Centrifugalcompressor

Overview
Thephysicalsize(diameter)ofacentrifugalcompressorisdeterminedbythevolumetricflowrateattheinlet.
Thecompressionratio(orhead)determinesthenumberofstages(length).Therotatingspeedofacentrifugal
compressorisaninversefunctionofdiametertomaintainadesiredperipheralspeedattheouterdiametersof
theimpellersregardlessofthephysicalsizeofthecompressor.Verylarge(i.e.,highvolume)flowcompressors
mayoperateatspeedsaslowas3,000rpm.Conversely,lowvolumeflowcompressorsmayoperateatspeeds
upto30,000rpm.Powerrequirementisrelatedtomassflow,head,andefficiency.Dependingontheparticular
application,centrifugalcompressorpowerscanrangefromaslowas500hp(400kW)tomorethan50,000hp
(40MW).
Atlowvolumeflowrates,thewidthofthegaspassagesinacentrifugalcompressorbecomesnarrow,andthe
effectsoffrictionbecomesignificant,resultinginreducedefficiency.Forthisreasonreciprocatingcompressors
oftenaremoreappropriateforlowvolumeflowapplications.Forfurtherdiscussionofthissubject,seethe
sectionbelowoncompressorselection.
TheAPIhasproducedanindustrystandard,APIStandard617,whichisfrequentlyusedtogovernthedesign
andmanufactureofcentrifugalcompressors.AtypicalcentrifugalcompressorpackageisshowninFig.1.The
compressorshownismountedonasinglebaseplateandisdrivenbyanelectricmotor.

Fig.1Twocasecentrifugalcompressorpackage(courtesyofDresserRand).
MultiandsinglestagecentrifugalcompressorsMultistagecentrifugalcompressors
Multistagecentrifugalcompressorscanbearrangedinavarietyofflowpathconfigurationsemployingfromone
totenimpellers,dependingontheheadrequiredfortheprocessduty.Whenintercoolingisnotneeded,the
arrangementisusuallyastraightthrough(inline)configuration.Forapplicationsthatrequireintercooling,the
resultingtwosectioncompressormaybeconfiguredineitheraninline(compound)orbacktoback
arrangement.Forhighflow/lowheadapplications,adoubleflowconfigurationissometimesemployed.Ina
doubleflowarrangement,halfoftheflowentersthecompressorthroughaninletconnectionateachendofthe
casingandexitsthecasingthroughacommondischargeconnectioninthecenter.Alloftheseconfigurations
describedarebeamtypedesignsinwhichtheimpellersarelocatedbetweentheradialbearings.
Singlestagecentrifugalcompressors
Singlestagecentrifugalcompressorsmaybeconfiguredasabeamdesignorwithanoverhungimpeller
arrangement.Intheoverhungconfiguration,theimpellerislocatedatthenondriveendoftheshaft(outboardof

thenondriveendradialbearing).
Majorcomponents
ThemajorcomponentsofvariouscentrifugalcompressorflowpathconfigurationsareillustratedinFig.2
throughFig.5.Thissectiondescribesthemajorelementsofcentrifugalcompressors.

Fig.2Straightthrough(inline)centrifugalcompressorcrosssection(courtesyofDresserRand).

Fig.3Inline(compound)centrifugalcompressorcrosssection(courtesyofDresserRand).

Fig.4Backtobackcentrifugalcompressorcrosssection(courtesyofDresserRand).

