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Reverse faults form when the hanging wall moves up. The
forces creating reverse faults are compressional, pushing the
sides together.
Transcurrent or Strike-slip faults have walls that move
sideways, not up or down.
With this in mind, you will notice that if you are close to the point
where an earthquake struck, you will feel both P and S waves close
within the same time frame. If you are further away, you will feel the
P-wave first and then the S-wave a bit later.
Both waves can be destructive, but their study helps us to know
where the earthquake struck.
Crust
30
Upper
mantle
720
Lower
mantle
2,171
2.2
Silicic rocks
2.9
3.4
4.4
4.4
5.6
9.9
Perovskite, oxides
Magnesium and silicon oxides
12.2
13.1
12.8
Total
6,401
thickness
Robertson gives credit for most of the data to Anderson, Don L.,
Theory of the Earth: Boston, Blackwell Publications, 1989.
Structure of the earth
When studying plate-tectonics the best starting point is examining the
structure of the earth. The earth is very similar to a peach in its structure. In
the centre is a solid core. Surrounding the core is the inner core, then the
mantle, which is covered in the earths 'skin' or crust.
The inner core is the centre of the earth and is the hottest part of the earth. It
is a solid mass of iron and nickel. The temperature of the core is around
5500C
The outer core is the layer around the inner core. It is also made up of iron
and nickel though it is in liquid form.
The next layer is the matle.This layer is made up of semi molten rock, known
as magma.
The final layer is the earth's crust. This layer is between 0-60km thick.
Continental Drift and Plate Tectonics
In 1912 Alfred Wegener published a theory to explain why the Earth looked
like a huge jigsaw. He believed the continents were once joined forming a
supercontinent he called Pangaea. Over 180 million years ago this
supercontinent began to "break up" due to continental drift.
During the 20th Century, scientists developed the theory of Plate Tectonics.
The theory suggested that the crust of the Earth is split up into seven large
plates (see map below) and a few smaller ones, all of which are able to slowly
move around on the Earth's surface. They float on the semi-molten mantle
rocks, and are moved around by convection currents within the very hot rock.
See why do plates move? for more details.
The are two types of tectonic plates - continental plates and oceanic
plates. Continental plates are lighter (less dense) than oceanic plates.
Oceanic crust is much younger in geologic age than continental crust.
Continental crust is on average thicker than oceanic crust.
are created by heat from within the earth - much of which is generated by
radioactive decay in the core.
Tensional /
Constructive(diverge
nt ) plate boundaries
Diagram
Description
Landform
Example
s
Constructiv
e plate
boundaries
occur when
two plates
move away
from each
other.
Ocean
ridge and
volcanic
islands
North
American
and
Eurasian
Plate
Compressional /
Destructive(subductio
n zones) plate
boundaries
Destructive
plate
boundaries
occur when
an oceanic
plate is
forced
under (or
subducts) a
continental
plate.
Conservative(transfor
m faults) plate
boundaries
Conservativ
e plate
boundaries
occur when
two plates
slide past
each other.
North
American
Plate and
the
Pacific
Plate
Collision plate
boundaries
Collision
plate
boundaries
occur when
Fold
two
Mountains
continental
plates move
towards
each other.
IndoAustralia
n and the
Eurasian
Plate
Fold
Mountains
and
Oceanic
trenches
Pacific
Plate and
the
Eurasian
Plate
Pasig
Taguig
Muntinlupa
SanPedro
Bian
Carmona
SantaRosa
Calamba
Tagaytay
OrientalMindoro
*WesternPhilippineFault:
LuzonSea
MindoroStrait
PanayGulf
SuluSea
*EasternPhilippineFault:
PhilippineSea
*SouthernofMindanaoFault:
MoroGulf
CelebesSea
*CentralPhilippineFault:
EntireIlocosNorte
Aurora
Quezon
Masbate
EasternLeyte
SouthernLeyte
AgusanDelNorte
AgusanDelSur
DavaodelNorte
*Theearthquakethatdestroyed
GuinsaugonistheCentralPhilippine
Fault
*The1990earthquakethatdestroyed
CentralLuzonandBaguioisalsothe
CentralPhilippineFault.
*TheMARIKINAVALLEYFAULT
posesthegreatestdangerbecauseit
custsthroughallthemodernand
progressiveportionsofManilasuchas
Eastwood,Rockwell,OrtigasCenter,
BonifacioGlobalCity,
AyalaCenter,andAlabang.Also,the
PhiVolcspeoplehavewarnedthatthis
faultlinecanmoveanytimebecauseit
isalready11yearslateforits
movement.
Decollement
A detachment fault; a fault where
crustal deformation causes
separation along a boundary of
rock types, typically between socalled crystalline "basement" rock
and overlying sedimentary rocks.
Dip
The angle between a geologic
surface -- for example, a fault plane
-- and the horizontal. The direction
of dip can be thought of as the
direction a ball, if placed upon the
Epicenter
see hypocenter
The point on the Earth's surface
directly above the (subterranean)
point of origin (hypocenter) of an
earthquake; only two
measurements, latitude and
longitude, are needed to locate it.
Fault
A fracture or zone of fractures
along which there has been
displacement of the sides relative
to one another, parallel to the
fracture.
Fault line
A commonly-used term that is
synonymous with the surface trace
of a fault. It should never be used
Footwall
Of the two sides of a non-vertical
fault, the side below the fault plane.
It is called the footwall because
where inactive faults have been
"filled in" with mineral deposits and
then mined, this is the side on
which miners walk. (See hanging
wall.)
