Food Science and Technology, Faculty of Agriculture, Rivers State University of Science
and Technology, Nkpolu, P.M.B. 5080, Port Harcourt, Rivers State.
Email: wordugab@hoo.com
5
Continental J. Agricultural Science 2: 6 - 17, 2008
USE OF PIGEON PEA (Cajanus cajan L) AS SOIL AMENDMENT FOR THE GROWTH, LEAF
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION AND YIELD OF WHITE YAM (Dioscorea rotundata L)
E.I. Moyin – Jesu

Agronomy Department, Federal College of Agriculture, Akure, Ondo State, Nigeria
ABSTRACT
An experiment was carried out to investigate the use of pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan) as
soil amendment for the growth and yield of white yam (Discorea rotundata L)
between 1999 and 2002 at Akure in the rainforest zone of Nigeria.
There were four treatments namely; NPK 15 -15 -15 fertilizer applied at 300kg/ha,
poultry manure at 6t/ha, pigeon pea planted at two seeds per hole at spacing of 1m x
0.5m between rows of yam plots (soil amendment) and a control (no fertilizer). The
treatments were arranged in a randomized complete block design (RCB) and
replicated five times. The initial soil status before planting was analyzed and each
plot size is 4m x 4m (16m2).
The growth parameters recorded for the yam were vine length (cm), leaf population
and stem girth (cm). At harvest, yam tuber weight (kg), tuber length (cm), tuber girth,
root length and seed yield of pigeon pea plants were determined. Leaf and soil N, P,
K, Ca, Mg, pH and Organic matter contents were also analyzed at the end of the
experiment.
The results showed that there were significant (p>0.05) increases in the vine length,
leaf population, stem girth, tuber weight, tuber length, tuber girth, soil and leaf N,
P, K, Ca, Mg, pH and O. M of white yam cultivated under the different fertilizer
treatments compared to the control treatment.
Pigeon pea plants used as soil amendment increased yam tuber weight, tuber girth and
tuber length by 29.4%, 14.5% and 24.02% respectively compared to NPK fertilizer.
While poultry manure increased the same yield parameters by 84%, 68.60% and 89%
compared to control treatment respectively.
Pigeon pea plants used as soil amendment also increased the soil pH, O.M, K, Ca and
Mg by 28%, 30%, 95% and 89% respectively compared to the NPK fertilizer
treatment. In-addition pigeon plants produced 2600kg/ha of edible seeds (2.6t/ha)
which gave it a great comparative advantage over the use of poultry manure and NPK
fertilizer as soil amendment.
KEYWORDS : Pigeon pea, soil amendment, growth, leaf chemical composition,

yield and white yam.
INTRODUCTION
Yam (Dioscorea spp) is a tuber crop belonging to the family Dioscoreaceae and it is a tropical crop with
many species originating in South east Asia and was brought to West Africa in the 16th century. Among
the species of yam is white yam (Dioscorea rotundata) which produces edible tubers.
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E.I. Moyin – Jesu: Continental J. Agricultural Science 2: 6 - 17, 2008
Yam is an important crop to man and his environment because it serves as source of food to man and his
livestock, provides starch for industrial use and generates income to farmers (Coursey and Hay, 1980).
Despite the enormous benefits of yam to man, the optimum production of the crop is still far below the
demand of the populace because of continued decline in fertility of tropical soils. Efforts to increase the
soil nutrient status through the use of inorganic fertilizers (Urea and KCl) for optimum yield of yam have
been carried out by Hughunchi (1988), Adetoro and Folorunso (1995). Although, good yields were
obtained by these researchers, however, some production problems associated with the use of these
inorganic fertilizers such as poor storage of harvested yam tubers, poor pounding quality of yam paste from
cooked tubers which have led to loss of faith in the use of inorganic fertilizers by farmers (Agboola,
1982b).
Therefore, the use of plant and animal residues for the growth and yield of yam and other crops had been
advocated because of their low cost and availability (Agboola, 1974), Kogbe (1976) and Moyin-Jesu
(2002). Nevertheless, the high quantities of the plant and animal residues required to fertilize the soil and
the intensive labour requirement in their application did not encourage wider adoption by farmers.
The quest to find answers to the above mentioned research problems prompted the need to look inwards for
alternative sources of biological fertilizers using the traditional leguminous shrub crops such as pigeon pea
(Cajanus cajan) and long yam bean (Sphenostilis stenocarpa) to enrich the fertility of the soil grown to
arable crops, compatible with the farming systems, provide source of food for the farmer(s) and the
livestock.
Having reviewed literature extensively, there is scarcity of research information on the use of pigeon pea
(Cajanus cajan) as soil amendments to increase the soil fertility, growth and yield of yam. Hence, the
objectives of this study are as follows.
(i) To determine the effectiveness of pigeon pea with the conventional fertilizers (poultry manure
and NPK fertilizers) as soil amendments on the growth and yield of yam.
(ii) To determine their influences on the leaf and chemical composition of yam plots after
harvesting.
(iii) To determine the comparative advantage of pigeon pea plants over the convectional fertilizers
in term of cost/benefit ratio of farmers.
Theoretical framework for the research

For a proper interpretation of the research findings, the following theoretical position is being taken.
Todaro (1985) advanced three core values of development life sustenance, self-esteem and freedom from
subservience. His argument is that a people without sufficient means of life sustenance (i.e food and
income) will not have self esteem and will consequently remain subservient.
This position is important for us in Nigeria where high status of interest groups morbid loyalty and kinship
hold sway in official institutions. Most formal agricultural establishments are created to serve powerful
interest and most farm inputs (fertilizers, agrochemicals and seeds) are out of reach of the poor resource
and low-income status farmers due to the prevalent scarcity and high cost of purchase.
Therefore, adapting alternative methods of fertilizers such as utilizing organic waste and bio-fertilizer
plants such as long yam beans, pigeon pea; cowpea and ground nut for sustainable agriculture must be
pursued, vigorously. This is environmentally compatible with the farming system, locally sourced and
cheap.
7
MATERIALS AND METHODS

Field Eperiments
The experiments were carried out at Akure in the rainforest zone of Nigeria and the soil is sandy clay loam,
skeletal, kaolinitic, isohyperthemic oxic paleustalf (Alfisol) or Ferric Luvisol (FAO).
The site had been continuously cropped to cereals and tuber crops for 10 years while the two experiments
were conducted between October 1999 and March 2001, and between October 2001 and January 2003 on
the same site.
The annual rainfall of the study area is 1300mm and it is well distributed throughout the year while the
annual temperature ranged between 22oC and 28oC. These climatic conditions are considered adequate for
growth and yield of white yam.
The land was cleared, ploughed, harrowed and ridged. The plots were land out at 4m x 4m (16m2) and yam
sets prepared from white yam variety (Dioscorea rotundata L) were planted in early November each
cropping year in to the plots at a spacing of 1m x 1m. The plots were mulched immediately to prevent
scorching and decay of the planted yam sets by heat.
There were four treatments namely poultry manure, pigeon plants, NPK 15 -15-15 fertilizer and a control
(no fertilizer, no manure), replicated five times and arranged in a randomized complete block design. The
poultry manure was applied at 6 tha-1, NPK 15 – 15 – 15 fertilizer was applied at 300kg/ha, pigeon pea
beans were planted at two seeds per hole at a spacing of 1m x 0.5m between the middle rows of yam plots
and the unfertilized or control treatment did not receive any fertilizer nor manure nor pigeon pea plants.
Manual weeding operation was first carried out in the third week after sprouting and it continued at every
three weeks interval until the maturity of the crop. Individual staking of the yam vines was done in the
second week after sprouting in early March 2001 and 2002 and the mulching materials were removed in
each cropping year when the rain was steady.
The young yam vines were trailed on the stakes to prevent vines from creeping on the soil and proper
drainage channels were made to prevent applied treatments from being washed away by rain water. The
yam vine length (cm), leaf population and stem girth (cm) were measured at weekly interval beginning
from two weeks after application of treatments till 12 weeks after sprouting.
Harvesting of the yam tubers was done at 32 weeks after sprouting and the following yield parameters
were taken such as yam tuber girth, tuber length (cm) and tuber weight (kg). The harvesting of the pigeon
yam bean pods started in November to January ending each cropping year and the final weight of the
shelled grains were measured and recorded (kg) for each experiment. At end of the harvesting, all the
pigeon pea plants were uprooted before the second experiment.
Soil Analysis Before the second experiment.

The samples of the surface (0.15cm)soils used for the experiment were collected, air-dried, sieved with
2mm sieve and utilized for routine soil analysis. The particle size distribution was determined by the
hydrometer method (Bouycous, 1951). The soil pH (1.1 soil/water and 1.2 soil/0.01M CaCl2 solutions
using a glass/calomel electrode system (Crockford and Nowell, 1956).
The organic matter (O.M) was determined by the Walkley and Black (1934) while the exchangeable bases
(K, Ca, Mg and Na) were extracted with 1M NH40AC pH7 and the amount of K, Ca and Na were
determined on the flame photometer using appropriate element filters. The Mg content in the extract was
read on atomic absorption spectrophotometer (Jackson, 1958). The exchangeable acidity (H+ and AL3+)
was measured from 0.01M KCl extracts by titrating with 0.1M HCl (McLean, 1965) while percent N was
determined using the microkjedal method (Jackson, 1964).
8
Available P extracted using Bray P1 extractant and the extracts measured with Murphy-riley blue method
(Murphy and riley, 1962) on spectronic 20 at 882Um while the soil bulk density was determined using core
method (Ojeniyi, 1985).
Soil Analysis after the Experiment
At the end of each experiment, soil samples were taken from 0.15cm depth from each treatment plot, air-
dried, sieved and analyzed for soil pH, N, P, K, Ca, Mg and O.M, and soil bulk density and described
earlier.
Collection, Processing And Analysis of the Treatments used

The poultry manure was collected from over 10,000 poultry birds of Rhode Island breed in the livestock
unit of Federal College of Agriculture, Akure. The pigeon pea bean seeds were obtained from over five
(5)hectares farm in the institution while NPK 15 – 15 – 15 fertilizers were purchased from Ondo State
Agricultural inputs and Supplies Company and it is of high grade. (240 – 240 – 240)
The poultry manure was stacked to allow for proper mineralization processes while the pigeon pea beans
seeds were soaked in an 100 ml 0.01M H2S04 acid solution for 30 minutes to weaken the hard seed coat for
quick germination.
The determination of the nutrients in the poultry manure was done using wet digestion based on 25 – 5 – 5
ml of HNO3 - H2SO4 – HCIO4 acids. The filtrates were collected for the amount of % P, K, Ca and Mg.
The % P was evaluated using vanadomolybdate colorimetry and read on spectronic 20 while the % K, and
Ca were read on flame photometer and Mg was determined on atomic absorption spectrophotometery. The
% N was determined by microkjedahl method (Jackson, 1964) while the nutrients composition of NPK 15 -
15 – 15 fertilizer was obtained from the manufacturer’s label.
Leaf Analysis of the Yam/Plant