Fig.5Dualflowcentrifugalcompressorcrosssection(courtesyofDresserRand).
Case(casingorhousing)
Thecase(casingorhousing)isthepressurecontainingcomponentofthecompressor.Thecasehousesthe
stationaryinternalcomponentsandthecompressorrotor.Bearingsareattachedtothecasetoprovideboth
radialandaxialsupportoftherotor.Thecasealsocontainsnozzleswithinletanddischargeflangeconnections
tointroduceflowintoandextractflowfromthecompressor.Theflangeconnectionsmustbeproperlysizedto
limitthegasvelocityasnecessary.Thecaseismanufacturedinoneoftwobasictypes:
Horizontally
Verticallysplit
Constructioncanbecast(ironorsteel),forged,orfabricatedbywelding.
Horizontally(axially)splitcase
Ahorizontallysplitcaseissplitparalleltotheaxisoftherotor.Theupperhalfofthecaseisboltedanddoweled
tothelowerhalf.Accesstotheinternalsofthecompressorforinspectionandmaintenanceisfacilitatedwiththis
casedesign(especiallywhentheprocesspipingconnectionsarelocatedonthebottomhalfofthecase).The
horizontallysplitdesignisinherentlypressurelimitedtopreventgasleakageatthecasesplitjoint.
Vertically(radially)splitcase
Thiscaseissplitperpendiculartotheaxisoftherotor.Heads(endcovers)areinstalledatbothendsfor
pressurecontainment.Theverticallysplitcaseconfigurationiscapableofhandlinghigherpressuresthanthe
horizontallysplittype.Therotorandstationaryinternalsareassembledasacylindricalinnerbundlethatis
insertedaxiallythroughoneendofthecase.Inspectionandmaintenanceofaradiallysplitcentrifugal
compressorrequirethattheinnerbundleberemovedfordisassembly.Removaloftheinnerbundlerequires
thatsufficientspacebeprovidedinthelayoutofthecompressorinstallation.
Rotorassembly
Thecompressorrotorisfundamentallyanassemblyofimpellersmountedonasteelshaft.Additionalrotor
componentsincludemiscellaneoushardware,suchas:
Athrustbalancedrum(balancepiston)
Impellerspacers
Sealsleeves
Athrustdisc
Oneortwocouplings
AtypicalcompressorrotorispicturedinFig.6.

Fig.6Exampleofcrompressorrotorassembly(courtesyofDresserRand).
Theimpellersimpartvelocitytothegaswithbladesthatareattachedtoarotatingdisc.Theimpellerbladesare
forwardleaning,radial,orbackwardleaning(withrespecttothedirectionofrotation)dependingonthedesired
performancecharacteristiccurve.Backwardleaningbladestendtoprovidethewidestoperatingrangewith
goodefficiency.Theyarethemostcommonlyusedbladeshape.Propersizingoftheimpellerflowchannelsis
determinedbythevolumetricflowratetocontrolgasvelocitiesthroughtheimpeller.Thismeansthat,ina
multistagecompressor,theimpellersmustbeproperlysizedforpeakperformanceandproperlymatchedto
accommodatethevolumetricflowratereductionthroughthecompressor.Impellerscanbeoftheopentype
withoutacoverplateortheclosedtypethatincorporatesacoverplateattachedtotheblades.Mostmultistage
compressorsusetheclosedtypeimpellerdesign.Impellerconstructioncanbe:
Riveted
Brazed
Electronbeamwelded
Weldedconventionally
Formostapplications,highstrengthalloysteelisselectedfortheimpellermaterial.Stainlesssteelisoftenthe
materialofchoiceforuseincorrosiveenvironments.Becausetheimpellersrotateathighspeeds,centrifugal
stressesareanimportantdesignconsideration,andhighstrengthsteelsarerequiredfortheimpellermaterial.
Forgasescontaininghydrogensulfide,itisnecessarytolimittheimpellermaterialshardness(andtherefore
strength)toresiststresscorrosion.
Multistagecentrifugalcompressorrotorshavenaturalresonantfrequenciesthatmustbeoutsidetheoperating
speedrange.Rotordynamicdesignconsiderationscanlimitthemaximumnumberofstagespercaseor,stated
anotherway,limitthemaximumspeedforagivennumberofstages.
Stationarycomponents
Afterthegasentersthecompressorthroughtheinletnozzle,itmustbedirectedtotheinletofthefirststage
impellerinawaythatuniformlydistributestheflowtotheimpelleratadesiredvelocity.Asystemofinternal
stationarycomponentsisdesignedtodeliverthegastothefirstimpellerwithminimalpressuredrop.Stationary
inletguidevanesarenormallypositionedadjacenttotheimpellerinlet.Variationoftheinletguidevaneangles
canbeemployedtoadjusttheflowcapacityofthecompressorsperformancecharacteristiccurve.However,a
variableinletguidevanesystemintroducesmechanicalcomplexityaswellasadditionalsealingconsiderations
(seethesectionbelowonFlowControl)
Thegasexitstheimpellerathighvelocityandentersadiffuserpassage.Thediffuserisanimportantpartofthe
stationaryflowpaththatusuallycomprisestwobrllelwallsformingaradialflowchannel.Inthediffuser,thegas
velocitydecreasesanddynamicpressureisconvertedtostaticpressure.Diffuserscanbeeithervanelessor
vaned.Afterexitingthediffuserpassage,theflowencountersareturnbend,whichcreatesa180degreeturnin
thedirectionofflow(i.e.,fromradiallyoutwardtoradiallyinward).Followingthereturnbend,theflowentersa
vanedreturnchannelthatdirectstheflowinwardtothenextimpeller.Thefunctionofthereturnchannelis(in

