CHAPTER

Man-Made Disasters

GOAL
This chapter teaches the various aspects of man-made disasters and
explains each disaster in details with context to its nature, cause and
how we can prevent these disasters.
OBJECTIVES
1. List down the man-made disasters.
2. Explain in detail each of these disasters.
INTRODUCTION
Although disasters natural or man-made are inevitable. With
advancement of science and technology accidents come. The
urbanizations, industrialization has increased the man-made and
technological disasters. Overcrowding and urban development have
also increased man-made disasters. In some parts of the world, civil
unrest, riots and war markedly increased the risk of injury and
death. In the western world, school violence has been increasing
in intensity and magnitude. The cost of disaster recovery has also
risen sharply because of the number of people involved and the
amount of technology that must be restored. Natural hazards and
man-made hazards are not separate entities they must be considered
together. Natural hazards are at present the major cause of death
and property. There is no hazard unless human, their possessions
and their activities are involved.
Some of the man-made hazards are soil loss due to poor
agricultural practices, constructional failure due to poor engineering
practices, pollution due to poor water supply management. Other
factors contributing to increasing scale of hazards are increased
population concentration, increased technological development,

Section I

36

Introduction to Disasters

increased industrialization, excursive use of noxious fume emitters,

faulty transportation system and excessive emphasis on commercial
development. All these factors gives long-term effect on environment,
e.g. Acid rain, destruction of ozone layer by chlorofluorocarbon and
natural and man-made interaction such as greenhouse effect and
these in growing series of major environmental problems that require
scientific research and careful evaluation.
Many catastrophic events within the environment are man induced
or worsen by intervention of man; this reduces their neutralities and
gives weight to need for hazard mapping. Some of the man-made
activities are also contributing to cause of natural hazards, e.g. manmade pollution in sea damages marine life and destroying marine
environment over large areas hazards to road in Himalayas because
of poor engineering practices or insufficient prior investigation.
Figure 4.1 shows how water and air become contaminated and
polluted due to industrialization and urbanization.
Greenhouse effect is one of complex hazard. Evolving man-made
acceleration of natural change.

Water pollution
Fig. 4.1: Man-made hazards

Air pollution

Man-Made Disasters

Famine
Famine is a hazard that is induced by overpopulation. You may define
famine as the shortage of food and clean drinking water. Famine
leads to human and animal deaths. The main cause of famine is crop
failure due to lack of rain or untimely rain. Other causes could be
natural disasters such as floods, earthquakes and so on.
Drought
Drought can be defined as a condition of unusually dry climate
within a certain geographic region due to lack of annual rainfall.
Drought is a natural disaster, which is hazardous to human beings
because it results in water shortage, causes damages to crops, and
an increased death rate of livestock and wild animals. Drought
also results in shortage of electricity. Reports show, many people
worldwide die during the time of drought. In drought-prone areas
certain measures such as construction of reservoirs, rain-harvest
system and stopping over-grazing could be taken. Drought causes
increase in food prices and unemployment. The incidents of forest
fires would be more at the time of drought. Drought affects the
entire human and animal population of that geographical location.
Fires
It is most common man-made disaster. It is second most common
disaster in the world. It causes heavy damage in regards to human life
and property. Forest fires are caused due to natural phenomena. In
other causes human failure, negligence, system failure and accidents.