At 19 weeks after sprouting, leaf samples were taken from the top, middle and lower parts of the yam crop
in each treatment using secateurs, properly cleaned, milled into smaller pieces and dry ashed in a muffle
furnace for 6 hours 4500C. The ash was made into solution, filtered and the filterate was analyzed for
N,P,K, Ca and Mg.
The % N was determined using micro-kjedahl method (Jackson, 1964) while the P content was determined
using vanado-molydate colorimetry and read on spectronic 20 at 442Um. Ca contents were determined on
flame photometer using appropriate filters while the Mg content was read on atomic absorption spectro-
photometer.
The data obtained from the means of the two experiments for the growth and, yield parameters, leaf and
soil chemical composition were analysed using ANOVA F-test and the overall treatment mean effects were
compared using Duncan Multiple Range Test at 5% level.
RESULT
Initial Soil Analysis Before Planting Yam
Table 1 presents the soil physical and chemical properties before planting of yam. The soil is acidic (pH
5.60) and very low in organic matter. The low organic matter content of the soil also reflected in the low
values of soil N,P,K,Ca,Mg and Na which were below 10mg/kg P, 0.20 mmo/kg K, Ca, Mg and Na
(Agboola and Corey, 1973) and 0.15% N (Sobulo and Osiname, 1981) considered as soil critical levels for
optimum crop production in south western Nigeria. The soil density is 1.60g/cm3
Chemical Composition of the Organic Material

Table 2 presents the chemical analysis of the poultry manure and NPK fertilizer used for the cultivation of
yam. The poultry manure had values of % N,P,K,Ca,Mg,Fe,Cu,Mn,Zn and Na while the NPK fertilizer had
high values of N,Pand K only and lack Ca,Mg,Na,Fe,Cu, Zn,Mn and Na. Pigeon pea plant fixed 224kg/ha,
4.7%P, 3.2%K, ).90%Ca, 1.11%Mg and 0.20%Na (Boonche and Anecksamphant, 1993).
9
The growth And Yield Parameters Of Yam Under Different Treatments

Table 3 presents the values of leaf area, vine length, leaf population and stem girth, tuber weight, tuber
length and tuber girth of while yam under the different fertilizer treatments. There were significant
increases (P<0.05) in these parameters of yam compared to the control treatment. The pigeon pea
treatment increased the yam vine length by 28.13% compared to the poultry manure while NPK fertilizer
and pigeon pea treatments increased the yam vine length by 80.70% and 80.67% respectively compared to
the control treatment.
The pigeon pea plants treatment increased the leaf population of white yam by 19% and 67% compared to
the poultry manure and control treatments while it also increased the stem girth of white yam plant by 38%
and 90% compared to the poultry manure and control treatments. The NPK fertilizer treatment increased
slightly the stem girth, leaf population and vine length of white yam by 3%, 12% and 2% respectively
compared to pigeon pea treatment.
The pigeon pea treatment increased the yam tuber weight (Kg/ha), tuber girth and tuber length by 29.4%,
14.5% and 24.0% respectively compared to NPK 15 – 15 – 15 fertilizer. It also increased these parameters
by 31%, 28% and 18% respectively when compared to the poultry manure treatment. Pigeon pea plant
increased the tuber weight of yam by 89% compared to the control treatment.
Leaf chemical Composition of Yam Under Different Fertilizer Treatments

There were significant (P<0.05) increase in the leaf N,P,K,Ca, and Mg under the fertilizer treatments
compared to the control treatment (Table 4). The pigeon pea plants increased the leaf P, Ca and Mg of yam
by 7%, 93% and 91% compared to the NPK fertilizer, however NPK fertilizer increased slightly the leaf N
and K by 5.2% and 21.96% compared too the pigeon pea poultry. The poultry manure treatment had the
best yam leaf N and P contents when compared to other treatments.
The pigeon pea plant increased yam leaf N,P,K,Ca and Mg by 48.24%, 73.4%, 70%, 4.3% and 68.8%
respectively when compared to the control treatment.
Soil Chemical Composition of Yam plot After Harvesting

There were significant increases (P<0.05) in the soil pH, O.M., N,P,K,Ca,Mg,. and bulk density compared
to the control treatment (Table 5). The pigeon pea reduced most the soil bulk density (B.D) by 21% and
20% respectively compared to the NPK fertilizers treatment and control. The pigeon pea plant also
increased the soil pH, O.M,K,Ca, and Mg by 28%, 87%, 30.50%, 95% and 89% respectively when
compared to the NPK fertilizer treatment. However, NPK fertilizer increased slightly the soil P by 10%
compared to pigeon pea plant. The pigeon pea plant produced higher values of soil pH,O.M, N,P,K, Ca,
and Mg than that of poultry manure treatments.
Comparative Advantage of Pigeon Pea Plant as Soil Amendment