thesamemannerasthefirststageinletsystem)touniformlydeliverflowtoeachimpellerwithminimallosses.
Theinletguidevanesarelocatedattheexitofthereturnchannel.Thecomponentsthatformthereturnchannel
arecalleddiaphragms,andthediffuserpassagesarethespacesbetweenadjacentdiaphragms.Inletguide
vanescanbeattachedtoaseparatepiecefittedintothediaphragmoranintegralpartofthediaphragm.
Followingthelaststageimpeller,thegasmustbecollectedanddeliveredtothedischargeflange.Thestationary
component,typicallyusedforthispurpose,isadischargevolute.Thevolutemustbewellmatchedtothe
dischargenozzletominimizepressurelosses.Dischargenozzlevelocitiesalsomustbekeptwithinlimitsto
avoidexcessivenoiselevels.Allofthestationarycomponentspreviouslydescribedplayanimportantrolein
overallcompressorperformance.
Bearingsandseals
Centrifugalcompressorsareequippedwithtworadial(journal)bearingstosupporttherotorweightandposition
therotorconcentricallywithinthestationaryelementsofthecompressor.Onethrustbearingalsoisusedto
ensurethatthecompressorrotorismaintainedinitsdesiredaxialposition.Thethrustbearingusuallyisa
doubleacting,tiltpaddesigninstalledatbothsidesofarotatingthrustdisc.Properrotoraxialpositionis
therebyassuredregardlessofthedirectionofthenetaxialpressureforcesactingontherotor.
Twodistinctcategoriesofcompressorsealsareused:
Internalseals
Shaftseals
Internalsealsminimizeinternalrecirculationlossesbetweenstagesandacrossthethrustbalancedrum.
Labyrinthtypesealsarecustomarilyusedforthispurposetomaximizeoperatingefficiency.
Shaftsealsarerequiredtosealthegasinsidethecompressoratthepointwherethecompressorrotorshaft
penetratesthecase.Thisvitalsealingfunctionisnecessarytopreventescapeofprocessgastothe
environmentsurroundingthecompressor.Drygassealsarethemostcommonlyusedtypeofshaftseal.Liquid
filmsealsaresometimesused.
Labyrinthseals
Labyrinthtypesealsareusedtominimizerecirculationlosseswithinthecompressor.Alabyrinthsealconsistsof
anumberofteeth(knifeedges)thatcanbeeitherstationaryorrotating.Stationarylabyrinthteetharefittedto
thecompressorstationarycomponentsveryclosetothecompressorrotor(seeFig.7).Sealingactionisthe
resultofflowresistancecausedbyrepeatedthrottlingacrossthelabyrinthteeth.Labyrinthsealsaredesigned
sothatoneofthetwoadjacentparts(labyrinthteethandrotor)isrelativelysoft.Thesoftermaterialyieldson
contactwithoutdamagetothehardermaterial.Compressormanufacturersselectlabyrinthsealclearancesthat
areastightaspracticaltominimizeleakagewhileavoidingheavyrubbingwiththerotor.