Chapter 4

Some of the Man-made Disasters are

1. Famine
2. Drought
3. Fires
4. Explosions
5. Biological warfare
6. Chemical warfare
7. Environmental pollution

37

38

Introduction to Disasters

Section I

Effects
Rise in the temperature in the surrounding area is main cause of
damage in fires. Smoke is the other reason for loss of human lives
and damage to the health. Burning of the structure causes collapse
of the buildings and there is huge economic loss.
Explosions
Explosive devices cause huge losses among the populations. These
are chemical substances which explodes when ignited they release
huge chemical substances and fine particles causing blasting effect.
The damage caused because of their high penetrating capacity. Their
velocity ranging from 2 km to 9 km per seconds. These substances
can be solids, liquids, jelly and gases. Since these are nonmetallic may
not be detected by metal detectors. Their severity depends upon their
quantity and quality of the material used. Greater the compactness
greater the intensity.
High Explosive Bomb
Impact, penetration, blast, fragmentation and earthshock caused by
explosion of a 500 lbs. High explosive bomb can give rise to injuries
but the majority of casualties are the result of blast, fragmentation
and fear psychosis. The blast is strong enough to strike a severe blow
to a person standing within 50 ft. Causing hemorrhage from internal
organs, particularly lungs; rupture of eardrums is quite common.
Many buildings collapse due to blast and a large number of persons
may suffer indirectly from crushing injuries, fractures, suffocation
and wounds. Irregularly shaped very fast traveling fragments of the
bomb vase, as also pieces of debris and flying glass pieces may inflict
severe types of penetrating and perforating injuries. The bomb burst
can also create psychological imbalance in the minds of affected
victims.
Incendiary Bomb
The primary effect of an incendiary bomb attack is to cause large
number of fires in built-up areas igniting several buildings and even
creating fire storms. These fires will cause burn injuries, both slight

Man-Made Disasters

A-bomb and H-bomb

An atomic or A-bomb explodes through the fission (splitting) of
atomic nuclei. A hydrogen or H-bomb is called a thermonuclear
weapon because tremendous heat is needed to start the fusion
process. The atomic bomb, exploded during World War II, called
the nominal A-bomb, had the explosive equivalent of 20,000 tons
of TNT (a twenty-kiloton weapon). The H-bomb, if at all used in
the future, will perhaps be a 5-megaton burst having an explosive
equivalent of five million tons of TNT (Fig. 4.3) is the typical picture
of nuclear bomb.
The enormous energy released from the explosion of an atomic
bomb or a hydrogen bomb takes three main forms of danger to
persons, viz heat, blast and radioactivity. Injuries from heat flash and
blast though very much more intense and greater in range, are the
same as those encountered in high explosive and incendiary bombs.
A five megaton nuclear weapon explodes with a brilliant flash that
last only for a minute. A quick burst of nuclear radiation, called
initial radiation, comprising gamma rays and neutrons and traveling
at the speed of light, emerges at the time of explosion and kills

Fig. 4.2: Mumbai terrorist attack26/11/2008

Chapter 4

and severe. Figure 4.2 shows the bomb blast which took place on
26/11/2008 it was Terrorist attack.

39

Introduction to Disasters

Section I

40

Fig. 4.3: Nuclear bomb

within a mile or two. The heat rays can kill unprotected people up
to 10 miles away. These are followed by a blast wave which starts
at more than 2,000 miles an hour, but loses much of its damaging
force by about 10 miles out. As the brilliant fireball rises in the sky,
it draws up a vast amount of earth that is melted or vaporized and
contaminated by the radioactive residue of the upper air, starts falling
back to earth. It is called fallout because it falls out of the sky,
wherever the winds may blow it. About five miles from ground zero
(the point of explosion), the heavier particles of the fallout would
reach the ground in half an hour 20 miles away, people may receive
it after an hour and 100 miles away the fallout may not start for
four to six hours. All this fallout material, which carries the bulk of
radiation danger, descends in less than 24 hours.

Biological Warfare
Although this type warfare is prohibited under the Geneva Protocol
of 1925, an unscrupulous enemy may use biological agents in a
future war. Living micro-organisms, which are invisible to the naked
eye and which may be divided into bacteria, fungi and viruses, may
be disseminated by using air-burst bombs or in the form of liquid

Man-Made Disasters

Chemical Warfare
War gases are poisonous chemical weapons which, although
forbidden under the Geneva Gas Protocol of 1925, may be used by
an unscrupulous enemy with the object of killing or incapacitating a
large number of people. These are classified, as follows, according to
the effects they produce upon the human body which depend on the
amount of the gas and the length of time a person is exposed to it:
i. Nerve gases give off invisible odorless vapors which is absorbed
only through the eyes and breathing passages. Liquid gas will
penetrate clothing and may be absorbed by the skin. Low
concentrations of the gas cause tightness of the chest, running
of the nose and headache followed by contraction of the
pupils, dimness of vision and loss of focusing power. In high
concentrations these symptoms are more severe and in addition
cause twitching of the limbs, convulsions and death.
ii. Blisters gases such as mustard and lewisite, have great powers of
penetration and both liquid and vapors will attack any part of
the body. Mustard gas will cause irritation and swelling in the
eyes within 24 hours, the skin will become red and irritated and
have blisters within 12 hours, and the victim will suffer from
loss of voice and brassy cough. Lewisite will cause immediate
and severe irritation to nose and eyes and damage to the lungs;
the skin will be reddened and blisters will develop more rapidly.
iii. Choking gases like phosgene are invisible but smell of musty
hay or decaying vegetation. They cause coughing and watering