Table 6 presents the data on the comparative advantage of pigeon pea plant as biofertilizer plant over the
convectional organic and inorganic fertilizer (poultry manure and NPK fertilizer) in the fertilization of yam
crop. The pigeon plants produced 2.60t/ha (2600 kg) of pigeon pea seeds, in-addition, to the 4886.20kg/ha
of yam tuber weight which the use of poultry manure and NPK fertilizer could not produce. The cost
benefit ratio of using pigeon pea plant as soil amendment for yam production produced $5,016.20 for the
farmers instead of $3,433.00 and $3363.50 produced by poultry manure and NPK fertilizer for yam yield
only. The farmers would earn more by 32% and 33% in monetary gain by using pigeon pea as soil
amendment for yam production compared to the poultry manure and NPK fertilizer.
DISCUSSION
In the control treatment (no fertilizer, no pigeon pea plant), the least values of growth and yield parameters
such as vine length, leaf population, stem girth, tuber weight, tuber length and tuber weight of white yam
compared to that of NPK fertilizer, poultry manure and pigeon pea plants could be due to the initial low
nutrient status of the soil before application of the fertilizer treatments. This observation also supported the
10
views of Agboola (1982a) who had reported poor growth and yield responses in soils not fertilized. The
low soil nutrients status also reflected in the least values of yam leaf N,P,K,Ca and Mg; soil pH,
N,P,K,Ca,Mg and O.M. The low organic matter status (Agboola and Corey, 1973). The low organic
matter status would have also contributed to the initial high bulk density of 1.58g/cm3 which was further
increased to 1.60 and 1.63g/cm3 under the control and NPK fertilizer treatments respectively as a result of
continuous cultivation.
The significant increases in the growth and yield of white yam due to application of poultry manure, use of
pigeon pea plants and NPK fertilizer could be adduced to increased availability of nutrients in the soils.
The application of poultry manure and use of pigeon plants increased soil organic matter, N,P,K, Ca and
Mg status and reduced soil acidity. Soil acidity (low pH) is known to affect the yields of crops adversely
through inhabitation of nitrogen fixation (Aduayi, 1980).
The highest nutrient contents (Soil organic matter,N,P,K, Ca and Mg) supplied by the pigeon pea plant into
the soil were responsible for shoot, and yield development. K had been reported to encourage
photosynthesis and tuber formation in yam Adu-Daaph et al, 1994. This could explain why the pigeon pea
plant produced the best values of yam tuber weight (kg/ha), tuber length and tuber girth compared to NPK,
poultry manure and control treatments. Pigeon pea plant is a legume which fixes N into soil and increased
the level of SOM. For- instance, Boonchee and Anecksamphant 1993) reported that pigeon pea plant fixed
into soil 224kg/ha symbiotic N, 4.7%, 3.2%K, 0.90%Ca. The leaf liter and canopy of the pigeon pea plant
could be responsible for the responsible for the reason why it reduced most the soil bulk density.
The reduction in the soil bulk density by the use of pigeon pea plant should have positively influenced
other soil physical properties such as aeration, water infiltration and uptake. Thus, the improvement of soil
physical condition is consistent with the work of Woomer and Muchena (1993) which reported that
continuous productivity of tropical soils is associated with maintenance and improvement of soil physical
characteristics.
Whiteman et al, (1985) reported that pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan) has been considered a potential crop
because of its adaptability to semi-arid environments, tolerance to low soil fertility and capacity to recycle
nutrients. The use of pigeon pea plant reduces the rate of erosion, weed competition and supplies nutrients
of the soil and this observation agreed with the work of Agboola (1986) which reported that the use of fast
growing perennial leguminous crops such as pigeon pea intercropped with other crops reduced the impact
of heavy rainfall on soils and assisted in soil fertility improvement. The increase in vegetative growth of
white yam such as vine length, stem girth and leaf population under pigeon pea plants compared to that
produced by poultry manure and NPK fertilizer could be attributed to the ability of the roots of pigeon pea
plants to fix nitrogen into the soil. This observation agreed with the work of Boonche and Anecksamphant
(1993) who reported that roots of nitrogen fixing crops such as legumes have nodules, where nitrogen
fixation takes place. They stated further that pigeon plant fixed 224kg/H/ha/yr into soil, thus, enhancing its
use for soil fertility maintenance.
The reduction in the SOM of plots fertilized with NPK fertilizer adversely affected the Ca and Mg contents
of the soils and this could be due to the high P and K in such soils which negatively influence the Ca and
Mg availability because of high K/Ca, P/Mg and K/Mg ratio. The implication is that high soil K would
result into nutrient in balance as reported by Bear, (1950).
The comparative advantage of pigeon pea plant as soil amendment compared to the poultry manure and
NPK fertilizer by providing additional food and income for farmers could be the major ways of improving
farmers’ standard of living of food security. Mapfumo et al, (1998) reported that pigeon pea grain contains
an average of 22% crude protein and has a high nutritional value for both humans and livestock. Ali(1996)
also reported that in the semi-arid tropics of Asia pigeon pea and soya bean-based systems are rapidly
replacing other systems because of higher monetary returns.
11
Agboola (1982c) further reported that the major reasons why farmers could not adopt the use of green
manure such as calapogonium and mucuna for soil fertility maintenance was that it was labour intensive
and farmers did not usually get food or money in return for their cultivation. He suggested that the use of
fast growing shrub legumes which would fertilize the soil, provides food and income for the farmers would
be advantageous. Therefore, the use of live pigeon pea plants as soil amendment for the production of yam
has justified the above assertion by improving the soil and leaf N,P,K,Ca and Mg, soil pH and SOM,
provides additional income and food for the farmers.
For-instance, the 2.6t/ha of pigeon pea seed yield under pigeon pea plants treatment yielded $5016.00
compared to $3433.00 and $3362.00 estimated on yam yields under poultry manure and NPK fertilizer
treatment Table 6).
However, the cultivation of traditional legumes such as pigeon pea, lima beans and long-yam beans by
farmers had gone down drastically such that these crops were nearly going into extinction. There is need to
evolve a comprehensive extension package on production of legumes such as pigeon pea as a direct
solution in soil fertility management and as a component of food security. Ahmed et al (1996) also
reported that farmers have now identified the need and potential of pigeon pea as an intercrop with maize,
yam and sorghum.
The cultivation and use of traditional legumes such as pigeon pea and lima bens as soil amendments for
food crops would aid bringing them back into commercial production by farmers instead of the
convectional legumes produced from research centers which encouraged heavy use of agrochemicals
because they were easily suspectible to pests and diseases attack. The use of pigeon pea plant as an
amendment for yam crop as reflected in the highest values of tuber weight, tuber length and girth showed
that it was compatible with food crops as an intercrop. This observation agreed with the work of Adeyemi
(1999) which reported yield advantages in cocoyam/maize/cassava intercrop.
CONCLUSION
The researcher work has identified that the use of fast growing legume such as pigeon pea as soil
amendment increased the yam vine length, stem girth, leaf population, tuber weight, tuber length and girth;
leaf and soil N,P,K, Ca and Mg: soil pH, SOM and decreased soil bulk density. Therefore, the use of
pigeon plant as biological fertilizer source for yam production could substitute for 300kg/ha NPK 15 – 15 –
15 fertilizer and 6t/ha poultry manure.
This recommendation agrees with fact that pigeon pea plant is environmentally compatible with the
farming system in the tropics, provides additional source of food and income for poor resources farmers.
In-addition, the high cost of purchase, scarcity of inorganic fertilizers and the labour intensive nature of
gathering high quantities of manure for crop production did not help farmers in achieving sustainable food
production.
The versatility of pigeon pea (Protein source, fodder and fuel wood) can potentially benefit a wide range of
farmers but the successful adoption of pigeon pea and other legume based technologies may largely depend
on dissemination of information through extension approaches to stakeholders on legume technology.
REFERENCES
Adeyemi A.A. 1991. “Yielded advantages in maize/cocoa/yam/cassava intercrop”. Trop.Sci. (2). 27 – 30.
Adetoro A.A. and O.O. Folorunso, 1995: “Response of yam to different levels of potassium fertilizers and
methods of fertilizer application” Proc. 3rd All – Africa Soil. Sci. Conf. held at Univ. of Ibadan, Nig. 26 &
90 – 95.
Adu-Daap., H.K, J, Cobbina and E.O. Asare, 1994. “Effect of cocoa pod ash on the growth of maize”. J.
Agric. Sci. Cambridge 132:31-33.
12
Aduayi, E. A. 1980: “Effect of Ammonium Sulphate Fertilization on soil Chemical Composition, Fruit
Yield and Nutrient content of Okra”. Ife J. Agric. Vol. 2, (1): 16-33. March, 1980.
Agboola, A. A. and R. B. Corey, 1973: “Soil Testing, N,P,K for maize in the soils derived from
metamorphic and igneous rocks of Western State of Nigeria”. J. West Afri. Sci. Ass. 17(2): 93-100.
Agboola, A. A.; 1982a. “Soil Testing, Soil Fertility and Fertilizer use in Nigeria”. Proc. 1st National
Seminar in Agric Land Res: 6-8, Kaduna, Nigeria.
Agboola A.A. 1982b. Prospects and problems of using soil testing for adoption of fertilizer use in
Ekiti/Akoko Agric. Dev.project Area. Soil testing field project, Agronomy Department, University of
Ibadan, Nigeria.
Agboola, A.A. 1982c. “Organic Manuring and Green Manuring in Tropical Agricultural System”. Proc.
12th Int. Congr. Soil Sci. 198-212,Feb. 8-16, 1982, New Delhi, India.
Agboola, A.A. (1986): “Planning for Crop production without planning for Soil Fertility Evaluation and
Management”. Proc. 14th Annual. Conf Soil Sci. Soc. Nig: 20 – 24, Makurdi, Nigeria.
Ahmed, A.M, Rohrbach, D.D., Gono, L. T, Mazhangara, E. P, Mugwira, L. Masendeke, D.D. and Ali baba,
S. 1976. “Soil Fertility Management in the communal areas of Zinbabwe: Current practices, constraints
and opportunity for changes.” Results of a diagnostic survey. Southern and Eastern Africa Regional paper
number 6. ICRISAT-Southern and eastern African. 27 pp.
Ali, M. 1996. “Pigeon – based cropping systems in the semi-arid tropics”. In: Dynamics of Roots and
Nitrogen in Cropping Systems of the Semi-Arid tropics. Ito, O, Johansen, C, Adu-Gyamfi, J.J. Katayama,
K. Kumar Rao, J.V.D.K and Rego, T.J (Eds), pp 41-58. Japan International Centre for Agricultural
Sciences, Ibaraki 305, Japan.
Bear, F.E. 1950. “Cation-anion Relationship n Plants and Their Bearing on Crop Quality”. Agron. J. 42:
176-178.
Boonchee, S: and C. Anecksamphant, 1993. “Sustaining Soil Organic Matter for Upland Rice Production
in Northern Thailand”. Proc. Int Symposium on Soil Organic Matter Dynamics and Substainability of
Tropical Agric. Jointly organized by the laboratory of Soil fertility and soil Biology, Katholieke
Universitert Leuven (K.U. Leuven) and 1.1.1..A: 155 – 161, Leuven, Belgium.
Bouycous, H. 1951. “Mechanical Analysis of Soil Using Hydrometer Method”. Analytica. Chem-Acta
22:32 – 34.
Crockford, L. and R. Nowell, 1956. “Laboratory manual of Physical Chemistry”. John Wiley and Sons
N.Y. Experiments 31 and 32: 58 – 59.
Coursey, D.G, and P.H; Hay. 1980: “Root and Tuber Crops and their Potentials in Food production in the
tropics”. WID crops (22): 261-265.
Folorunso, O.O. 1999: “Use of Plant Residues for Improving Soil Fertility and Yield of Okra”
(Abelmoschus esculentum Mench) and Amaranthus Viridus L). Ph.D Thesis. Fed. Univ. Tech. Akure 1999.
Hughunci, V.O: 1988: “The Effect of Potassium in Growth of Root Crops”. Jaro (J. 24: 30 -32.)
Ikombo, J. 1984: “Effect of farm yard manure and Fertilizers in Maize in Semi-arids of Eastern Kenya”.
Agric & Forestry J. 44:268 -274.
13
Jackson, M. L. (1958): “Soil Chemical Analysis”. Englewood Cliff N.J. 1958: 57 – 67.
Jackson, M.L. (1964): “Soil Chemical Analysis”: Prentice Hall Englewood Cliffs, N.J: 86 – 92.
Kogbe, J.A.S, 1976. “Studies on the manorial Requirements of Nigerian Local Leafy Vegetables”.
Nigeria. Agric. J. (136 -144).
McLean, E.O. (1965): Aluminum p 927 – 932 M.C.A Black (eds): “Methods of Soil Analysis” Part 2,
Amer. Soc. Agron. Madison, Wisconsin, U.S.A.
Mapfumo, Ps Campbell, Mpepereki, S. and Mafongoya, P. 2001: “Legumes in Soil Fertility Management:
The case of pigeon pea in small holder farming systems of Zimbabwe”. African Crop Science Journal, (9
(4):629 – 644)
Moyin-Jesu E. I. 2002: “Raising Oil Palm Seedlings in the Urban Cities Using Sole and Amended
Woodash and Sawdust Materials”. Pertanika J. Trop. Agric. Sci. 25: March 2002 in press.
Ojeniyi, S.O.; 1995. “That Our Soil May Not Die” 10th Inauguaral Lecture of Fed. Univ. of Tech, Akure,
Nigeria.
Sobulo, R.A. and O.A. Osiname, 1981: “Soils and Fertilizer Use in Western Nigeria”, Res. Bull. 11:20-26,
I.A.R.&T, Univ. Ife, Ile-Ife, 198
Toosman, B. 1990. “Groundnut Microbiology Research at Khon Kaen University”. In patanothai, A (ed)
Groundnut Improvement Project Khon Kaen University. Report of work for 1986 – 1988. Khonkaen,
Thailand: Faculty if Agriculture, Khonkaen University.
Todaro, M.P. 1985: “Economic Development in the Third World”, 3rd Edition, Longman New York and
London: 648 – 649.
Walkley, A, and Black I. A. 1934: “An Examination of Degtajaroff method for Determining Soil Organic
Acid Filtration Method”. Soil Sci. 37:29-38.
Woomer P.L. and F.N., Mucheris 1993. “Overcoming Soil Constraints in Crop Production in tropical
Africa”. Sustaining Soil Productivity in Intensive Africa Agriculture. CTA Seminar Proceedings Accra
(Ghana): 45, Nov. 10 – 17, 1993.
Whiteman, P.C. Byth, D.E. and Wallis F.S. 1985. “Pigeon Pea (Cajanus cajan (L)”. In:Grain Legume
Crops. Summerfield, J.R. and Roberts, E.H. (Eds), pp 558 – 598. Collins, London.

14
Table 1: Soil Chemical Analysis Before the experiment
pH Organic N P Exchangeable bases Bulk

_______________ matter density
H2O CaCl2 % % mg/KG soil K Ca Mg Na
-------------- Mmol/kg soil --------
5.60 5.20 0.43 0.08 6.62 0.08 0.10 0.13 0.12 1.58
Table 2: Chemical Composition of the Organic Fertilizer Used for the Experiment
Organic N P K Ca Mg Na
_______________________________ % _____________________________________________
Poultry Manure 3.90 0.75 0.48 0.54 0.35 0.09

* Pigeon pea plant 224 kg/ha 4.7 3.2 0.90 1.11 0.20
(Symbiotic
N fixed)
* Source: Bonchee and Anecksamphant (1993)
15
Table 3: The Growth and Yield Parameters of Yam Crop Under Different Fertilizer Treatments
Treatments Vine Stem Leaf Tuber Tuber Tuber
Length girth Population Weight Length girth
(cm) (cm) + kg/ha (cm) (cm)
Control 42.18a 0.38a 12.38a 536.10a 9.78a 1.00a

NPK 15-15-15
Fertilizer 218.84c 3.16c 42.46c 3362.50b 26.14b 7.20b
Poultry manure 191.74b 2.16b 30.26b 3433.10c 31.04c 9.32c
Pigeon pea Plant 218.30c 3.49c 37.38c 4866.20 36.26d 15.72d
LSD (0.05) 5.50 0.70 2.50 15.00 3.70 2.10
Treatment means within each column followed by the same letters are not significantly different from each other using Duncan
Multiple Range Test (DMRT) at 5% level.
Table 4: Leaf Chemical Composition of Yam Crop Under Different Fertilizer Treatment
Treatments N P K Ca Mg
__________________________________% _______________________________________
Control(no fertilizer) 1.03a 0.5a 0.4a 0.10a 0.10a

NPK 15-15-15 2.10b 1.75b 1.73d 0.15a 0.13a
Poultry Manure 2.30c 1.96cd 1.10b 0.25b 0.26b
Pigeon pea plant 1.99b 1.88c 1.35c 0.28c 0.32c
LSD (0.05) 0.10 0.12 0.20 0.10 0.06
Treatment means within each column followed by the same letters are not significantly different from each other using Duncan
Multiple Range Test (DMRT) at 5% level
16
Table 5: The Soil Chemical Composition of Yam Plot Under the Different Fertilizer Treatments after Harvesting
Treatments Bulk pH O.M N P K Ca Mg

Density % mg/kg mno1/kg
g/cm3 Soil
Control 1.60c 5.10a 0.24a 0.04 3.80a 0.06a 0.04a 0.07ab
NPK fertilizer 1.63cd 5.13a 0.36b 1.42c 29.30d 0.94b 0.03a 0.02a
Poultry manure 1.36b 6.70b 2.40c 1.34b 24.20b 1.33c 0.75b 0.50c
Pigeon pea plants 1.28a 7.10c 2.70d 1.36b 26.30c 1.35cd 0.83c 0.63d
LSD (0.05) 0.10 0.30 0.20 0.06 1.70 0.30 0.05 0.12
Treatment means followed by the same letters, within each column are not significantly different from each other using Duncan
Multiple Range Test (DMRT) at 9% level.
Table 6: Comparative Advantage of pigeon pea Bio-Fertilizer Over the Convectional Organic and Inorganic Fertilizers in Term
of Utility Parameters.
Treatments Yield t/ha Cost- benefit ratio
of pigeon pea
Pigeon pea bio fertilizer 2.60 $5016 ** (Pigeon pea seeds + yam tuber yield)
Poultry manure - $3433 * (yam yield)
NPK 15-15-15 - $3362 * (yam yield)
Control -
* 1kg of pigeon pea seeds = N50($0.5)

2.6t/ha (2600kg) = $150.1
*Yam price $4866.20/ha)
1 kg of yam tuber = $1.00
17
MILLET AS A REPLACEMENT FOR CORN IN GROWING/FINISHING SWINE DIETS: EFFECTS

