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AFRICAN AMERICAN

ARTS AND HUMANITIES

THE PRINCIPAL FOCUS OF AFRICAN AMERICAN


STUDIES [AAS] IS NOT
ON THE CREATIVE EXPRESSIONS OF AFRICAN
AMERICANS;
INSTEAD, ITS PRINCIPAL MISSION IS TO HELP
IMPROVE THEIR
LIVED EXPERIENCES, WHICH NECESSITATES A
HEAVY EMPHASIS ON SOCIAL SCIENCES FOR UNDERSTANDING
REALITY
[p.299].
NONETHELESS, SPECIAL ATTENTION TO THE
CREATIVE WORKS
OF AFRICAN AMERICANS IS STILL IMPORTANT
SINCE FOR MANY PEOPLE THEIR DAY-TO-DAY
EXPOSURE TO VARIOUS POPULAR MEDIA,IS
THE PRINCIPAL SOURCE OF IDEAS ABOUT HOW
TO COPE WITH SOCIAL REALITY [p.299].
ASSESSMENT OF CREATIVE WORKS INVOLVES WHAT
IS TERMED,
LITERARY CRITICISM:
THE DESCRIPTION, ANALYSIS,
INTERPRETATION, AND EVALUATION OF LITERARY WORKS[AS WELL AS]
DISCUSSIONS OF THE PRINCIPLES, THEORY,
AND AESTHETICS ASSOCIATED WITH [THE

DIFFERENT] FIELDS [OF LITERATURE AND THE


ARTSVISUAL ARTS, FILM, TELEVISION, MUSIC,
AND THEATRE] [p.299].
LITERARY CRITICISM IN AAS IS ESPECIALLY
[CONCERNED WITH]
HOW THE CONTENT OF POLITICAL MESSAGES
EMBEDDED IN ARTISTIC WORKS CHANGES OVER
TIME [AS WELL AS WITH]
THE DEGREE OF SIMILARITY IN THE TYPE OF
MESSAGES FOUND IN DIFFERENT FORMS OF
ARTISTIC EXPRESSION DURING A PARTICULAR
PERIOD [p.300].
THE BLACK AESTHETIC
IT IS THE OVERARCHING RUBRIC THAT GUIDES
MUCH OF THE
LITERARY AND ARTISTIC CRITICISM
UNDERTAKEN WITHIN [AAS]
[p.300].
AESTHETICS
IS THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE NATURE AND
FUNCTION OF BEAUTY AND ITS STANDARD IN
ART AND CULTURE [p.300].
IMPORTANT POINTS ABOUT AESTHETICS
1)

CAN RELATE TO:


MATERIALS IN THE PHYSICAL REALM
[CRAFTS, PAINTINGS, SCULPTURES]

HUMAN ACTIVITIES: CONCRETE +


ABSTRACT
[DANCE, MUSIC, DRAMA]
2)

THERE IS NO UNIVERSAL AESTHETIC


BEAUTY CAN BE IN THE EYE OF THE
BEHOLDER
IT IS INFLUENCED BY CULTURAL
VALUES/IDEALS
I.E., BEAUTY IS RELATIVE---AESTHETIC
RELATIVISM

3) AESTHETIC EVALUATION IS VULNERABLE TO


PREJUDICES

ART
IS THE CREATIVE EXPRESSION OF HUMAN
FEELINGS,
THOUGHTS, AND OBSERVATIONS RENDERED IN
A COMPELLING STYLE AND STRUCTURE [AS] SHAPED BY
THE EXPERIENCES
OF THE SOCIETY FROM WHICH IT IS
PRODUCED [p.300].
AFRICAN AND EUROPEAN CULTURES DIFFER IN
THEIR
RATIONALES FOR ARTISTIC WORK:

AFRICA = OBJECTS, MUSIC, DANCE, AND


SONG ARE
FUNCTIONAL CREATIONS AND
SYMBOLS
OF LIFE; ARTIFACTS AND
ACTIVITIES WERE
USED AND EMPLOYED IN BIRTH,
MARRIAGE,
HARVEST, FESTIVE, AND BURIAL
RITUALS AND
CEREMONIES [p.300].
AS SUCH, THESE
OBJECTS/ACTIVITIES WERE
A FUNCTIONING, COLLECTIVE AND
INTEGRAL PART OF SOCIETY, NOT A
CULTURAL APPENDAGEART-FOR-PEOPLES USE
[p.300].
EUROPE = ART IS A THING OF BEAUTY TO
BE SEEN OR
FROM WHICH TO DERIVE PERSONAL
SENSUAL
PLEASURE/SENSATIONART-FORARTS SAKE
[THUS ARTS VALUE] IS ITS
HISTORICAL IN- HERENT
APOLITICAL NATURE AND FCN
[p.300].
GIVEN THE HISTORY OF BLACK/WHITE
RELATIONS, ITS NOT SUR-

PRISING THAT EUROCENTRISTS HAVE


GENERALLY EVALU- ATED AFRICAN ART AS
BEING PRIMITIVE AND HAVE HISTORICALLY ATTEMPTED TO DEFINE,
VALIDATE, OR INVALI- DATE THE AESTHETIC
ACHIEVEMENTS OF THE NON-WHITE
[OR AFRICAN] WORLD[p.301].
WHAT IS IMPORTANT FOR THE BLACK AESTHETIC?
1) ITS ESSENCE IS THAT THE ARTS AND
WRITINGS OF
AFRICAN AMERICANS BE JUDGED BASED ON
THEIR OWN
CULTURAL, POLITICAL, AND ECONOMIC
HISTORY [p.301]
2) BLACK ARTS AND LITERARY WORKS ARE MOST
AUTHETIC
WHEN THEY CREATIVELY RECONSTRUCT THE
CONDITIONS,
EXPERIENCES, AND CORE VALUES OF AFRICAN
AMERICANS
IN RELATION TO THE BROADER SOCIETY AND
THE WORLD
[IBID]
3) AFRICAN AMERICANS AESTHETIC CREATIVITY
EMANATES
FROM THEIR STRUGGLES, MUSIC, DANCE,
DRAMA, AND LITERATURE[THAT IS] CULTURAL
CREATIVITY BEGINS
FIRST WITH THE NEED TO SURVIVE [IBID]
FOUNDATIONS OF THE BLACK AESTHETIC

ALTHOUGH BLACK ART AND LITERARY ACTIVITIES


DATE BACK TO
THE SLAVERY ERA, THE FLOWERING PERIOD
OF BLACKS IN THE ARTS AND HUMANITIES IS
GENERALLY ATTRIBUTED TO THAT PERIOD
DURING THE 20TH CENTURY WHICH
ENCOMPASSES BOTH THE HARLEM
RENAISSANCE AND THE NEW NEGRO
MOVEMENT, 1920-1945.
HARLEM RENAISSANCE
THAT PERIOD IN THE 1920s WHEN BLACKS
BROKE AWAY
FROM TRADITION AND DEVELOPED A
REVITALIZED SENSE OF RACIAL PRIDE AND
SELF-EXPRESSION IN THEIR ARTISTIC AND
CREATIVE WORKS [p.302].
MOTIVATION FORCE FOR HARLEM
RENAISSANCE
BLACK SELF-DISCOVERY AND RACE
VINDICATION [p.302]
THE PREVAILING SOCIAL PHILOSOPHY AND
OBJECTIVE
[OF THE MOVEMENT] WERE CONSISTENT
WITH
INTEGRATION AND ASSIMILATION [p.303]
MOVEMENT PARTICIPANTS WERE LARGELY A
PART
OF THE BLACK BOURGEOISIE

WHAT LED TO THIS MOVEMENT?