Fig.7Labyrinthseal(courtesyofDresserRand).
Drygasseals
Beginninginthelate1980s,thecompressorindustrybegantoembracetheapplicationofdrygasseal
technologytothecriticalfunctionofshaftsealing.Thesealconsistsofarotatingdiscrunningveryclosetoa
stationaryring.Therotatingdiscfacecontainsspecialgroovesthatgenerateanaxial(lift)forceduringrotation.
Thestationaryringisbackedbyaquantityofcoilspringsthatforceittightlyagainsttherotatingdiscwhenthe
compressorisatrest.Theliftforcecompressesthecoilspringsslightly,resultingintheverysmallrunning
clearancebetweenthetwofaces.Thissmallclearanceeffectivelylimitsgasleakagefromthecompressorseals.
Thesmallamountofgasleakageexitsthecompressorthroughauxiliarysealpiping,whereitistheneithersent
toaflaresystemortosomeotherrecoverysystem.Usuallythetwocompressorseals(inletanddischargeends
ofthecompressor)aresubjectedtothegassuctionpressure.Athrustbalanceline(seefurtherdiscussioninthe
sectiononbearingsbelow)subjectsthedischargeenddrygassealtoinletpressure,therebyavoidingtheneed
tosealthehigherdischargepressure.
Drygassealsrequirecleananddrygasforreliableoperation.Sealgasisnormallytakenfromthecompressor
dischargeandthencooledandfilteredaspartofanexternalsealgasprocessingsystem.Asealreference
pressureismeasuredjustinboardofthedrygasseal,andapressureregulatingvalvesuppliesthesealgasto
thesealingfacesatapressureslightlyabovethereferencepressure.Thissystemensuresthatthesealsarenot
exposedtountreatedprocessgascontainingliquidsorparticulatematterthatcoulddamagetheseals.Although
drygassealsarerelativelyexpensive,theirauxiliarysystemislesscomplex,physicallysmaller,andless
expensivethantheauxiliarysystemrequiredbythepredecessorliquidfilmdesign.
Liquifiedfilmseals
Liquidfilmsealscanbeofthebushingtypeormechanicalcontacttype.Thebushingtypeisaverysimpleand
ruggeddesignthatincorporatestwoadjacentsealrings(bushings)ateachendofthecompressor.Asealing
fluidisintroducedintothespacebetweenthesealringsatapressureslightlyabovetheprocessgaspressure
inboardfromtheinnerring.Thepressuredifferentialacrosstheinnerringisassuredbyanoverheadsealoil
tankpressurizedbycompressorsuctionpressure.Theelevationabovethecompressoroftheoillevelinthe
tankassurestherequiredsealringpressuredifferential.Foralmostallcentrifugalcompressorsequippedwith
liquidfilmseals,thesealingfluidisthesamelightturbineoilasthatusedtolubricatethebearings.Therefore,
theauxiliarysealoilsystemneededtosupplythesealoilcanbecombinedwith(orseparatefrom)theauxiliary
lubeoilsystem.
Theinnersealringisdesignedtominimizeoilleakageintotheprocessside.Innersealleakage(alsocalledsour
oilleakage)mixeswiththeprocessgasandisdrainedfromthecompressorasanoil/gasmixture.Alabyrinth
sealinboardofthesouroildrainisinstalledtopreventsealoilfromcontaminatingtheprocessgas.Theoil/gas
mixturedrainsintoadegassingtankwherethegasisremovedsothattheoilcanbesenttoasealoilreservoir
forreuse.
Theoutersealringbreaksservetoinhibitflowaspressureisreducedtoanatmosphericdrain.Thisdrainis
commonwiththebearingoildrainwhenacombinedoilsystemisused.Whenthelubeandsealoilsystemsare
separate,abufferedlabyrinthsealisplacedbetweenthelubeandsealoildrainstoensurethatthereisnooil
carryoverfromonesystemtotheother.
Mechanicalcontactsealsemployastationarycarbonringagainstarotatingsealface.Oilisalsousedasthe
sealingmediuminmechanicalcontactseals.Thesealingoilisintroducedbyapressureregulatingvalvethatis