Chapter 4

sprayed from aircraft. Insect pests or parasites may also be dispersed

to contaminate crops, foodstuffs and water. Potent bacteria are thus
released among the population of a large city to cause an epidemic
released among the population of a large city to cause an epidemic
causing death or serious illness to tens of thousands. The disease
producing micro-organisms are absorbed into the human body by
inhalation, ingestion and infection. The specific disease bearing
bacteria when breathed in would cause the infection after a certain
incubation period or these may fall on unprotected food or drink
and may be subsequently ingested causing the disease. Organisms
may also pass directly into the bloodstream through open wounds
and cause infection.

41

Section I

42

Introduction to Disasters

of eyes and pain in the chest; the lungs are damaged after some
hours.
iv. Tear gases cause temporary stinging of the eyes and profuse
watering; in high concentrations the eyelids may suffer from
spasms.
v. Nose gases cause delayed effects such as sneezing and burning
sensation in the nose, mouth throat and chest; in severe cases
there is vomiting.

ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION
Environmental pollution is a term that refers to all the ways that
human activity harms the natural environment. Most people have
witnessed environmental pollution in the form of an open rubbish
tip or a factory pouring out black smoke. However, pollution can
also be invisible, odorless, and tasteless. Some kinds of pollution do
not actually dirty the land, air, or water, but they reduce the quality
of life for people and other living things. For example, noise from
traffic and machinery can be considered forms of pollution. Figure
4.4 shows how air pollution spreads due to industrialization.
Environmental pollution is one of the most serious problems
facing humanity and other life forms on our planet today. Badly
polluted air can harm crops and cause life-threatening illnesses. Some
air pollutants have reduced the capacity of the atmosphere to filter
out the harmful ultraviolet radiation of the sun. Many scientists
believe that these and other air pollutants have begun to change
climates around the world. Water and soil pollution threaten the
ability of farmers to grow enough food to feed the worlds population.
Ocean pollution endangers many marine organisms.
Nearly everyone would like to have pollution reduced
Unfortunately, most of the pollution that now threatens the
health of our planet comes from products that many people want
and need. For example, cars provide the convenience of personal
transportation, but they create a large percentage of the worlds air
pollution. Factories make products that people use and enjoy, but
industrial processes can also pollute. Pesticides and fertilizers aid in
growing large quantities of food, but they also poison the soil and
waterways.

Man-Made Disasters

43

Chapter 4

Fig. 4.4: Industrial pollution

To end or greatly decrease pollution, people would have to

reduce the use of cars and other modern conveniences, and some
factories would have to close or change production methods. Because
most peoples jobs are dependent on industries that contribute to
environmental pollution, shutting down these industries would
increase unemployment. In addition, if farmers suddenly stopped
using chemical fertilizers and pesticides, there would be less food to
feed the people of the world.

TYPES OF POLLUTION
The chief types of environmental pollution include air pollution,
water pollution, soil pollution, pollution caused by solid waste and
hazardous waste, and noise pollution.
Air pollution is the contamination of the air by substances such
as fuel exhaust and smoke. It can harm the health of plants and
animals and damage buildings and other structures. According to the
World Health Organization, about one-fifth of the worlds people
are exposed to hazardous levels of air pollutants.

Section I

44

Introduction to Disasters

Air pollution occurs when industries and vehicles release such

large amounts of gas and particulates into the air that natural
processes can no longer keep the atmosphere in balance. There are
two chief types of air pollution:
1. Outdoor
2. Indoor.
The greenhouse effect is the warming that results when the
earths atmosphere traps the suns heat. It is created by carbon
dioxide, methane, and other atmospheric gases, which allow sunlight
to reach the earth but prevent heat from leaving the atmosphere.
These heat-trapping gases are often called greenhouse gases. Figure
4.5 demonstrates how mother earth is getting warmer and warmer
due to human activities on earth.
Fuel burning and other human activities are increasing the
amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Many scientists
believe such an increase is intensifying the greenhouse effect and
raising temperatures worldwide. This increase in temperature, called
global warming, may cause many problems. A strong greenhouse
effect could melt glaciers and polar icecaps, flooding coastal areas. It
could also shift rainfall patterns, creating more droughts and severe
tropical storms.