1) URBANIZATION AND INDUSTRIALIZATION
OF BLACKS FOLLOWING WWI
2) INCREASED NUMBERS OF COLLEGEEDUCATED
BLACKS IN THE NORTH AND SOUTH DURING
THE
EARLY 1900s
3) THE INFLUENCE OF GARVEYISM IN THE
1920s ON
BLACK RACIAL PRIDE AND AWARENESS
4) THE ATTRACTION OF WHITE TOURISTS,
PATRONS,
SCHOLAR-WRITERS, AND PUBLISHERS TO
THE
ACTIVITIES OF HARLEM [p.302]
THE DEPRESSION-ERA [1930s-early 1940s] LED
TO A DECLINE
IN ACTIVITIES ASSOCIATED WITH THE
HARLEM
RENAISSANCE
THE NEW NEGRO MOVEMENT
OVERLAPPED WITH HARLEM RENAISSANCE,
BUT IS SEEN AS
HAVING BEEN OPERATIVE FROM 1940-1945;
DEFINED BY A
RESURGENCE OF BLACK CREATIVE ACTIVITY IN
LITERATURE,
MUSIC [BE-BOP JAZZ], ART, AND THE
PERFORMING ARTS
[STAGE AND SCREEN]

THE BLACK ARTS MOVEMENT


THE ARTISTIC MOVEMENT THAT DEVELOPED
OUT OF THE
POLITICAL STRUGGLE FOR SOCIAL JUSTICE,
ECONOMIC EQUITY,
AND EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES [p.303]
DURING THE 1960s AND 1970s.
THIS MOVEMENT HIGHLIGHTED/REFLECTED THE
FOLLOWING:
1) DIVISIONS WITHIN THE BLACK
COMMUNITY: (A) INTEGRATION AND CULTURAL FUSION AND (B)
SEPARATISM AND
BLACK NATIONALISM AND CULTURAL
DISTINCTIVENESS
2) REVIVAL OF INTEREST IN AFRICA
3) SERVED AS THE DRIVING FORCE FOR THE
DEVELOPMENT
OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDIES
NATIONWIDE [p.303]
4) USHERED IN AN ERA WHEN AFRICAN
AMERICAN INTELLECTUALS WOULD ASSUME AUTHORITY
FOR THE INTERPRETATION OF BLACK CULTURAL AND
HISTORICAL
EXPERIENCE [p.303[
5) ENGENDERED THE CREATION OF A LARGE
BODY OF
POEMS, PLAYS, AND ESSAYS, MUCH OF
WHICH EMPLOYED

DISTINCTIVE MODES OF EXPRESSION


COINING NEW
TERMS AND EXTENSIVELY USING WORDS
AND PHRASES
FROM VARIOUS AFRICAN LANGUAGES
[AND MAKING] SPECIAL USE OF BLACK
ENGLISH [p.303]
MANY IN THE FIELD OF AAS SUGGEST THAT
POLITICAL
STRUGGLE AND FREEDOM STIMULATE
CULTURAL
CREATIVITY IN THE ARTS AND
HUMANITIES[FOR
EXAMPLE]THE ARTISTIC AND LITERARY
PRODUCTION
OF BLACKS INCREASE DURING AND
FOLLOWING MAJOR
POLITICAL TRIUMPHS IN CIVIL RIGHTS
STRUGGLES
[p.302]
WWI/RACE RIOTS/MIGRATIONHARLEM
RENAISSANCE
DEPRESSION/WWII------------NEW NERGO
MOVEMENT
CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT---BLACK ARTS
MOVEMENT
DESPITE SUCH CONNECTIONS, THE AESTHETIC
AND ARTISTIC
QUALITIES OF THESE MOVEMENTS HAVE
NOT PROVEN