maintainedat25to40psiabovethesealreferencepressure.Oneadvantageofmechanicalcontactsealsisa
significantlyreducedsouroilleakagecomparedwiththebushingdesign.Unlikeoilfilmseals,mechanical
contactsealscanbesuppliedwithafeaturethatallowsthecompressortomaintaincasepressureduring
shutdownwithoutrequiringthattheauxiliarysealoilsystembeoperating.Mechanicalcontactseals,however,
arerelativelycomplex.
Bearings
Theradialbearingsmostoftenusedincentrifugalcompressorsarethetiltingpadtypeandarecontinuously
lubricatedwithlightturbineoil.Beforetiltingpaddesigns,sleevetypebearingswerecommonlyused.Thetilting
padbearingdesignprovidesrotordynamiccharacteristicsthathelpassuresmoothandreliablemechanical
operation.Radialbearingsaresizedtobelargeenoughtosupporttherotorweight,yetsmallenoughtooperate
atsufficientlylowperipheralspeedsrequiredtolimitoperatingtemperaturetoacceptablelevels.Some
centrifugalcompressorsareequippedwithmagneticradialbearings.Thesebearingssuspendtherotorby
electromagneticforcetocentertherotorwithinanairgapatthebearing.Useofmagneticbearingseliminates
theneedforanauxiliarylubeoilsystemhowever,themagneticbearingcontrolsystemalsorequirescooling.
Thepressureriseineachofthestagesofacentrifugalcompressorcreatesanaxialthrustforcethatactstoward
theinletendofthecompressor.Dependingontheoverallpressureriseinthecompressor,thesethrustforces
canbesignificant.Aninlineconfigurationemploysathrustbalancedrum(balancepiston)togenerateathrust
forcetooppose(balance)thesumoftheimpellerthrustforces.Locatedatthedischargeendofthe
compressor,thebalancepistonisasimplediscshapedelementinstalledonthecompressorshaftandequipped
withasealarounditsouterdiameter.Thespaceadjacenttotheoutboardfaceofthebalancepistonissubjected
tocompressorsuctionpressureascreatedbyanauxiliarythrustbalanceline.Theinboardsurfaceofthe
balancepistonissubjectedtowhatisessentiallythecompressordischargepressure.Theresultingpressure
differentialacrossthebalancepistoncreatesanaxialforcetowardthedischargeend,thusopposingthe
impellerthrustforces.Properselectionofthebalancepistondiameterresultsinsmallnetthrustforceandallows
useofareasonablysmallthrustbearingtoabsorbtheresidualthrustforcesandmaintainproperrotoraxial
positioning.
Liketheradialbearing,thethrustbearingisusuallyatiltingpaddesignlubricatedwithlightturbineoil.Some
thrustbearingdesignsemployasystemoflevelingblocksbehindeachtiltingpadtoensureuniformload
distribution.Aswiththeradialbearings,magneticthrustbearingsalsoareavailable.
Compressorperformance
Theperformancecharacteristicofacentrifugalcompressorisgraphicallypresentedintheformofafamilyof
curvesthatcollectivelyareknownasaperformancemaporoperatingenvelope.Anexampleofaperformance
mapisgiveninFig.8.Intheexamplemap,theinletvolumeflowisplottedalongthexaxisandtheheador
pressureratioisplottedalongtheyaxis.Theapproximatesurgelimitdepictedattheleftsideofthemap
definestheminimumflownecessarytoavoidapotentiallydamagingsurgecondition(seesectiononSurge
below).Attheextremerightportionofthemapisthestonewall(choke)limit(seesectiononStonewall(Choke)
below).Eachofthefamilyofcurvesfromthesurgelimittothestonewallrepresentstheflowvs.pressure
characteristicatagivencompressorspeed.Theslopeofthecurvevarieswiththenumberofstages,becoming
steeperwithanincreasingnumberofstages.Theellipticalcurves(dashedlines)denotecompressorefficiency.
Thedesignpointisat100%speed,andthecompressorcomponentsareselectedsothatthedesignpointhasa
safemarginfromsurgeandstonewall,aswellasoptimumefficiency.

Fig.8Centrifugalcompressorperformancemap(courtesyofDresserRand).
Surge
Thesurgelimitdefinestheflowatwhich,foragivenspeed,theoperationofthecompressorbecomesunstable.
Atflowratesbelowthesurgelimitthecharacteristiccurveactuallydroopstowardzeroflowafterhavingreached
itsmaximumpointatthesurgelimit.Becauseoperationbelowthesurgelimitisunstable,thisportionofthe
curveisnotshowninFig.8.Whentheflowisreducedbelowthesurgelimit,thepressureatthedischargeofthe
compressorexceedsthepressuremakingcapabilityofthecompressor,causingamomentaryreversalofflow.
Whenthisflowreversaloccurs,thepressureofthedischargesystemisreduced,allowingthecompressorto
resumedeliveringflowuntilthedischargepressureagainincreases,andthesurgecyclerepeats.Surging
usuallycreatesaclearlyaudiblenoise.Prolongedoperationinthisunstablemodecancauseseriousmechanical
damagetothecompressor.Whenoperatinginasurgecondition,thecompressordischargetemperature
increasessignificantlyandthecompressorexperienceserraticandseverevibrationlevelsthatcancause
mechanicaldamageparticularlytotheinternalseals.
Acompressorcanbebroughtoutofsurgeinanumberofways.Themostobviousistoincreaseflow(see
sectiononAntisurgeValvesbelow).Decreasingdischargepressureand/orincreasingspeedareotherwaysto
moveoutofasurgecondition.
Compressormanufacturersusuallyperformanaerodynamicperformancetestbeforedeliveringthecompressor.
Determinationofthecompressorsactualsurgelimitisaveryimportantaspectofthemanufacturersshop
testingprogram.
Stonewall(choke)
Thestonewalllimitoftheperformancecurvedefinestheflowatwhichthegasvelocityatoneoftheimpellers
approachesthevelocityofsoundforthegasattheconditionswithinthecompressorwherethissoniccondition
isfirstencountered.Atthestonewall(orchoke)flowthepressurevs.volumecurvebecomesessentiallyvertical,
anditisnotpossibletodevelopheadorpressureatanygreaterflow.Whentherequiredoperatingflowexceeds
thestonewalllimit,theonlyremedyistoreconfigurethecompressorwithimpellers(andmatchedstationary
hardware)designedforlargerflowrates.
Processinstallation
Acentrifugalcompressormaybeconfiguredwithoneofavarietyofprocessconnectionarrangements.For
grademountedinstallations,theprocessconnectionsaremostoftenpositionedontheupperhalfofthecasing
withtheprocesspipingconnectedfromabovethecompressor.Insomeinstallations,horizontal(side)
connectionsareemployed.Thehorizontalconnectionarrangementisfrequentlyusedinboostercompressors
forgastransmission.Aradialsplitcasedesign(seethesectiononCaseabove)ispreferredforthesetwo
arrangements.Anotherarrangementisthemezzaninemountedconfiguration.Withthistypeofinstallation,the