Foreshock
Any earthquake which is followed,
within a short time span, by a larger
earthquake in the exact same
location can be labelled a
"foreshock". (In the case of an
earthquake swarm, this terminology
is not generally applied.)
Graben
An elongate part of the Earth's
crust bounded by faults on its long
sides and relatively down-dropped
compared to its surroundings.
Hanging wall
Of the two sides of a fault, the side
above the fault plane. It is called
the hanging wall because where
inactive faults have been "filled in"
with mineral deposits and then
mined, this is the side on which
miners can hang their lanterns.
(See footwall.)
Horizontal fault
A fault with no dip. Still theoretical,
this sort of fault should only exist
within a region of strong
compression or extension where
the tectonic forces required for
such movement could be present.
Holocene
The most recent geologic era; from
about 10,000 years ago to the
present. The Holocene is the latest
epoch of the Quaternary period.
Hypocenter
Also known as the focus, the
hypocenter is the point of origin of
an earthquake. It can be expressed
with no fewer than three
measurements: latitude, longitude,
and depth.
Intensity
A measure of the effects at a
particular place produced by
Mw (moment magnitude)
Mojave Block
The seismic moment of an
earthquake, converted to a
magnitude scale that roughly
parallels the original Richter
magnitude scale. However, since it
is not based on the same
measurements as Richter (local or
surface-wave) magnitudes, the
different magnitudes do not always
agree, particularly for very large
quakes. Because it relates directly
to the energy released by an
earthquake, it has become the
standard in modern seismology.
Mainshock
The largest earthquake in any
series of earthquakes; to be
definitively called a "mainshock", it
should generally be at least half a
magnitude unit larger than the next
largest quake in the series.
Otherwise, the series of quakes
may more accurately fit the
definition of a swarm.
Microearthquake
A term used to describe
earthquakes under Richter
magnitude 2, and occasionally,
Playa
A term used primarily in the
southwestern United States to
describe a dry, vegetation-free, flat
area at the lowest part of an
undrained desert basin, underlain
by stratified clay, silt, or sand, and
commonly by soluble salts. They
are occasionally covered by
shallow lakes in the wettest parts of
the year.
Pleistocene
A name given to the geologic time
period between about 1.6 million
years and 10,000 years before the
present. The Pleistocene is the
earlier (older) epoch of the
Quaternary period; it is followed by
the Holocene.
P-wave
The fastest of seismic waves, and
thus the first to arrive at a location
following an earthquake (the P
stands for "primary"). This is a
compressional body wave; particle
movement is parallel to the
direction of propagation of the
wave. Its speed is 5.5 to 7.2
km/sec in the crust and 7.8 to 8.5
km/sec in the upper mantle.
Quaternary
The period of geologic time starting
1.6 million years ago and
continuing to the present day. It is
divided into two epochs: the
Pleistocene and the Holocene, with
the division between these two
falling at about 10,000 years before
the present.
Late Quaternary refers to the time
between 700,000 years ago and
the present day. It does not
Seismic creep
Slip rate
See creep.
Seismic gap
A segment of an active fault zone
that has not experienced a major
earthquake during a time interval
when most other segments of the
zone have. Seismologists
commonly consider seismic gaps to
have a high future-earthquake
potential.
Seismic moment
A measure of the strength of an
earthquake, equal to the product of
the force and the moment arm of
the double-couple system of forces
that produces ground
displacements equivalent to that
produced by the actual earthquake
slip. It is also equal to the product
of the rigidity modulus of the Earth
material, the fault surface area, and
the average slip along the fault.
Therefore, both seismological and
geological observations can
produce the same result.
Seismic zone (or seismic belt)
A region of the Earth's crust,
generally linear, associated with
active seismicity. It may not
necessarily be connected with a
particular fault or surface fault
trace.
Strike
The direction, or trend, of the line
marking the intersection of a fault
plane (or another planar geologic
feature) with the horizontal. Strike
is always at a right angle to dip.
Strike-slip fault
A fault along which the slip motion
is parallel to the strike of the fault.
Surface rupture
Sense of slip
Surface trace
Swarm
S-wave
Transverse Ranges
Teleseismic
An adjective to refer to
earthquakes, and any properties
thereof, that occur more than 100
km from a particular site. In this
age of modern seismic data-
Triggered slip
A somewhat poorly understood
process; involves the slipping of a
fault located in the same region as,
but not directly associated with, a
fault which ruptures in a major
earthquake. Most likely, the shaking
of the ground during the
BODY WAVES
Traveling through the interior of the
earth, body waves arrive before the
surface waves emitted by an
earthquake. These waves are of a
higher frequency than surface
waves.
P WAVES
S WAVES
SURFACE WAVES
Travelling only through the
crust, surface waves are of a lower
frequency than body waves, and
are easily distinguished on a
seismogram as a result. Though
they arrive after body waves, it is
surface waves that are almost
enitrely responsible for the damage
and destruction associated with
earthquakes. This damage and the
strength of the surface waves are
reduced in deeper earthquakes.
LOVE WAVES
The first kind of surface wave is
called a Love wave, named after
A.E.H. Love, a British
mathematician who worked out the
mathematical model for this kind of
wave in 1911. It's the fastest
surface wave and moves the
ground from side-to-side. Confined
to the surface of the crust, Love
waves produce entirely horizontal
motion.Click here to see a Love
wave in action.
RAYLEIGH WAVES