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Diagnostics
In the 1970s, most measurement
systems for nuclear tests relied on
coaxial cables connected to single x-ray
diodes. As electronics technologies
were improved, coaxial cables were
replaced by fiber optics, streak
cameras, multiplexing, and other new
technologies. With the advent of the
x-ray laser effort, scientists suddenly
needed vast quantities of high
resolution data that could not be
gathered by using conventional
techniques. This need for more
detailed data pushed the immense
growth in the development of
advanced electro-optic devices used
in nuclear tests.
Transmission Crystal Spectrometer
A good example of the tremendous
progress in measurement systems
technologies is the transmission
crystal spectrometer (TRACS).
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X-ray
source
Cylindrically bent
transmission crystal
X-ray
Crystal-plane spacing, d
Detector
Rowland circle
Legacy
X-Ray Imaging
One potential use of a laboratory
x-ray laser is in imaging. X-ray lasers
are being coupled with x-ray
microscopes to image biological
samples. Using x-ray lasers as a light
source, we may be able to use x-ray
MCP intensifier
Incident
x rays
Integrating
direction
Fast
phosphor (CdS)
Imaging direction
Electrons
Cul or Csl
photocathode
Fiber-optic
faceplate
1 kV
Fiber-optic
faceplate
+20 kV
32916
Nilsen
NEW fig 2
JXC
resolving intensified
detectors for low-level
x-ray detection. The
photocathode converts
x rays to photoelectrons
and the microchannel
plate (MCP) intensifier
amplifies the photoelectrons. The
electrostatic focusing
electrode compresses
the electron current in
one dimension, and the
CdS phosphor converts
the electrons kinetic
energy to light. Finally,
the fiber-optic faceplate
transmits the light out
of the vacuum system.
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Legacy
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New Materials
Another outgrowth of the X-Ray
Laser Program was the research and
development done in very low-density
foams, such as silica aerogels, organic
aerogels, and safe-emulsion agar gel
(SEAgel). Aerogels are solid foams
so low in density that they are mostly
empty space. They are open-cell
structures, like a sponge, with tiny
pores (< 50 nm in diameter). Because
both the particle and pore sizes are
much smaller than the wavelengths in
the visible spectrum (350 to 800 nm),
aerogels are transparent to visible light.
(a)
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Photographic film
MCP detector
Filter
Zone plate objective
Tantalum
foil target
Test specimen
on pinhole
X-ray laser beam
Nova laser
beams
Filter
Nilsen
Fig #07
E&TR 11/12 93
28217
TJC
(a)
Single pass
Double pass
Amplifier
Mirror
(b)
1500
Relative intensity
Legacy
Second pass
1000
First pass
500
0.2
0.4
0.6
Time, ns
0.8
1.0
Figure 5.
(a)
176.0 cm
37.0 cm
15.0 cm
[Si(Li)
8-keV
microfocus
x-ray source
(b)
8-keV
phase lens
100-micron
aperture
Scanning
sample
platform
(a)
Schematic of the 8keV scanning x-ray
microscope geometry
and (b) image of an
ant made with this
microscope. The
tabletop x-ray
microscope creates
images by scanning
a sample with a
focused x-ray spot
that is produced using
a phase-modulating
zone plate and a
copper K- source.
The image of the ant
shows features as
small as 50 m; each
pixel = 15 m.
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Legacy
Figure 6. Tom
Tillotson, a chemist at
LLNL, applies a
propane torch to the
top of a 2.5-cm-thick
silica aerogel brick.
His hand remains
totally unaffected by
the heat.
Figure 7. A piece of
SEAgel floating on
soap bubbles in a
beaker. This verylow-density organicbased foam, made
from the foodthickening agent
agar, is safe enough
to eat and could be
used as food
packaging or
encapsulating
material for timedrelease medication.
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Legacy
Materials Analysis
When we build experiments like
those to be included with a nuclear test,
we must follow strict manufacturing
tolerances. To meet these tolerances, we
have developed several characterization
techniques that can handle thousands
of new parts a year, and many of them,
our radiographic methods in particular,
have applications in the biomedical
industry. For example, we have used
our diagnostic technique for finding
tiny flaws in SDI components to
detect flaws in samples of material
used for artificial heart valves. This
application is extremely important,
considering that 1.5 million people
have artificial heart valves and that
even the slightest flaw in these valves
can be fatal. In these diagnostic
experiments, the sample material is
Figure 8. The EBIT (electron-beam ion trap), developed and built at LLNL to obtain direct
measurements on highly charged ions. With this device, we can create very highly charged
ions (up to a +82 charge state, for neon-like uranium) and then measure the x rays produced
by the ions when they interact with the free electrons of EBITs electron beam. These
measurements provide data, which when compared with theoretical predictions, allow us to
extend our understanding of the nature of matter.
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Legacy
(b)
(c)
Figure 9. (a) A digitized mammogram. For reference, part of the pectoral muscle is visible at top left. (b) High-frequency image of the same
breastthe area bordered by a rectangle in (a)with the soft-tissue structure absent. This image was obtained after applying our algorithm.
With data displayed in this manner, the pattern of calcification is evident without any distracting background information. (c) Using part of
the original digital image bordered by the rectangle in (a) as background, we can highlight the most suspicious microcalcifications with
circles. A mammographer can focus on the circles in the context of the overall breast structure.
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Conclusion
The world has changed
dramatically during the last decade,
and the part of the X-Ray Laser
Program that President Reagan
proposed is no longer being pursued.
Legacy
For further
information
contact
Joseph Nilsen
(510) 422-4766.
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