compressorconnectionsareonthelowerhalfofthecasing,andtheprocesspipingisconnectedfrom
underneaththecompressor.Iftheoperatingpressuresaresufficientlylow,anaxialsplitcasedesignis
appropriate(seethesubsectiononcases).Toachieveoptimumperformance,itisnecessarytoinstallthe
compressorwithasufficientlylongstraightsectionofinletpipingupstreamofthecompressorinletflange.Most
compressormanufacturersrequirethatthelengthofthisstraightsectionbeatleasttwotimestheinletflange
diameter.
Thecompressormustbewellintegratedintotheentireprocesssothatstartup,operation,andshutdowncan
besafelycontrolled.Thenextsectionprovidesadescriptionofcontrolconceptsandtheprocessequipment
required.(RefertoFig.9foratypicalprocessflowdiagram.)Theindividualelementsofthecontrolandsafety
systemillustratedinFig.8arediscussedinthissection.

Fig.9Exampleofcentrifugalcompressorprocessorflowdiagram(courtesyofDresserRand).
Flowcontrol
Mostcompressionprocessesrequirethecompressortodeliverarelativelyconstantdischargepressureovera
rangeofcapacities.However,thecentrifugalcompressorcharacteristiccurvefromFig.8showsthatthe
pressureratio,infact,variescontinuouslywithflow.Theprocesscancontroleithersuctionordischarge
pressure.Ifoneisfixed,theotherwillvaryasdictatedbythecompressorcharacteristiccurve.Thethree
methodsofmaintainingaconstantdischargepressureforvaryingcapacityarediscussednext.
Speedcontrol
Centrifugalcompressordriversareeitherofthefixedorvariablespeedtype.Moststeamorgasturbinesand
thoseelectricmotorsequippedwithavariablefrequencydrivesystemareallavailableasvariablespeeddrivers.
Foragivendischargepressure,compressorcapacitymaybeincreasedbymerelyincreasingthespeedof
rotation.Conversely,capacitymaybedecreasedbyreducingcompressorspeed.Capacitycontrolbyspeed
variationisthemosteffectivewaytomaximizetheoperatingflexibilityofacentrifugalcompressor.
Suctionthrottlevalves
Afixedspeedmotorisoftentheleastexpensivedriverforacentrifugalcompressor.Whendesigninga
centrifugalcompressordrivenbyafixedspeedmotor,itisnecessarytoestablishthespeedbasedonthe
operatingconditionthatrequiresthelargestcapacityfortherequireddischargepressure.Whenoperatingat
lowercapacities,thecompressorinherentlydeliversagreaterdischargepressure(foragivenprocesssuction
pressure)thandesired.Thesolutiontothisproblemistoinstallathrottlevalveattheinletofthecompressor.
Suctionpressurereductionbythrottlingincreasesthepressureratiorequiredtodeliveragivendischarge
pressure.Theeconomictradeoffforthismethodofcapacitycontrolisadditionalcompressorpowervs.
additionalcapitalexpenditureforavariablespeeddriver.
Variableinletguidevanes
AsdiscussedinthesectiononStationaryComponentsabove,thecompressorperformancecharacteristiccurve