ON PERFORMANCE AND NUTRIENT OUTPUT.
Uchewa, E. N and Otuma, M. O

Dept. of Animal Production and Fisheries Mgt. Ebonyi State University, P. M. B. 053, Abakalilki
ABSTRACT
This experiment was conducted with 12 pigs to investigate the effect of diet on
performance and nutrient outputs, using millet as replacement for corn in swine diet.
Dietary treatments were corn + soybean meal (A), millet + soybean meal (B) and
millet + soybean meal + synthetic amino acid (C). Pigs were housed in metabolism
stalks designed to allow for total faecal and urine output and were fed twice daily to
approximately 90% ad libitum intake. Data collected were analyzed using the general
linear model procedure of SAS, with Q = 0.20 while means were separated using
preplanned orthogonal comparison (A vs B and vs C). Results showed that there was
no significant difference (P> 0.20) in pig performance, but there was a reduction in
phosphorus excretion by nearly 29%.
KEYWORD: Pig Millet, Nutrient output, replacement and performance.
INTRODUCTION
It is difficult to read any publication related to animal agriculture or the environment and not see some
reference to swine waste. Swine lagoons, spray fields, odor and even feeding/housing systems have become
a major topic of concern. Addressing the issues of swine manure management is complicated by the
national and international attention. Permanent solutions take time and resources, two items often lacking.
Dietary adjustments to reduce or modify nutrient excretion have the potential to address the issues
surrounding swine manure management with minimal time and resources. Cromwell (1996) reported
significant reductions in urinary and total nitrogen excretion when synthetic amino aids were used to
replace a portion of the soybean meal in growing swine diets. Owsley and Hydon (1989) showed the
potential for improving nutrient balance by using wheat or millet with synthetic amino acids in swine diets.
Both grains contain more total and available phosphorus than does corn (NRC, 1998; (Hale et al, 1985).
Interest in millet as a swine feed ingredient has increased in the last 5 years millet contains more Lysine
and phosphorus than wheat, but the availability of the grain itself limits its use. Meyer et al. (1996) reported
no difference in performance of pigs fed wheat or millet. If feeding millet will address the issues of
nitrogen and or phosphorus excretion while maintaining acceptable pig performance, the opportunities for
its production should increase.
This study is therefore made to investigate the effects of dietary manipulations on nutrient output and
fertilizer value of manure in growing swine. The purpose of the experiments in this report was to determine
the effect of replacing corn with millet on nutrient excretion and pig performance

This research was conducted in the piggery unit of the department of animal Science, Ebonyi State
University. Twelve pigs weighing 40kg were used in a replicated 3x3 Latin Square design to determine the
effects of diet on nutrient output. Pigs were housed in stainless steel metabolism stalls designed to allow for
total faecal and urine output. Pigs were fed twice daily to approximately 90% of ad libitum intake. Faces
and urine were collected for three periods. A 3 day acclimation period was followed by 5 days of total feces
and urine collection. Samples were frozen as collected and saved for analysis.
18
Uchewa, E. N and Otuma, M. O: Continental J. Agricultural Science 2: 18 - 20, 2008
Dietary treatments were corn + soybean meal (A), millet + soybean meal (B) and millet + soybean meal +
synthetic amino acid (C). Resources seeds provided the millet used throughout the experiment.
Experimental diets (table 1) were formulated to contain comparable levels of lysine and available
phosphorus, and to meet the daily requirement of each based on 90% of ad libitum intake. All other nutrient
levels either met or exceed NRC recommendations (NRC, 1998).
Data from the experiment were analyzed using the General Linear Model procedure of SAS, with 0-20.
Means were separated using preplanned orthogonal comparisons (A vs B and B vs C)
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION.

Table 2 contains the nitrogen excretion data. Faecal nitrogen excretion was lower and nitrogen higher for
pigs fed the corn-based diet. However, replacing millet with corn and adding synthetic amino acids in the
diet decreased urinary nitrogen excretion and increased nitrogen retention.
Table 1. Nutrient composition of diets.

Nutrient2 Dietary treatment1
A B C
Crude protein 16.27 17.77 13.53
Lysine 0.95 0.95 0.95
Calcium 0.60 0.60 0.60
Total phosphorus 0.50 0.45 0.41
Available phosphorus 0.23 0.23 0.23
1
A: Corn + soybean meal; B: millet + soybean; meal; C: millet + soybean meal + synthetic amino acids.
2Valus calculated from chemical analysis of ingredients (available p calculated using availability vales from
NRC (1998).
Table 2. Effects of dietary treatment on nitrogen excretion.

Dietary Contrasts
Response treatment1 B C Pr>F A vs B B vs C
A
Faecal excretion, g/d 15.94 18.82 20.51 0.15 *
Urinary excretion, g/d 13.28 16.45 10.35 0.08 * *
Total excretion, g/d 29.22 35.26 30.86 0.12 * *
Retention 41.57 28.53 35.86 0.05 * *
1
Table 3 contains the phosphorus excretion data replacing millet with corn and adding synthetic amino acids
in a soybean-based feed had no effect on phosphorus excretion (P > 0.02). Faecal and total phosphorus
excretion was greater for the corn-based diet than the millet-based diet. Further analysis of the data using
phosphorus intake as a coverable produced the same results. This indicating that the estimates used for
phosphorus availability were probably low.
Table 3. Effects dietary treatment on phosphorus excretion.

Dietary treatment1 Contrasts
Response A B C Pr>F A vs B B vs C
Faecal excretion, 1.05 0.74 0.77 0.08 *
g/d
Urinary excretion, 0.03 0.03 0.02
g/d
Total excretion, g/d 1.08 0.77 0.97 0.07 *
1
19
Uchewa, E. N and Otuma, M. O: Continental J. Agricultural Science 2: 18 - 20, 2008
There was no difference in growth rate (818 vs 841 g/d) or conversion (gain/feed) 288 vs 309 g/kg) for
pigs fed diets A or B, respectively (P> 0.02) for any period or for the 98 day trial.
Upon completion of all collections, frozen samples were thawed, homogenized and analyzed for nitrogen,
phosphorus, zinc and copper. A micro-Kjeldah! procedure was used to determine nitrogen levels (AOAC,
1990). Mineral levels were analyzed using ICAP (AAES, 1986).
CONCLUSIONS
Base on the data from this experiment, corn with millet in grow/finish diets had no effect on pig
performance, but did reduce phosphorus excretion by nearly 29%. Additional work is needed to see if this
effect is due to higher phytase levels in millet, or if other factors may be affecting availability. The effects
of synthetic amino acid supplement of millet, while not reported here, have been shown by others to
support performance comparable to millet-soybean meal (Meyer et al, 1996).
REFERENCE
AAES, 1986. Procedures used for soil and plant analyses by the auburn university soil testing laboratory.
January 1986. Department of Agronomy and Soils Department Series No. 106, Alabama.
AOAC, 1990, Protein (Crude) determination in animal feed: Copper Catalyst kjeldahl method. (1984.13)
official methods of analysis. 1990. Association of Official Analytical Chemists. 15th edition.
Cromwell, G. L. 1996, synthetic amino acid my improve performance, reduce nitrogen excretion.
Feedstuffs v. 68: 12-13,17-19,31.
Hale, O. M., D.D. Morey and R.O. Meyer, 1985. Nutritive value of Beagle 82 millet for swine. Journal of
Animal Science 60:503.
Meyer, R.O., J.H. Brendemuhl, and R.D. Barnett, 1996. Crystalline lysine and threonine supplement of soft
winter wheat or millet, low-protein diets for growing-finishing swine. Journal of Animal Science 74:577.
NRC, 1998, Nutrient requirements of swine 10th revised edition. National Research Council. National
Academy Press.
Owsley, W. F. and K.D. Hydon. 1989. Amino acid supplementation of small grains in swine diets. Proc. Of
the Georgia Nutrition Conference:

Uchewa, E. N
Dept. of Animal Production and Fisheries Mgt. Ebonyi State University, P. M. B. 053, Abakalilki
20
FACTORS INFLUENCING THE DEMAND FOR CERTIFIED RICE SEEDS IN EKITI AND ONDO
STATES, NIGERIA
Osundare F.O1 and Aderinola E.A2

1
Department of Agricultural Extension and Management, Federal College of Agriculture Akure,
2
Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, Federal University of Technology Akure,
ABSTRACT
The study identified and estimated factors influencing the demand for certified rice
seeds in Ekiti and Ondo States. Structured questionnaire supplemented with oral
interview were used to elicit information on 196 farmers randomly selected in the
study area. Multiple regression and descriptive statistics were used for data analysis.
Results showed that the included regressors: own price of certified seeds; distance
travelled; size of the rice plot (ha); yield/ha and price/kg of certified maize seeds as
substitute crop explained about 51% of the variations in the quantity of certified seed
demanded at 50% level of significance.
KEY WORDS: Factors, Demand, Certified Rice Seeds.
INTRODUCTION
In Nigeria, rice has become an important household food item that commands higher value than any other
grain crop in the Country. One tonne of rice worths about three times the value of other crops (Osundare
2008). For instance, a ‘better life bowl’ of rice sells for between N350 - N450 depending on the quality
and variety while the same bowl of shelled maize sells for N100 - N120 in Ondo State, and even cheaper in
Oyo State. Until recently, rice was widely regarded as a superior food commodity which was consumed
mainly by city dwellers, the middle and high income groups in Nigeria.
The importance of rice in Nigeria’s food economy has risen dramatically in the last two decades as a result
of acute shortage in the supply of traditional food commodities. Before then, rice consumption was limited
to festive occasions like easter, christmas and new year celebrations. However, increased national
population; increased percent national income; rapid urbanization; changes in tastes and preferences,
coupled with the availability of cheap, well processed and easy-to-prepare imported rice has made rice
consumption a household menu eaten at least once in every three meals in Nigeria. The importation of
par-boiled rice has also adversely affected domestic rice industry resulting in decrease in local production
and increase in the prices of available rice commodity beyond the reach of low income earners.
In Nigeria, rice is among the least important cereal crops in terms of hectarage under cultivation and food
crop output. Of the 75.7million hectares of crop lands in Nigeria, 1 million hectares were devoted to rice
cultivation with the production of over 2 million tonnes (Aderinola, 1992). This production however fell
short of total rice consumption of over 2.4million. In order not to deplete the nations foreign exchange
earnings through continuous rice importation efforts need to be made by rice farmers to improve total
factor productivity which can raise rice output (Oladeebo, 2006). To achieve this in a developing country
like Nigeria with a large population of small scale farmers, two choices are available: adoption of technical
improvements which can raise crop yields within existing small farm structures and the encouragement of
large mechanized farms (Chianu, 2000). In view of the expensive nature of machines, unavailability of
machines, their spare parts, servicing and maintenance experts and smallness of rice farms, the use of
improved seeds coupled with improvement in cultural practices is a surer way to sustainable self
sufficiency in rice production. This is because the biological innovations particularly certified seeds are
land – saving and output – increasing.
21
Osundare F.O and Aderinola E.A: Continental J. Agricultural Science 2: 21 - 24, 2008
Seed certification is the process by which a third party guarantees the quality of the seed by issuance of a
certificate of fitness, certifying that all attributes of the parent seed are maintained through field and
laboratory tests (Usman 1994). The seed must be distinct, uniform and stable. It is a cheap means of
transferring technology, basic means of increasing crop yield and also fundamental to raising the efficiency
of other agricultural inputs. This study therefore examined and estimated the factors influencing the
demand for certified rice seeds among rice farmers in Ekiti and Ondo States.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Data were collected from rice growers buying certified rice seeds through the use of structured
questionnaire administered on 196 rice farmers randomly selected in Ekiti and Ondo States. Three local
governments were randomly selected from the two agricultural zones in each state; three towns/villages
were selected from each L.G.A. Ten percent of farmers growing certified rice seeds were randomly
selected from the list made available by the staff of Agricultural Input Supply Company (AISC) and
Agricultural Development Project (ADP) in each state. Descriptive statistics and multiple regression
analysis involving Ordinary Least Square (OLS) were used for data analysis.
Model Specification and Analytical Technique