Fig. 4.5: Global warmingheat is on

Man-Made Disasters

Water Pollution
Water pollution is the contamination of water by sewage, toxic
chemicals, metals, oils, or other substances. It can affect such surface

Fig. 4.6: Indoor air pollution

Chapter 4

Indoor air pollution occurs when buildings with poorly designed

ventilation systems trap pollutants inside. The main types of indoor
pollutants are tobacco smoke, gases from stoves and furnaces,
household chemicals, small fiber particles, and hazardous fumes
given off by building materials, including insulation, glue, and paint.
In some office buildings, high amounts of these substances cause
headaches, eye irritation, and other health problems in workers.
Such health problems are sometimes called sick building syndrome.
Figure 4.6 shows inside the house also there is pollution and air
contamination which creates sickness among children and old
peoples.

45

Section I

46

Introduction to Disasters

waters as rivers, lakes, and oceans, as well as the water beneath

the earths surface, called ground water. Water pollution can harm
many species of plants and animals. According to the World Health
Organization, about 5 million people die every year from drinking
polluted water.
In a healthy water system, a cycle of natural processes turns
wastes into useful or harmless substances. The cycle begins when
organisms called aerobic bacteria use the oxygen dissolved in water
to digest wastes. This digestion process releases nitrates, phosphates,
and other nutrients (chemical elements that living things need for
growth). Algae and aquatic green plants absorb these nutrients.
Microscopic animals called zooplankton eat the algae, and fish eat
the zooplankton. The fish, in turn, may be eaten by larger fish, birds,
or other animals. These larger animals produce body wastes and
eventually die. Bacteria break down dead animals and animal wastes,
and the cycle begins again. Figure 4.7 example of water pollution in
unorganized cities.
Water pollution occurs when people put so much waste into a
water system that its natural cleansing processes cannot function
properly. Some waste, such as oil, industrial acids, or farm pesticides,

Fig. 4.7: Water pollution

Man-Made Disasters

Soil Pollution
Soil pollution is the destruction of the earths thin layer of healthy,
productive soil, where much of our food is grown. Without fertile
soil, farmers could not grow enough food to support the worlds
people.
Healthy soil depends on bacteria, fungi, and small animals to
breakdown wastes in the soil and release nutrients. These nutrients
help plants grow. Fertilizers and pesticides can limit the ability of
soil organisms to process wastes. As a result, farmers who overuse
fertilizers and pesticides can destroy their soils productivity.
A number of other human activities can also damage soil
(Fig. 4.8) process of soil pollution due excessive use of fertilizers.
The irrigation of soil in dry areas with poor drainage can leave water
standing in fields. When this standing water evaporates, it leaves salt
deposits behind, making the soil too salty for growing crops. Mining
operations and smelters contaminate soil with toxic heavy metals.
Many scientists believe acid rain can also reduce soil fertility.
Solid waste is probably the most visible form of pollution.
Every year, people dispose of billions of metric tons of solid waste.
Industrial wastes account for the majority of the discarded material.
Solid waste from homes, offices, and stores is called municipal solid
waste. It includes paper, plastic, bottles and cans, food scraps, and
garden trimmings. Other waste consists of scrapped cars, scrap metal,
leftover materials from agricultural processes, and mining wastes
known as spoil.
Some hazardous waste can seriously harm the health of people,
wildlife, and plants. These pollutants include radiation, pesticides,
and heavy metals.

Chapter 4

poisons aquatic plants and animals. Other waste, such as phosphate

detergents, chemical fertilizers, and animal manure, pollutes by
supplying excess nutrients for aquatic life. This pollution process
is called eutrophication. The process begins when large amounts
of nutrients flow into a water system. These nutrients stimulate
excessive growth of algae. As more algae grow, more also die. Bacteria
in the water use up large amounts of oxygen digesting the excess
dead algae. The oxygen level of the water then drops, causing many
aquatic plants and animals to die.