canbeadjustedbychangingthedirectionoftheflowofgasintotheimpeller.Whenasystemofvariableinlet
guidevanesisemployed,itispossibletoadjusttheinletguidevaneanglestomaintainadesireddischarge
pressureoverarangeofcapacity.Practicaldesignlimitationsmakeitdifficulttoinstallvariablevanesatall
stagesotherthanthefirststage.Forsinglestagecompressors,thismethodofcontrolissometimesquite
effective.However,formultistagecompressors,therangeofcontrolislesseffectiveandbecomesevenlessso
withincreasingnumbersofstages.
Antisurgevalves
AsdiscussedinthesectiononSurgeabove,avoidingsurgeisextremelyimportant.Theinstallationofan
antisurge(recycle)valveanditsassociatedcontroldevicesisrequired.Theantisurgevalveislocatedina
recyclelineconnectingthecompressordischargetotheinlet.Formultisectioncompressors,itisgoodpractice
toinstallaseparaterecyclelinewithanantisurgevalveforeachofthecompressorsections.Instrumentationis
requiredtomeasuretheflowtoeachsection,andasurgecontrollermustinitiatetheopeningoftherecycle
valvewhenreducedcapacityapproachesthesurgelimit.Thecapacityatwhichtheantisurgevalvebeginsto
openisusuallysettobeabout10%largerthantheactualsurgelimit.
Forvariablespeedcompressors,thesurgelimitcurve(seeFig.8)definestherelationshipbetweenthesurge
limitandtheoperatingspeed.Thelogicprogrammedintotheantisurgecontrollermaintainsthe10%safety
margin,regardlessofspeed.Thiscanbedepictedgraphicallybyalineparalleltothesurgelimitcurveandis
typicallycalledthecontrolline.
Thegasrecycledthroughtheantisurgevalvealsomustbecooledbecauseitssourceisthecompressor
discharge.Ifuncooled,thesuctiontemperaturewillincreasebymixingthehotterrecycledgaswiththemain
processinletgas.
Flarevalve
Theflarevalveprotectsupstreamequipmentfromoverpressurizationthatmayoccurbecauseofaflowincrease
andpreventsoverloadingofthecompressordriver.Foraconstantdischargepressuresystem,anincreasein
flowresultsinanincreaseinsuctionpressure.Highersuctionpressuresdelivermoremassflowand,therefore,
increasethepowerrequiredtooperatethecompressor.Thepresenceofasuctionthrottlevalvealsocan
contributetoanincreaseinpressureupstreamfromthecompressor.Thus,flarevalvesareparticularly
importantininstallationswithinletthrottling.
Shutdownvalve
Shutdownvalvesareinstalledatboththesuctionanddischargetoenablethecompressortobeisolatedduring
shutdownperiods.Tosatisfysafetyconcerns,theshutdownvalvesshouldbelocatedoutsideanybuildingor
enclosure.Automaticcontroloftheshutdownvalvesisusuallyemployed.
Blowdownvalve
Atshutdown,aftertheshutdownvalveshaveisolatedthecompressor,thepressureinthecompressorsettles
outtoaleveldeterminedbyavarietyoffactors.Ablowdownvalveisusedtodepressurizethecompressorupon
shutdown.Automaticcontroloftheblowdownvalveisrecommendedforhighrisklocationsandforcompressors
thatarefittedwithliquidfilmseals.Whenliquidfilmsealsareemployed,thecompressormustbedepressurized
beforetheoverheadsealtankshavebeendrained.
Dischargecheckvalve
Placementofacheckvalveatthedischargeofeachsectionofcompressioncanminimizeoreliminatebackflow