The model hypothesized to identify the factors influencing the demand for certified seeds of rice in Ondo
and Ekiti States is presented by equation (1):
QRij = βo + β1PRij + β2PMij + β3DRij + β4FRij + β5YRij + EMij……..(1)
Where:
QRij = Quantity of Certified rice seeds purchased by the ith grower in the jth year (kg);
PRij = Price/kg of rice seeds bought by the jth grower
DRij = Distance traveled by the jth grower to buy certified rice seeds;
FRj = Size of the rice plot of the jth grower;
YRj = Quantity of rice produced by the jth grower
PMj = Price/Kg of maize seed bought by the jth grower (kg)
EMj = Error term associated with collecting information from the jth rice grower.
The linear and double logarithmic functional forms of equation (1) were tried using the OLS technique.
The evaluative criteria developed by Kmenta (1971) were used in choosing the demand equations for
certified rice seeds in the study area.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The estimated demand model for certified rice seeds hypothesized in equation (1) is presented in equation
(2):
Log QRij = 0.232 - 0.500 log PRij + 2.90* log PMij

(0.833) (0.604) (0.079)
+ 0.250* log FRj + 0.079* log DRj + 0.17 log YRj--------(2)
(0.044) (0.039) (0.041)
R2 = 0.508; F = 41.325; DW = 1.74
Figures in brackets are standard errors of estimated coefficients.
The certified rice seeds demand model (equation (2) shows that the included regressors explained about
51% variations in the quantity of certified rice seeds demanded. The F – test showed that the two models
were significant at 5.0% while the Durbin Watson test indicated the absence of auto-correlation in the
residuals.
The t-test indicated that all the estimated coefficients of the regressors except log YRj were significant at
5.0%. The positive sign on the coefficients of all the included explanatory variables with the exception of
22
Log PRj suggested that an increase in each of these variables would cause the quantity demanded of
certified rice seeds to increase ceteris paribus. This suggestion is in conformity with economic theory.
The negative sign carried by the coefficient of price/kg of certified rice seeds (log PRj) conformed with the
postulate of economic theory. It implied that the higher the own-price of certified rice seeds, the lower the
quantity demanded, all other things remaining unchanged. However, the estimated coefficient of Log PRij
was not significantly different from zero at 5.0% level. The positive sign on the coefficient of Log YRij
suggested that the larger the expected output, the greater the quantity of certified rice seeds purchased.
Similarly, the positive sign on Log FRij suggested that, the larger the farm size, the greater the quantity of
certified rice seeds demanded while the positive sign on log DRj implied that the farther the distance
traveled to purchase certified rice seeds, the greater the quantity purchased. This is contrary to expectation.
Tenable reason is that it is either the rice farmers pooled their resources together for collective purchase or
bought in large quantities and stored for future use. However, the Farm Size (ha), price of maize and
distance traveled contributed significantly to the quantity of certified rice seeds demanded. Equation (2)
also shows that the price of certified maize seeds as substitutes to rice had a significant influence on the
quantity of certified seeds demanded. The larger the price of maize seeds the larger the quantity of certified
rice seeds demanded. With respect to elasticity, all the explanatory variables were inelastic with respect to
Log PRj.
It was found out that the coefficient of Log PMij in equation (1) was elastic with respect to Log QRij. This
implied that a 1.0% increase in the price per tonne of maize seeds would cause quantity demanded of rice
seeds to increase by 2.9% ceteris paribus.
CONCLUSION
Findings from this study indicated that rice farmers in the study area demanded for certified seeds of rice.
This is a pointer to a virile rice industry in the nearest future. However, the fact that the own price of
certified rice seeds (Log PRij) was elastic is worrisome in view of the present economic liberalization and
deregulation policy characterized by removal of subsidy on agricultural inputs. A rise in the price/kg of
certified rice seeds resulting from increase in the cost of production of the seeds may have a serious effect
on the demand for certified rice seeds.
REFERENCES
Aderinola, E. A. (1992): Economics of Upland Rice in Ondo State. Applied Tropical Agriculture Journal
Vol. 152 – 158.
Chianu, N. (2000): A Comparative Economic Analysis of Labour Use in Fallow Management System in
Sout-West, Nigeria. A Ph.D Thesis In the Department of Agricultural Economics, University of Ibadan,
Ibadan.
Kmenta, J. (1971): Elements of Econometrics; The Macmillan Press Ltd, London, 2nd edition. pp. 105.
Oladeebo, J. O. (2006): Economic Efficiency of Rain Fed Upland Rice Production In Osun and Oyo States
of Nigeria. Unpublished Ph.D Thesis in the Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, Federal
University of Technology, Akure.
Osundare, F.O (2008): Comparative Efficiency of Maize Production Technologies in Southwestern

Nigeria. Unpublished PhD thesis submitted to the Department of Agricultural Economics. Federal
University of Technology, Akure. Pp 162
Usman, I. A. (1994): “Welcome Address” in Evolving the Nigerian Seed Development Plan, Published by
the Federal Department of Agriculture, pp. 1 – 3.
23

Osundare F.O
Department of Agricultural Extension and Management, Federal College of Agriculture Akure
24
ANALYSIS OF THE ROLE OF AGRICULTURAL COOPERATIVES’ IN FUNDING PROCESSING

MILLS IN CROSS RIVER STATE, NIGERIA
Adinya, I.B.1, Odey S.O.2, Oniah M.O.1, Umeh G.N.3, Agiopu, B.F.4 and Ogbonna ,K.I.5
1
Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, 2Department of Agronomy, 4Department of Animal
Science Cross River State University of Technology (Crutech) Obubra Campus, Cross River State, Nigeria,
3
Department of Agricultural Economics, Extension and Management, Ebonyi State University Abakaliki,
5
Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, University of Calabar, Calabar, Nigeria
ABSTRACT
A study was undertaken to determine the role of agricultural co-operative societies as
institutional source of finance to processing mills in Cross River State, Nigeria. Data
were obtained from a random sample of 150 respondents in the study area by means
of structured questionnaire. The first stage involved random selection of fifteen local
government areas from eighteen local government areas in Cross River State. This
was followed by random selection of one village in each of the fifteen local
government areas of Cross River State. Ten respondents were randomly selected from
each of the fifteen co-operative societies making a sample size of 150. The study
revealed that agricultural co-operative societies in Cross River State were established
between 1980 and 2008. The study also revealed that the major reasons for the
formation of farmers’ co-operative societies in the study area is to enable farmers
to obtain loans (60%) and farm inputs (6.67%). The result of the findings indicated
that 90% of the agricultural co-operative societies in the study area have membership
contribution as the major source of funding. The study revealed that cooperatives
funded rice processing mill(12 %), groundnut processing mill( 14.67%), oil palm
processing mill(6.67%), cassava processing mill(7.33%), palm kernel processing
mill(5.33 %), pineapple juice processing mill(3.33%), plantain chip processing
mill(8%), soy bean milk processing mill(8.67%), alcohol (local gin ) processing mill(
5.33%), fish processing mill/animal feed processing mill(6.67%), maize processing
mill(6%), sugar cane processing mill(3.33%), tea processing mill(2%), cocoa
processing mill( 6.67%), and cashew nut processing mill( 4%). Based on these
findings, it was recommended that agricultural co-operative societies should be well
organized and properly managed in Cross River State. Managers and members of
cooperatives should cooperate and collaborate with government agencies such as
universities and formal financial institutions for extra training.
KEYWORDS: Agriculture, Cooperatives, Finance, Farmers, Processing mills
INTRODUCTION
The sources of finance to Nigerian farmers are, broadly speaking, two: formal and informal (Adinya et al,
2008). According to Famoriyo(1980) sources of agricultural credit in Nigeria can be broadly categorized
into two, formal and informal. The formal sources include cooperative societies, Agricultural Development
Banks, Commercial banks and Credit Corporations established by law. While the informal sources include:
merchant’s money lenders, rotatory savings and credit associations. This paper is concerned with the
formal source, specifically, with the role of agricultural co-operative societies as institutional source of
finance to processing mills in Cross River State. Cooperative societies are essential tool for rapid
agricultural and economic development in all developing countries (Johnson, 1995). In Nigeria,
cooperatives had their genesis in the wake of the world depression of 1929-30. The major interest of the
colonial rulers in introducing cooperatives at that time was agricultural; namely to get rid of the Nigeria
Cocoa farmers of the restrictive practices of the middlemen; the high costs of transportation and the paucity
of credit (Ekpere, 1980). This preponderant interest has continued over the decades, so that today
25
Adinya, I.B et al: Continental J. Agricultural Science 2: 25 - 34, 2008
agricultural cooperatives constitute 90% of all cooperatives in the country. They have a variety of forms.
The cooperative societies have a long history of lending to the agricultural sector of our economy.
In 1974, Nigeria had less than 65 cooperatives that were registered and a majority of them are marketing
cooperatives. The hard economy times had resulted in many of them decreasing in number and membership
(Edet, 2003).
According to Roy (1976) cooperative formation enhances the mobilization of resources, efforts and ideas.
Iniodu (1977) revealed that extended family system was seen as a desirable precondition for the successful
introduction of co-operative societies.
There is no doubt that major occupation of rural people in Cross River State is farming (Adinya et al,
2005). They further stated that, to attract government assistance, the farmers have formed themselves into
farmers’ co-operative societies. The influence has always been that the traditional production system of the
Nigerian farmers favored the organization of production along cooperative lines (Ekpere, 1980). The
existence of large communally owned land and plantations were readily presented as examples for the
possibility of cooperatively owned estates.
The growing desire by both government and non-governmental organization and international agencies
such as Agricultural Development Programmes(ADP); Bureau of Cooperative Development(BCD);United
Nations Development Programme(UNDP);International Fund for Agricultural Development(IFAD) ,
World Bank, to mention but a few, to assist in agricultural production in recent years cannot be
overemphasized (Edet, 2003). The primary production mechanisms of agriculture are the farmers who need
to be assisted if agricultural production is to improve. However, both government and non-governmental
organizations cannot assist farmers individually but in organized groups. This stimulated the formation of
various co-operative societies in nooks and crannies of Nigeria (Edet, 2003). He further stated that many of
the farmers’ co-operative societies so formed have benefited from either micro or macro credit facilities of
both government and non-governmental agencies. Some have also benefited from free donations.
This paper reviewed the role of cooperative societies as institutional sources of finance to processing mills
in Cross River State, as well as the benefits derived from agricultural cooperatives in Cross River State.
DEFINITION OF COOPERATIVE
Cooperative is a special corporate form of business organization. In fact, it is not a purely business
enterprise, established with the sole aim of maximizing profit. Rather, it is a friendly organization with
varied aims and objectives such as promoting the welfare of members, and the maintenance of members’
mutual interests. Members of co-operative societies receive only one vote each regardless of the number of
shares they own. They receive interest on their investment and also share in the earnings of the venture
(Olaloye and Atijosan, 1989). Lawal(1975) revealed that co-operative society is an organization in which
a number of people may combine to produce a commodity , the proceeds of which are distributed among
the participants. On the other hand people may combine as consumers’ co-operative society obtaining
goods on wholesale terms and selling them at usual retail prices. The surplus is divided among the
members in the form of dividends on purchase. The basic operating principle of co-operatives is that every
member has one vote in determining the policies and electing the management of the organization. Farmers
may belong to several kinds of co-operative societies namely: Marketing Cooperatives; Processing mills
Cooperatives; Producers Cooperatives- Groundnut Producers Co-operative ; Cocoa Producers C-operative
; Oil palm Producers Co-operative ; Garri Producers Co-operative ; Rice Producers Co-operative ; Sugar
cane Producers co-operative ; Yam Producers Co-operative ; Goat Producers Co-operative ; Beef
Producers Co-operative and Fish Producers Co-operative
IMPORTANCE OF CO-OPERATIVE
One cannot over-emphasize the important role, which co-operatives can play in Nigeria, especially among
the farmers. At present income of individual farmer is low because productivity is low, and myriads of
26
problems face individual farmer. The formation of cooperatives will go a long way to solve these problems.
For instance provision of credit for farmers to buy necessities may be facilitated by the formation of
cooperative societies. By applying for loans as a group, rather than as individuals, the farmers can
provide greater security and assurance that the loans will be paid off once the crops are sold; as a
result they can obtain more credit on better terms than could an individual farmer. The farmers in
Nigeria belong to some form of cooperative societies. These enable the individual farmer to obtain higher
profit for his products and to buy necessities at lower prices (Lawal, 1975). According to Roy (1976)
cooperative offers at least two general advantages which no other business institution can fully match:
*It offers an opportunity for all people, rich and poor, in all walks of lie, to help themselves by
cooperating and pooling their resources however meager, with others.
*It develops and strengthens the individual citizen in acquiring and controlling private property, yet
it preserves individual freedom, dignity and responsibility.
THE ROLE OF COOPERATIVE IN AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT

As a result of unsuccessful attempts to introduce technologies to many less developed countries, experts in
agricultural development assistance have started to view agricultural cooperatives as valuable resources in
agricultural development work. This conceptual change results from efforts directed at understanding
agricultural practices.
In addition, it has been claimed that cooperative can become a resource for agricultural development
beyond those manifested in existing production system. Traditional agriculture can make an important
contribution to efforts to raise productivity. Researchers can use traditional principles to develop new
techniques that preserve the land’s stability and productivity even as population increases (Wolf, 1986).
According to Francis (1988), a new generation of varieties and hybrids adapted to marginal conditions and
to intercropping could be the start of a new generation aimed at meeting the needs of the majority of
limited- resources farmers in developing world. Despite the knowledge and resource base, traditional
methods have limitations that will not enable them to meet the future food and other agricultural needs of
Least Developed Countries (LDCs) except urgent action is taken. The problem created by rapid population
growth and the consequent demand on land will result in negative changes in agricultural production such
as reduced fallow, falling yield, and resource degradation. Despite these limitations, traditional farming
principles constitute a foundation upon which to develop scientific –based but locally acceptable ways of
meeting the farmers’ needs in Least Developed Countries (LDCs). An illustration of this model is the
continuous-cultivation agro-forestry system developed at the International Institute for Tropical Agriculture
(IITA) called “alley cropping” which uses the traditional farming principle of natural regeneration in a
fallow system. Field crops are grown between rows of nitrogen-fixing trees, so foliage from the trees
enhance soil organic matter while nitrogen is fixed in the nodules and increases soil fertility . Using this
method, a higher level of crop production is possible without resorting to a fallow-rotation system. Co-
operative societies provide finance for this modified agricultural system. External ideas are needed,
especially in the application of modern science to improve and enhance traditional agricultural practices
(Titilola, 2003). Sustainable agricultural development is now a major concern of agricultural researchers
and policy-makers in both developing and developed countries (Titilola, 1990).
In developing countries the main concern is with the fragile ecosystem and its implications for future
production and high cost of energy. Other evidences advanced by Kotschi et al (1989) are that:
* The present form of resource use has sustained people in resource-poor and fragile
environments and must be preserved until proven superior forms of resource use have been
developed.
* Local farming knowledge can supply missing ecological links which may help scientists to
develop alternative farming.
* Local farming practices and environment knowledge offer starting points for developing
farming methods which may increase the production and sustainability of local resources.
27
* The world may lose much of the remaining genetic information and plants and animals; such
knowledge and management of biodiversity may also prove useful, especially in the medical and
agriculture fields (Moles, 1988).
Roy (1976) revealed that the average small-scale farmer has a working program, which does not utilize
more than half of his annual labour potentialities; agricultural cooperative can devise various projects
meant to absorb the extra labour force available. Such projects could include handicrafts and various
cottage industries and /or building small irrigation dams, water and feeder roads and building and operating
storage, marketing and processing facilities.
In many developing countries there are increasing problems with urban poverty, especially from migrations
of rural poor cooperative; likewise have a role here, especially with regards to credit unions, workers’
productive cooperatives, housing, health care , child care and transportation , among other needs, including
consumer cooperatives.
METHODOLOGY
The research study was conducted for a period of one year and six months from 1st January, 2007 to 30th
June, 2008 in Cross River State, Nigeria. The state occupies an area of about 22,342.176 Square Kilometers
(Quarterly News Letter of the Ministry of Local Government Affairs, Cross River State, 2006). It is located
at Latitude 5o 25’N and longitude 25o 00’E (Figure 1).
The soils of Cross River State are utisols and alifisol but predominantly utisols (USDA) or
(FAO/UNESCO, 1974).
Cross River State has the largest rainforest covering about 7,290 square kilometers described as one of
Africa’s largest remaining virgin forest harbouring as many as five million species of animals, insects and
plants (MOFINEWS, 2004). Cross River State is located within the evergreen rainforest zone. There are
two distinct climate seasons in the area, rainy season from March to October and dry season from
November to February. The annual rainfall varies from 2,000mm to 3,424mm. The average temperature is
around 28oc (Cross River Agricultural Development Project, 1992). Cross River State is characterized by
presence of numerous ecological and zoo-geographically important high gradient streams, rapids and
waterfalls. About 2,888,966 people inhabit the area, of which the Efiks, Ejaghams and Bekwarras are the
major ethnic groups (Population Census 2006 In: Agbor, 2007 In: MOFINEWS, 2007). Fishing and
28
subsistence agriculture are the main occupations of the people. Crops grown in the locality include rice,
maize, yam, cassava, plantain and banana.
Both primary and secondary sources of data will be used. The secondary sources of data include Review of
Annual Reports, books, census data, journals, statistical documents, whereas the primary source of data
were mainly from field survey. The study covered randomly selected farmers’ cooperative societies in
Cross River State. Fifteen farmers’ cooperative societies were randomly selected for the study. Ten
respondents were randomly selected from each of fifteen agricultural cooperative societies making a
sample size of one hundred and fifty. Structured questionnaires were used in collecting data from 150
respondents from fifteen agricultural cooperative societies.
Table1: Years of establishment of agricultural cooperative societies in Cross River State selected for the
study
Years Frequency Percentage
1980- 1984 15 10
1995-1989 20 13.33
1990-1994 24 16
1995-2008 91 60.67
Total 150 100
Source: Field survey (2008).
The result of the findings on Table 1 revealed that many cooperative societies in Cross River State were
established between 1980 and 2008. This result is in line with the findings of Edet (2003) which observed
that the formation of many farmers’ cooperative societies during the period was as a result of some
agricultural programmes which came up during the period such as Family Economic Advancement
Programme (FEAP), Family Support Programme (FSP), Life Enhancement Programmed(LEP), among
many others, which have provided an enabling ground for the establishment of cooperative societies.
Table 2: Reasons for the formation of agricultural cooperative societies in Cross River State
Reasons Frequency Percentage
Provide help to members 36 24
Access to farm inputs 10 6.67
To benefit from NGOs 4 2.67
Attract government assistance 10 6.67
Loan acquisition 90 60
Total 150 100
Table 2: revealed that the major reason for the formation of cooperative societies in the study area was to
enable farmers to obtain loans (60%). Apart from loan acquisition, other reasons such as access to farm
inputs 6.67%, attracting government assistance 6.67%, attracting benefit from NGOs 2.6%7 and providing
help to members 24%.
29
Table 3: Membership composition of agricultural cooperative societies in Cross River State

Characteristic of Frequency Percentage
members
Gender
Female 45 30
Male 105 70
Total 150 100
Main occupation
Farmers 147 98
Civil servants 3 2
Total 150 100
Level of education
Illiterate 120 80
Literate 30 20
Total 150 100
State of origin
Non- indigenous 9 94
Indigenous 141 6
Total 150 100
Table 3; indicated that cooperative societies in the study area have a high percentage of male membership
(70%). The table further indicated that farmers recorded a high percentage membership composition (98%)
of the cooperative societies in the study area. This implies that farmers are aware of fact that both
government and non-governmental organizations cannot assist farmers individually but in organized
groups; therefore, they formed various co-operative societies to enable them benefit from either micro or
macro credit facilities of both government and non-governmental agencies.
Table 4: Major source of funding of the agricultural cooperative societies in Cross River State
Source of funding Frequency Percentage
Levies 6 4.00
Government grant 2 1.33
Membership contribution
Share capital 22 14.66
Savings 35 23.34
Special deposit 45 30
Reserve 40 26.67
Total 150 100
The result of the findings on Table 4 indicated that 94.67% of co-operative societies in the study
area have membership contribution as the major source of funding. This result agrees with the
30
views of Ekpere(1980); and Edet (2003) which observed that organization and individuals should
pool their resource together for self help and for achieving organization goals.
Table 5: Financial position of agricultural cooperative societies in Cross River State