SUFFICIENT TO ALTER THE RACISM, SOCIAL


INJUSTICE, AND ECONOMIC INEQUALITY
SUFFERED BY AFRICAN AMERICANS. WHITE
AMERICA HAS APPROPRIATED MUCH OF
AFRICAN AMERICAN MUSIC, DANCE, ART
FORMS, AND RHETORIC WHILE
SUBORDINATING AFRICAN PEOPLE AS A
RACEWHITES AFFINITY AND TOLERANCE
FOR BLACKNESS ARE LARGELY CULTURAL,
NOT RACIAL. MANY WHITES HAVE
LEARNED TO APPRECIATE AFRICANDERIVED ELEMENTS OF MUSIC, DANCE, AND RELIGIOUS
RITUALS, BUT WOULD NOT ENDORSE THE
SHARING OF POWER OR MATERIAL
PRIVILEGES, WHICH WOULD UNDERMINE
THE STRATIFICATION OF RACE [p.304].
AFRICAN AMERICAN MUSIC
OF THE CULTURAL ARTS, AFRICAN AMERICAN
MUSIC IS THE MOST
INDIGENOUS TO AMERICAN SOCIETY. BLACK
PEOPLE HAVE BEEN THE PRIMARY SOURCE OF A
FOLK AND POPULAR MUSIC THAT IS NATIVE
AMERICANBLACKS HAVE CONTRIBUTED TO
AMERICAN MUSICAL CULTURESPIRITUALS,
GOSPEL, BLUES, JAZZ, AND MORE RECENTLY, RAP
[p.305].
THE RHYTHMIC FORMS OF BLACK MUSIC ARE
BASICALLY AFRICAN RETAIN[ING] THE CULTURAL,
TONAL, RHYTHMIC, AND TECHNICAL MUSICAL
TRADITIONS OF AFRICA[WHICH] HAS ALSO
INFLUENCED THE MUSIC, SONG, AND DANCE OF

CENTRAL AMERICA, SOUTH AMERICA, THE


CARIBBEAN, AND ALL REGIONS WHERE AFRICANS
WERE TRANSPORTED DURING THE ATLANTIC SLAVE
TRADE [p.305].
CHARACTERISTICS OF AFRICAN AMERICAN MUSIC
1) AFRICAN PATTERNS OF MELODY, HARMONY,
AND RHYTHM
2) THE BLUE NOTE FLATTENED THIRD AND
SEVENTH DEGREES
IN THE MAJOR SCALE
3) AFRICAN SYNCOPATION [RHYTHMS], CALL-ANDRESPONSE,
AND CALL-AND-REFRAIN
4) SOME ELEMENTS OF EUROPEAN CULTURAL,
MUSICAL, AND
PERFORMANCE PRACTICES; I.E., MELODY,
INSTRUMENTAL
DEPLOYMENT
5) MUSIC THAT IS EMOTIONAL AND INTENSE,
MELANCHOLY AND
BLUE, MEDITATIVE AND TENDER, OR
DYNAMIC AND
EXPLOSIVE [p.305]
AFRICAN AMERICAN MUSIC IS AN ARTFUL AND
ABSTRACT TESTIMONY OF THE SLAVERY, SUFFERING,
OPPRESSION, RESILIENCE,
AND FREEDOM EXPERIENCES OF AFRICAN
AMERICANS. FOR
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND AFRICANS, MUSIC IS
MORE THAN ENTERTAINMENT. IT IS
FUNCTIONAL AND THERAPEUTIC TO THEIR

RELIGIOUS, SOCIAL, AND POLITICAL


EXISTENCE [p.305].
THE SPIRITUAL AND GOSPEL MUSIC
SPIRITUALS
1) SPIRITUALS CAN BE SAID TO BE BLACK FOLK
MUSIC THAT
EVOLVED OUT OF THE ENSLAVEMENT
EXPERIENCE
OF AFRICAN AMERICANS [p.306]
2) SPIRITUALS APPEAR TO BE APPRECIATED BY
ALL RACES AND
HAVE BEEN PERFORMED IN MOST NATIONS
OF THE
WORLD [IBID]
3) THEIR EXACT ORIGINS ARE UNKNOWN; IN
THEIR RAW FORMS,
THEY LIKELY EVOLVED IN SLAVE FIELDS;
BUT PRIOR TO
1871, THEY LIKELY WERE SUNG IN
INDEPENDENT BLACK
CHURCHES IN THE NORTH AND THE SOUTH;
THEY CAME INTO NATIONAL AND
INTERNATIONAL PROMINENCE
AROUND 1781 AT FISK UNIVERSITY WITH
ITS STUDENT
SINGING GROUP, THE FISK JUBILEE
SINGERS, WHICH BEGAN FOR PURPOSES OF
RAISING MONEY TO FUND THE OPERATIONS
OF THE UNIVERSITY
4) SPIRITUALS, RELIGIOUS IN NATURE,
GENERALLY EXPRESSED
HOPE FOR DIVINE DELIVERANCE FROM
BONDAGE, BURDENSOME TOIL, AND