throughthecompressor.Shouldbackflowoccur,itispossibleforthecompressortoexperiencepotentially
damagingreverserotation.Thepresenceofdischargecheckvalvesalsoprovidesthebenefitofisolatingeach
oftheantisurgerecycleloops(seethesubsectiononAntisurgeValvesabove).
Reliefvalve
Thecompressordevelopsitsmaximumpressureratiowhenoperatingatbothitsmaximumcontinuousspeed
andthesurgecontrolcapacity.Ifthesuctionpressureincreasesforanyreason,thedischargepressure
correspondinglyincreasestothevaluegivenbytheperformancemapforthespeedandcapacityinquestion.A
pressurereliefvalveisinstalledtoprotectagainstoverpressurizationofdownstreamequipmentbythe
compressor.
Purgevalve
Beforestartup,itisnecessarytopurgeairfromthecompressorandpipingsystem.Apurgevalveisinstalledas
abypasstothesuctionshutdownvalveforthispurpose.Purgingmustbedonewithalowflowratetoprevent
thepurgegasfrominitiatingcompressorrotation.Forthisreason,thepurgevalveissmall.
Dischargecoolers
Adischargecooler(aftercooler)isrequiredifthetemperatureofthegasatthecompressordischargeexceeds
thatrequiredforthenextstepintheprocess.
Suctionscrubbers
Erosionofcompressorcomponentscanbecausedbyingestionofexcessiveliquid.Topreventerosiondamage,
suctionscrubbersareinstalledtoremoveliquidsthatcondenseinthegassuctionlinebecauseofcoolingorthat
resultfromanupstreamprocessupsetresultinginliquidcarryovertothegassuctionline.
Ventvalve
Amanualventvalveisinstalledbetweenthecompressordischargeandthedischargecheckvalvetoallowthe
compressortobeisolatedfromtheventheaderformaintenance.Oncethecompressorisshutdownandblown
downtotheventheader,theblowdownvalvecanbeclosedandtheventvalveopened.Iftheblowdownvalve
werekeptopen,thereisapossibilitythatgasintheventheaderwouldflowintothecompressorsystem,
endangeringthemaintenanceoperation.
Safetyandmonitoringdevices
Centrifugalcompressorsareequippedwithinstrumentationtomonitormechanicalhealth.Vibrationmonitoringis
accomplishedbyeddycurrentprobesinstalledateachofthecompressorbearings.Vibrationamplitudeis
measuredateachradialbearing,andtheaxialpositionoftherotorismeasuredatthethrustdiscorshaftend.
Thetrendofradialvibrationamplitudeprovidesinsightintotheconditionofthecompressorregardingrotor
balanceandalignment.Whenaproblemarises,thevibrationfrequencyspectrumcanalsobeanalyzedto
provideusefuldiagnosticinformation.Theaxialpositionprobemonitorsthestateofthrustbearingwear.Eachof
thebearingsisalsofittedwithtemperaturesensingdevices.Bytrendingthethrustbearingpadtemperatures,it
ispossibletodiscerntheconditionoftheinternalsealsbecausechangesinsealconditionaffectthrustloads
and,therefore,bearingtemperature.Alarmandshutdownsettingsforhighbearingvibrationandtemperature
areestablishedinthecompressorcontrolsystem.
Externaltothecompressorarenumerousotheralarmandshutdownsafeguards.Asaminimum,lowlubeoil
pressure,lowsealgaspressuredifferential,overspeed,highdischargegastemperature,highandlowsuction
anddischargepressures,andhighliquidlevelinthesuctionscrubberaremonitoredandwillinitiateashutdown

whennecessary.
Maintenance
Whenproperlydesigned,operated,andprotected,centrifugalcompressorsarecapableoflongsustainedruns
withverylittlemaintenance.Thecomponentsmostpronetoweararethebearingpadsandinternallabyrinth
seals.Foulingoftheinternalsurfacescanoccurinsomeservicescausingadegradationofperformance.The
vibrationandbearingtemperaturemonitoringinstrumentation,describedinthesectiononsafetyandmonitoring
devicesabove,providesvaluableinformationtotheoperatorabouttheprobableconditionofthecompressor
bearings.Excessivewearoftheinternallabyrinthsealscanoccurwhenthecompressorexperienceshigh
vibrationexcursionsfromprocessupsetsoroperationinasurgecondition.Worninternalsealscausea
degradationofcompressorperformancesimilartothatcausedbyfouling.
Unlessthereisanidentifiedproblemwiththecompressor,maintenanceisgenerallycarriedoutduringplanned
turnarounds.Asaminimum,theeasilyaccessiblecompressorbearingsandshaftendsealsareinspectedand
replacedwithspares,ifnecessary.Completedisassemblyisrequiredtoinspectthecompressorinternals.The
auxiliarylubeandsealsystemsrequiremaintenanceofmiscellaneousitemssuchassealgasfilters,lubeoil
pumpseals,oilfilters,etc.
References
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