Amount(N) Frequency Percentage
500,000.00-10,000,000.00 108 72
10,500,000.00-20,500,000.00 40 26.67
No response 2 1.33
Total 150 100
Table 5; revealed that a low percentage of cooperative societies (1.33%) refused to disclose their
financial position. This result agrees with the views of Edet (2003) which observed that this was
always the case, some organizations always want to keep their financial position very secret..
However, 26.67% indicated that their financial position stood at N10,500,000.00-20,500,000.00 .
While 72 % indicated their own to be N 500,000.00-10,000,000.00
Table 6: Benefits derived from agricultural cooperative societies in Cross River State
Benefits Frequency Percentage
Farm inputs 39.00 26.00
Skill acquisition 20.00 13.33
Insurance cover 0.00 0.00
Loans 91.00 60.67
Total 150 100
Table 6 revealed that 60.67% of respondents of collected loans. Farm inputs and skill acquisition had 26%
and 13.33% respectively. This result agrees with findings of (Utsu, 2000; Adinya et al, 2008) which
observed that farmers demand for credit arises because of their meager farm income and the need to change
mode of production. Agricultural credit helps to improve farm output and economic well-being of both
large and small-scale farmers. Agricultural credit is not only important for accelerating agricultural
development but also in improving farmers’ efficiency (Miller, 1997). This implies that agricultural credit
is necessary for agricultural and economy development.
Table 7: Nature of management of both human , financial and materials resources by farmers’ cooperative
societies in Cross River State
Nature of Strongly Disagreed Agreed Strongly Frequ Tota
management Disagreed agreed ency l
Frequency/ 80(53. 30(20%) 22(14.7%) 18(12%) 150 100
percentage 3%)
mean
Well 4(2.7%) 10(6.7%) 30(20%) 106(70.7%) 150 100
managed
Not well 86(57.3%) 24(16%) 18(12%) 22(14.7%) 150 100
managed
Excellently 86(57.3%) 24(16%) 18(12%) 22(14.7%) 150 100
managed
Fairly 15(10%) 20(13.3%) 35(23.3%) 80(53.3%) 150 100
managed
31
The result of the findings on Table 7 revealed that the resources of most cooperative societies in Cross
River State are not well managed (14.7%). While 70.7% of respondents stated that most of the cooperative
societies in Cross River State are well managed, implies that resources of most cooperative societies are
well managed in Cross River State.
Table 8:Projects undertaken by fifteen cooperative societies(randomly selected) since their inception in
Cross River State
Projects undertaken Frequency Percentage Status
Groundnut processing mill 22 14.67 Completed
Oil palm processing mill 10 6.67 Completed
Rice processing mill 18 12 Completed
Cassava processing mill 11 7.33 Completed
Palm kernel processing mill 8 5.33 Completed
Pineapple juice processing mill 5 3.33 Completed
Plantain chip processing mill 12 8 Completed
Soy bean milk processing mill 13 8.67 Completed
Alcohol (local gin ) processing mill 8 5.33 Completed
Fish processing mill/animal feed 10 6.67 Completed
processing mill
Maize processing mill 9 6 Completed
Sugar cane processing mill 5 3.33 Completed
Tea processing mill 3 2 Completed
Cocoa processing mill 10 6.67 Completed
cashew nut processing mill 6 4 Completed
Total 150 100 Completed
Table 8; revealed that cooperatives funded rice processing mill(12 %), groundnut processing mill(
14.67%), oil palm processing mill(6.67%), cassava processing mill(7.33%), palm kernel processing
mill(5.33 %), pineapple juice processing mill(3.33%), plantain chip processing mill(8%), soy bean milk
processing mill(8.67%), alcohol (local gin ) processing mill( 5.33%), fish processing mill/animal feed
processing mill(6.67%), maize processing mill(6%), sugar cane processing mill(3.33%),tea processing
mill(2%), cocoa processing mill( 6.67%), and cashew nut processing mill (4%). The implication of the
result is that cooperative societies are aware of the importance of funding processing mills which resulted
to the state’s growth and development.
CONCLUSION
The problem of lack of credit for agricultural production in Nigeria has caused agricultural cooperative
societies in Cross River State to be concerned on how best to solve the problem. The study found that
cooperative societies in Cross River State were established between 1980 and 2007. The study also
revealed that the major reason for the formation of cooperative societies in Cross River State was to enable
farmers obtain loans (60%). Managers and members of cooperatives should cooperate and collaborate with
government agencies such as universities and formal financial institutions for extra training.
Base on the findings, the following recommendations are made:

(i) A participatory approach should be their watch word in the management of their cooperative
societies in Cross River State.
(ii) Member of cooperative societies in Cross River State should be well
trained by government agencies such as universities and formal financial institutions.
(iii) Agricultural cooperative societies should be well organized and properly managed.
32
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Titilola T.S. (1990). The Economics of Incorporating Indigenous Knowledge System into Agricultural
Development: A model and Analytical Framework Studies in Technology and Social Change. Iowa State
University, Ames Iowa, U.S.A. Pp 1-20
Titilola T.S. (2003). Indigenous Knowledge within the framework of Sustainable Agricultural
Development in Nigeria. Paper presented at the 1st National Conference on Indigenous Knowledge and
Development Markurdi, Benue State Nigeria .Pp13-29.
Utsu, S.A. (2002). The Impact of Small-holders Loan Scheme on Swamp Rice Production in Obanliku
Local Government Area, Cross River State. HND Project Unpublished Cross River University of
Technology Obubra, Cross River State, Nigeria Pp1-30
Wolf C.E. (1986). Beyond the Green Revolution: New Approaches for Third World Agriculture. World
Watch Paper 13. Washington D.C. World Watch Institute.Pp1-47.

Adinya, I.B.
Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, Cross River State University of Technology
(Crutech) Obubra Campus, Cross River State, Nigeria,
e-mail address bon 4 all_2006 yahoo.com
34
LONG TERM EFFECT OF LEUCAENA LEUCOCEPHALA ON SOIL PHYSICO-CHEMICAL

PROPERTIES AND FRESH FRUIT BUNCH (FFB) PRODUCTION OF OIL PALM.
Imogie, A.E., Udosen, C.V., Ugbah, M.M and S.N. Utulu.

Agronomy Division, Nigerian Institute for Oil Palm Research (NIFOR), P.M.B. 1030, Benin City, Edo
State.
ABSTRACT
The study investigated a long-term effect of Leucaena leucocephala a leguminous
tree crop on the soil physico-chemical properties and its possible effect on the fresh
fruit bunch (FFB) production of oil palm. Leucaena leucocephala had a highly
significant (P<.01) effect on soil physico-chemical properties than the control. The
soil under Leucaena leucocephala exhibited relatively high mean weight diameter,
water retention, total soil available N, available P and Exchangeable cation, than the
control, and thus enhanced fresh fruit bunch (FFB) production. Mean fresh fruit
bunch yield, over a three year period, was significantly higher (P<0.05), with FFB
yields of 10.93 tons / ha in plots with Leucaena leucocephala as against 6.8 tons / ha
in the control plots.
KEYWORDS: Long term, Leucaena leucocephala, physico-chemical properties, and

fresh fruit bunch yields.
INTRODUCTION
Maintenance of soil organic matter is very essential for the successful growth and yield of crops. There are
thousand of farmers throughout the world (mostly poor resource farmers) that due to enormous constraints
cannot afford the use of chemical fertilizers to enhance or maintain soil fertility (Conway, 1997).
Fertilizers have proved over the years to improve crop yields, but they are not without their short comings
and problems. According to Kang and Mulongoy (1992) the use of fertilizers alone cannot maintain soil
productivity, as these soils require a regular supply of organic matter. The maintenance of soil fertility in
the tropics is a major agricultural challenge. In the tropical soils, the organic matter content has to be
enhanced regularly in view of rapid oxidation and exhaustion (Asawalam, 2004). Nutrient availability
depends greatly on the general soil conditions, soil life and organic matter content (Magdoff and Van Es,
2000). Agricultural production in low input system in the tropics relies largely on nutrient recycling and
maintenance of soil fertility through biological processes. One of such biological system is alley cropping
which utilizes perennial woody leguminous tree species to produce biomass and recycle nutrients in an
important agro-forestry system thus hasten soil fertility restoration. Soil structure controls many aspects of
productive potentials like air and heat flow into and out of the soil, water retention and movement as well
as ease of root penetration and uptake of nutrients elements. Whereas soil texture cannot be changed
economically over a short period of time, soil structure may be easily changed to advantage by proper
management. Indices of soil structure include bulk density, porosity and soil aggregate size and stability.
Evidences have shown that alley cropping has beneficial effects on the soil physico chemical properties
(Arowolo, 2007). Leucaena leucocephala used in alley cropping contribute to soil fertility and food crop
nutrition when their pruning decomposed as liters. Attah-Krah(1990) reported that within six months,
leucaena leucocephala fixed 250kg N/ha. Also Kang and Mulongoy (1992) reported a range of 150 –
160kg N/ha that was fixed by Leucaena leucocephala. According to Kang et al (1990) and Attah-Krah and
Okali (1986) they observed that soils under Leucaena leuccocepha had a higher soil organic matter, total
soil N, low soil temperature fluctuation, high soil moisture and soil moisture retention than soil without
Leucaena leucocephala. Arowolo (2007) observed that erosion in plots with Leucaena leucocephala was
reduced by 83% when compared to the control treatment. Kang and Mulongoy (1992) reported that yields
of crop could be maintained for many years at reasonable levels with the use of leucaena leucocephala
without application of inorganic fertilizers. Despite these benefiting advantages, its adoption was on the
lower side. There is a dearth of information on long term effect of Leucaena leucocephala on soil
properties supporting oil palm and its possible effect on yield. Thus this study was carried out to
35
Imogie, A.E et al: Continental J. Agricultural Science 2: 35 - 40, 2008
investigate the long-term effect of Leucaena leucocephala on physico-chemical properties of soil

supporting oil palms and their implication on oil palm fresh fruit bunch (FFB) production.

The study was carried out at the Main station of the Nigerian Institute for Oil Palm Research (NIFOR) in
Ovia North East Local Government Area of Edo State, Nigeria. Fields 1 and 39 were used for these
experiments. These fields were established with oil palm in 1987 with the view of establishing the
compatibility of the oil palm and selected leguminous hedgerows. Also to determine the possibility of
sustaining the performance of the crops and the economic viability of the oil palm based alley cropping.
The fields were laid out as a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three replicates, with control
plots having no Leucaena leucocephala. The palms were spaced at 9m x 14m rectangular with 77 palms/ha.
The interrows were planted with Leaucaena leucocephala. At the beginning of the year before cropping
season, the Leaucaena leucocephala are pruned down and their litres spread evenly to allowed proper
decomposition before food crops are intercropped. Over the years the spacing between two rows were
sequentially intercropped with maize, melon and cassava until later 2005. Inorganic fertilizers were not
applied in both the Leucaena leucocephala plots and the control plots.
Three pedons were sited on the top, middle and lower slope of each field. Bulk soil samples were taken at
four depths (0 – 15, 15 – 30, 30 – 45, and 45 – 60cm) using soil sampling augur. The samples collected
were air-dried, crushed and sieved using 2mm sieve. The sieved soil samples were analysed for organic
matter using wet dichromate oxidation method of Walkey and Black (1934). Soil pH was determined in
water suspension (1:1 soil to solution ratio) using a pH meter. Particle size distribution was determined by a
combination of wet sieving and hydrometer techniques (Bouyoucous, 1951) method. Total nitrogen was
determined with macro-kjeldhal apparatus as described by Bremner (1965). Available P was determined
using Bray-1 method as described by Bray and Kurtz (1945). Exchangeable bases were measures by
extraction with neutral N NH4OAC. Potassium in the extract was determined by flame photometry, while
the calcium and magnesium were determined by atomic absorption spectrophotometer. Mean weight
diameter (MWD) was calculated as the accumulated sum of each fraction times the corresponding mean
mesh size of the two sieves passing and retaining the fraction (Van Bovel, 1949). Dispersible clay and wet
aggregate stability (WAS) were measured on the same sample by adopting the procedure described by
Darwish et al (1995). Oil palm yield of fresh fruit bunch (FFB) for 2004 to 2006 were obtained from
Harvesting Division, NIFOR. Data obtained were subjected to analysis of variances (ANOVA) according
to Steel and Torrie (1984) model. Mean of treatments were separated using the L east Significant
Difference at 5% levels of probability.