47

Introduction to Disasters

Section I

48

Fig. 4.8: Process of soil pollution

Radiation is an invisible pollutant that can contaminate any part

of the environment. Most radiation comes from natural sources,
such as minerals and the suns rays. Scientists can also produce
radioactive elements in their laboratories. Exposure to large amounts
of radiation can harm cells and result in cancer.
Radioactive waste produced by nuclear reactors and weapons
factories pose a potentially serious environmental problem. Some of
this waste will remain radioactive for thousands of years. The safe
storage of radioactive waste is both difficult and expensive.
Pesticides can travel great distances through the environment.
When sprayed on crops or in gardens, pesticides can be blown by
the wind to other areas. They can also flow with rain water into
nearby streams or can seep through the soil into ground water. Some

Man-Made Disasters

Controlling Pollution
Controlling pollution depends on the efforts of governments, scientists,
business and industry, agriculture, environmental organizations, and
individuals.
Government Action
In many countries around the world, governments work to help
clean up the pollution spoiling the earths land, air, and water.
Such environmental efforts come from both local and national
governments. In addition, a number of international efforts have
been made to protect the earths resources.
Many local governments have enacted laws to help clean up the
environment. In some of the worlds largest and most polluted cities,
local governments have set out plans to reduce air pollution. Such
plans include measures to restrict the use of private motor vehicles
and to encourage the use of mass transportation.
Local governments can also pass recycling laws. Recycling is a
process designed to recover and reuse materials instead of throwing
them away. In Vienna, Austria, for example, citizens must separate
their rubbish into containers for paper, plastic, metal, aluminium
cans, clear glass, colored glass, and food and garden waste. Several
states in the United States and a number of European countries
encourage the reuse of bottles by charging a deposit that is refunded
upon return of the bottle.
Many national governments also pass legislation to help clean
up pollution. Governments also regulate the disposal of solid and
hazardous wastes. Many industrial countries have agencies with
powers to monitor pollution and to enforce legislation.
One of the most effective ways a government can control specific
kinds of pollution is by banning the pollutant. For example, some

Chapter 4

pesticides can remain in the environment for many years and pass
from one organism to another. For example, when pesticides are
present in a stream, small fish and other organisms can absorb them.
Larger fish who eat these contaminated organisms build up even
larger amounts of pesticides in their flesh.

49

Section I

50

Introduction to Disasters

governments have banned the use of the dangerous pesticide DDT

for all except essential purposes. Farmers have found other less
harmful pesticides to replace DDT.
A government may also ban certain uses of a dangerous substance
while permitting others. For example, lead is a poisonous metal that
can damage the brain, kidneys, and other organs. The US government
bans leaded petrol and lead-based household paint, but it permits
lead in batteries, building materials, and industrial paint. Despite the
continued use of lead in some products, restrictions on the metal in
paints and petrol have reduced the health problems it causes.
Another government strategy to help control pollution is to
fine companies for polluting. Australia and a number of European
countries fine businesses that pollute waterways. Such fines encourage
companies to invest in pollution control equipment or to develop
less polluting methods of operation. Governments may also impose
taxes on products that pollute. For example, most Scandinavian
countries tax nonreturnable bottles. Some government regulations
simply require businesses to tell the public how many pollutants
they release into the environment. This regulation has caused some
companies to find ways to reduce pollution so that consumers do
not develop an unfavorable impression of them and perhaps refuse
to purchase their products.
Many types of environmental pollution have been difficult to
control because no single person or nation owns the earths global
resources, that is, its oceans and atmosphere. To control pollution,
the people of the world must work together.