Data on the effects of Leucaena leucocepha on soil chemical properties are presented in Table 1. Leucaena
leucocephala had a highly significant effect (P<0.01) on soil chemical properties, both the physical and
chemical properties of the soil were significantly improved by the Leucaena leucocephala over the control.
The soil nutrient contents, such as soil pH, organic matter, total available N, available P, exchangeable K,
Mg and Ca were highly improved than the control. The soil pH was improved for relatively acidic to
neutral and this is due to improvement of the soil structure due to the addition of humus from the decayed
litres. The total N, available P and Exchangeable K, Mg and Ca were relatively higher in plots with
Leucaena leucocephala than the control. The improvement of the soil nutrient could be attributed to the
fact that Leucaena leucocephala apart of the ability of fixing N in the soil, through dead and decayed of
fallen leaves significantly added high quantities of N and organic matter to the soil (Table 1). According to
Magdof and Van Es. (2000), Leucaena leucocephala also provided a favourable microclimate, which
enhanced microfunna activities, thus enhancing soil water holding capacity and nutrient recycling by
beneficial biological organism. The microclimate provided by the Leucaena leucocephala trees allowed
borrowed organism to borrowed into the soil and aid in degradation of fallen liters and also loosing the soil
structures which will aid aeration and rooty of the crops.
36
Table 1: Leucaena leucocephala effect on soil chemical properties at various depths
Soil depth
Organic Matter pH Total N Bray p-1 mg kg-1 K cmol kg-1 Exch. Mg cmol kg-1 Exch. Ca. cmol kg-1
(cm) gkg-1 (gkg-1)
LL CC LL CC LL CC LL CC LL CC LL CC LL CC
0 – 15 43.0 30.0 7.0 6.0 3.5 1.7 19.9 12.0 0.26 0.15 0.35 0.15 0.30 0.20
15 – 30 35.0 8.0 6.5 5.7 2.3 1.5 16.10 10.2 0.26 0.13 0.23 0.08 0.20 0.15
30 – 45 23.0 8.0 6.0 5.5 2.3 1.4 16.0 4.0 0.15 0.10 0.15 0.08 0.20 0.15
45 – 60 9.5 6.7 5.9 5.6 2.1 1.2 8.0 4.0 0.15 0.10 0.09 0.08 0.20 0.15
LSD 0.05 3.25 0.123 0.04 1.23 0.04 0.15 0.08
LL: Leucaena Leucocephala
CC: Control
Table 2: Leucaena leucocephala effect on some selected soil properties

Bulk density Total porosity Infiltration Dispensable Mean Wet aggregate Particle size distribution
g/cm3 % rate cm/min clay Kg-1 weight stability gKg-1 %
Treatment diameter Clay silt Sand
mm
Leucaena Leucocephala 0.8 69.8 0.86 0.93 1.06 0.26 20.8 12.9 65.3
Control 1.3 50.9 0.54 1.06 0.87 0.13 22.8 10.9 66.3
LSD 0.05 0.016 2.11 0.13 0.03 0.03 0.04 7.5 8.5 10.5
37
Table 3: Oil palm mean bunch number (MBN), single bunch weight (SBW) and fresh fruit bunch (FFB) production as influenced by leucaena leucocephala
between 2004 to 2006.
Treatment Mean bunch Mean single Fresh fruit bunch (FFB)

number/palm bunch weight t / ha
Kg/palm
2004 2005 2006 2004 2005 2006 Mean
Leucaena 6.5 7.0 7.3 15.3 8.6 10.3 13.9 10.93
leucocephala
Control 4.5 5.3 4.0 10.2 6.2 6.7 7.6 6.8
LSD 0.57 1.67 2.17 2.13 0.36 1.55 1.57 1.23
38
Table 2: shows long-term effect of Leucaena leucocephala on soil physical properties. Leucaena
leucocephala had a highly significant (P<0.01) effect on soil physical properties. Soil structure controls
many aspects of productive potentials like air and heat flow into and out of the soil, water retention and
movement as well as ease of -- penetration and uptake of elements. Indices of soil structures include bulk
density, porosity and soil aggregate size and stability. These were highly improved by Leucaena
leucocephala than the control. Soil with Leucaena leucocephala had high water retention capacity, high
porosity, and infiltration rate than the control. This may be attributed to improved soil structure due to
Leucaena leucocepha. The mean weight diameter (MWD) which is a measure of soils ability to withstand
wind erosion and other soil parameters such as wet aggregate stability, total porosity infiltration rate were
significantly affected by Leucaena Leucocephala over the control. Soil water and the physical properties
related to its storage play significant role in determining how a soil should be managed and the productive
potential of the soil. Soil with Leucaena leucocephala had higher organic matter than the control, thus
retained more water than the control. This enhanced proper nutrient utilization, because the available water
provide medium for dissolution and assumption of the minerals nutrient. Leucaena leucocephala also
provides a favourble environment for biological organisms, which help in nutrient recycling. Soil funna,
especially earthworms are important for the recycling of soil nutrients and the decomposition and
mineralization of crop residues (Asawalam, 2004). Shading provided by Leucaena leucocephala enhanced
the activities of these micro-organisms because they are sensitive to ultra violet radiation. Visual
observation shows a high cast formation in plots with Leucaena Leucocephala than the control plots.
Table 3: shows that fresh fruit bunch (FFB) production were significantly higher (P<0.05) in plots with
Leucaena leucocephala than the control. This high performance of palms in Leucaena leucocephala could
be attributed to improved soil structure and nutrient as influenced by Leucaena leucocephala. Leucaena
leucocephala increased mean FFB yield in 2004 by 38.7%, in 2005 FFB yield increased by 53.7% and in
2006, it increased by 82.9% over the control.
CONCLUSION
The result of this study shows that leucaena Leucocephala had tremendous impact on the soil properties
and thus increased the efficiency of nutrient used and minimized nutrient loss from the agro-system. Oil
palm fresh fruit bunch yields were significantly increased by leucaena Leucocephala over the control for
the 3 year period. Thus it is a cost-effective way to improve the productivity of small, resource poor
farmers.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors are grateful to Dr. D.A. Okiy, Executive Director, of the Nigerian Institute for Oil Palm
Research (NIFOR) in Ovia North East Local Government Area of Edo State, Nigeria for sponsoring this
project.
REFERENCES
Arowolo, A.D. (2007). Alley farming and sustainable Agriculture. Proceedings of Annual Conference of
IRDI Research and Development Network, Vol. 2. No. 4, 27-28, Pp44-48.
Asawalam, D.O. (2004), Biological activity of surface casting tropical earthworms in relation to nutrient
cycling and soil fertility. Nigerian Journal of Soil Science, 14:56-63.
Attah-Krah, A.N. (1990) Alley farming with Leucaena: Effect of short grazed fallows on soil fertility and
crop yields. Experimental Agriculture, 26:1-10.
Attah–Krah, A.N. and Okali, D.U. (1986): Report of advisory Group Meeting on Use of Nuclear
Techniques in studying Roles of Trees in Restoring and Maintaining Soil Fertility “IAEA, Vienna.
39
Bouyoucous, G.J. (1951): A recalibration of the hydrometer for making mechanical analysis of soils.
Agronomy Journal, 43:434-438.
Bray, R.N. and Kurtz, L.T. (1945): determination of the organic and available forms of
phosphorus in soil. Soil Science 59:39-45.
Bremner, J.M. (1965). Total nitrogen. In Black C.A. (Ed) method of soil analysis, Agronomy Monograph
9 No.2, 226-234. American Society of Agronomy; Madison Wiscon, USA.
Conway, G.R. (1997): The Doubly Green Revolution, Penguin books, London, 105Pps.
Darwish, O.H. Persaud, N and Martens, D.C. (1995). Effects of long term application of Animal manure
on physical properties of three soils. Plant and Soil 176:289-295.
Kang, B.T., Reynolds, L.S. and Attah-Krah, A.N. (1990). Alley farming Advantage Agronomy Journal
43:315-359.
Kang, B.T. and Mulongoy, K. (1992). Nitrogen contribution of woody legumes in alley
cropping systems. In Mulonogy, K., Gueye, M and Spencer, D.S.C. eds.
Biological Nitrogen Fixation and sustainability of Tropical Agriculture, Pp 367-375. J. Willey.
Magdoff, F., and VanEs. H. (2000): Building Soils for better crops. Sustainable Agriculture Network Pp.
2005.
Van Bovel, C.M.M. (1949). Mean weight diameter of soil aggregates on plant growth from polygens and
organic matter applied to soil simultaneously. Soil Science 141, 334-341. Chickester, U.K.
Walkey, A. and Black, I. A. (1934): An examination of the degtajareff method for derterming organic
matter and a proposed modification of the chromic and acid titration method. Soil Science, 37: 93-98.

Imogie, A.E.
Agronomy Division, Nigerian Institute for Oil Palm Research (NIFOR), P.M.B. 1030, Benin City, Edo
State.
Email-imogie@yahoo.com
40

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Continental J.

Agricultural Science 2: 1 - 5, 2008

EFFECT OF SAND OR SOIL AS A DIETARY COMPONENT ON PHOSPHORUS UTILIZATION

G. O. Wordu And I. W. Deedua

KEY WORDS: Soil ingestion, phosphorus, Aluminum, iron, goat.

Table 1: composition of Basal Diet

Table 2: Chemical characteristics of sand and soil

Table 3: Mineral composition of experimental Dietsa

_______________________ ppm _____________________

Table 4: Effect of sand or soil ingestion on serum minerals in goat a

Item Sand Soil SDb

Valdivai, R. Ammerman, C. B; Henry, P. R: Feaster, J. P. and Wilcox, C. J. (1982). Affect of dietary

Received for Publication: 16/01/2008

E.I. Moyin – Jesu

KEYWORDS : Pigeon pea, soil amendment, growth, leaf chemical composition,

Theoretical framework for the research

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Soil Analysis Before the second experiment.

Collection, Processing And Analysis of the Treatments used

Leaf Analysis of the Yam/Plant

Chemical Composition of the Organic Material

The growth And Yield Parameters Of Yam Under Different Treatments

Leaf chemical Composition of Yam Under Different Fertilizer Treatments

Soil Chemical Composition of Yam plot After Harvesting

Comparative Advantage of Pigeon Pea Plant as Soil Amendment

Received for Publication: 17/06/2008

Table 1: Soil Chemical Analysis Before the experiment

pH Organic N P Exchangeable bases Bulk

Poultry Manure 3.90 0.75 0.48 0.54 0.35 0.09

* Source: Bonchee and Anecksamphant (1993)

Control 42.18a 0.38a 12.38a 536.10a 9.78a 1.00a

Control(no fertilizer) 1.03a 0.5a 0.4a 0.10a 0.10a

Treatments Bulk pH O.M N P K Ca Mg

* 1kg of pigeon pea seeds = N50($0.5)

MILLET AS A REPLACEMENT FOR CORN IN GROWING/FINISHING SWINE DIETS: EFFECTS

Uchewa, E. N and Otuma, M. O

KEYWORD: Pig Millet, Nutrient output, replacement and performance.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION.

Table 1. Nutrient composition of diets.

Table 2. Effects of dietary treatment on nitrogen excretion.

Table 3. Effects dietary treatment on phosphorus excretion.

Received for Publication: 03/07/2008

Osundare F.O1 and Aderinola E.A2

KEY WORDS: Factors, Demand, Certified Rice Seeds.

Model Specification and Analytical Technique

QRij = βo + β1PRij + β2PMij + β3DRij + β4FRij + β5YRij + EMij……..(1)

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Log QRij = 0.232 - 0.500 log PRij + 2.90* log PMij

Osundare, F.O (2008): Comparative Efficiency of Maize Production Technologies in Southwestern

Received for Publication: 03/06/2008

ANALYSIS OF THE ROLE OF AGRICULTURAL COOPERATIVES’ IN FUNDING PROCESSING

KEYWORDS: Agriculture, Cooperatives, Finance, Farmers, Processing mills

THE ROLE OF COOPERATIVE IN AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT

Table 3: Membership composition of agricultural cooperative societies in Cross River State

Table 5: Financial position of agricultural cooperative societies in Cross River State

Base on the findings, the following recommendations are made:

FAO/UNESCO (1974). Soil Map of the World, FAO (1994) Paris.

Received for Publication: 03/07/2008

LONG TERM EFFECT OF LEUCAENA LEUCOCEPHALA ON SOIL PHYSICO-CHEMICAL

Imogie, A.E., Udosen, C.V., Ugbah, M.M and S.N. Utulu.

KEYWORDS: Long term, Leucaena leucocephala, physico-chemical properties, and

investigate the long-term effect of Leucaena leucocephala on physico-chemical properties of soil

MATERIALS AND METHODS

___ ppm _