Scientific Efforts
Increasing concern over the environment has caused scientists and
engineers to look for technological solutions. Some research seeks
ways to clean up or manage pollution. The goal of other research is
to prevent pollution. Many industrial researchers are finding more
economical ways to use fuels and other raw materials. As a result of
their research, some European cities now use waste heat from power
plants or garbage incinerators to warm homes. New car engines
burn petrol much more cleanly and efficiently than older engines.
Researchers have also developed cars that use such clean-burning
fuels as methanol (a type of alcohol) and natural gas. In Brazil, some

Man-Made Disasters

Agriculture
Scientists and farmers are developing ways to grow food that require
less fertilizer and pesticides. Many farmers rotate their crops from
year to year to reduce the need for chemical fertilizers. The rotation
of maize, wheat, and other crops with legumes, such as alfalfa and
soybeans, helps replace nitrogen lost from the soil. Crop rotation also
helps control pests and plant diseases. Some farmers use compost and
other fertilizers that are less harmful to the soil. Instead of spraying
their crops with harmful pesticides, some farmers combat damaging
insects by releasing certain other insects or bacteria that prey upon
the pests. Scientists are also developing genetically engineered plants
that are resistant to certain pests.
The rotation of crops and the use of natural pest enemies are
called natural pest control. Combining a limited use of chemical
pesticides with natural controls is known as integrated pest
management (IPM). Farmers using IPM apply chemical pesticides in
smaller amounts and only when they will have the most effect.
Political parties representing environmental concerns have
formed in many industrial nations. These organizations, often known
as Green parties, have had a growing influence on environmental
policies. Countries with Green parties include Australia, Austria,
Germany, Finland, France, New Zealand, Spain, and Sweden.
Individual Efforts
One of the most important ways an individual can reduce pollution
is by conserving energy. Conserving energy reduces the air pollution
created by power plants. A reduced demand for oil and coal could
also result in fewer oil spills and less destruction of coal-bearing
lands. Driving less is one of the best ways to save energy and avoid
polluting the air.
People can save electricity by buying more efficient light bulbs
and home appliances. For example, compact fluorescent light bulbs
use only 25 percent as much electricity as traditional incandescent

Chapter 4

cars use another type of alcohol, called ethanol, as fuel. Scientists

are also developing cars that can use hydrogen gas as fuel. Hydrogen
creates almost no pollution when it is burned.

51

Section I

52

Introduction to Disasters

bulbs. People can also conserve by using appliances less often, by

turning off appliances and lights when not in use, and by setting
home thermostats at or below 20C in winter and at or above
26C in summer. In addition, buildings with specially treated
windows and good insulation need far less fuel or electricity to heat
or cool than buildings without such materials.
People can also buy products that are safe for the environment.
For example, households can help reduce water pollution by using
fewer toxic cleaning products and by properly disposing of any toxic
products they do use. If consumers refuse to purchase harmful
products, manufacturers will stop making them.
Another way to help reduce pollution is by eating less meat.
Farmers use large quantities of fertilizer and pesticides to raise the
grain on which cattle, pigs, and poultry feed. Farmers would use
much less fertilizer and pesticides if people chose to eat less meat and
more grains, beans, and vegetables. Many people have also come to
expect the perfectly shaped, unmarked fruit and vegetables that most
farmers achieve by using large amounts of pesticides. If consumers
would accept produce with slight blemishes or imperfections, farmers
could reduce their use of chemicals.
One of the simplest ways individuals can prevent pollution is by
reusing products. For example, some milk suppliers use glass bottles
instead of paper cartoons. The bottles may be refilled and used
again. People can reuse old paper or plastic bags to carry groceries
or to hold rubbish. When people reuse products, they avoid both
the pollution associated with the creation of a new product and the
pollution caused when the product is thrown out.
Recycling is another way of reusing materials (Fig. 4.9). It is
now essential to plant maximum trees to save our mother earth.
Many cities and towns organize the collection of waste materials for
reprocessing. Recycling saves energy and raw materials, and it prevents
pollution. Many different waste products can be recycled. Commonly
recycled wastes include metal cans, glass, paper, plastic containers,
and old tyres. Cans can be melted down and used to make new ones.
Glass can be ground up and made into new containers or used as an
ingredient in roadbuilding materials. Paper can be reprocessed into
different paper products. Plastics can be melted down and reformed
into plastic for such uses as fences, decks, benches, and carpenting.

Man-Made Disasters

53

Chapter 4

Fig. 4.9: Save earth

Old tyres can be burned to produce energy, shredded and added to

asphalt, or melted down and moulded into such products as floor
mats and playground equipment.
The most important way people can fight pollution is to learn
as much as possible about how their actions affect the environment.
Then they can make intelligent choices that will reduce damage to
the planet.