SUFFERING. MOST OF THE SONGS REFLECT


THE YEARNINGS OF BLACKS TO ESCAPE TO
A REFUGE CALLED HEAVEN [IBID]
5) THEIR PERFORMANCE IS MOSTLY A CAPPELLA,
SOLEMN AND
INTENSE, BUT ALSO MOVING AND
EMOTIONAL [p.307]
GOSPEL
THIS MUSICAL FORM EVOLVED IN THE BLACK
CHURCHESSENTIALLY
[AS] A DERIVATIVE OF AND TRANSITION FROM
SPIRITUAL SONGS. THE PRIMARY DIFFERENCE
BETWEEN SPIRITUAL AND GOSPEL
PERFORMANCE IS THE OBLIGATORY
ACCOMPANIMENT OF THE PIANO AND ELECTRIC
ORGAN[IN ADDITION TO] DRUMS, GUITAR
1) HAS A BEAT SIMILAR TO BLACK SECULAR MUSIC
WITH ITS
RIFFS, OSTINATOS, CALL AND RESPONSE
ROCKING IN TIME [p.307]
2) BEGAN IN THE FUNDAMENTAL PENTICOSTAL OR
SANCTIFIED
CHURCHES[AND INCLUDED] FOOT
STOMPING, HANDCLAPPING, AND RHYTHMIC BODY
MOVEMENTS[IBID]
3) THIS FORM OF MUSIC GAINED IN GENERAL
POPULARITY
FROM 1945 TO 1955 [IBID]
4) GOSPEL MUSIC IS MORE CULTURALLY RELATED
TO THE

AFRICAN CUSTOM OF PERFORMERAUDIENCE


PARTICIPATION [IBID]
THE BLUES AND AFRICAN AMERICANS
ALTHOUGH ITS EXACT ORIGINS ARE UNKNOWN,
THE BLUES
EVOLVED AND DEVELOPED OUT OF THE
OPPRESSED AND TRAGICALLY IRONIC
EXPERIENCE AND CONDITION OF SOUTHERN
BLACKS DURING OR AFTER THE CIVIL WARITS
ANTECEDENTS
[BEING THE] FUNCTIONAL WORK CHANTS AND
FIELD HOLLERS OF ENSLAVED BLACKS,
PRISONERS, RAIL HANDS, AND SHARECROPPERSITS RHYTHM, BEAT, AND MELODY
STRUCTURES
[BEING] CLEARLY CONSISTENT WITH THE
MUSICAL CULTURES OF WEST AFRICAWITH
RESIDUAL STRAINS FROM CENTRAL,
SOUTHERN, AND EASTERN AFRICA [p.308]
I.E., THIS MUSIC REFLECTS THE IMMEDIATE
AND MATERIAL
REALITY OF BLACK LIFETHE HURT AND PAIN
OF LOST JOBS,
LOST LOVESHARDSHIPWHITE RACISM,
DESPAIR, AND
ANGUISH [IBID]
1) W. C. HANDY = FATHER OF THE BLUES
BECAUSE HE WAS

THE FIRST PERSON TO WRITE OR


ORCHESTRATE THE
BLUES [IBID]; FERDINAND JELLY ROLL
MORTON =
FIRST GREAT COMPOSER AND PIANO
PLAYER OF JAZZ
[I.E., HIS FORM OF BLUES SERVED AS A
BRIDGE TO JAZZ MUSIC]
2) ALTHOUGH THE BLUES IS RELATED TO
SPIRITUAL AND GOSPEL
MUSIC, IT IS GENERALLY SECULAR OR
WORLDLY IN CONTENT AND MOTIVE [IBID]
[AS COMPARED TO THE MORE RELIGIOUS
SPIRITUALS AND GOSPEL FORMS OF BLACK
MUSIC]. IT IS BASICALLY A FOLK MUSIC
WITH VERSES AND STANZAS THAT HAVE
BEEN PASSED ALONG AND SOMETIMES
MODIFIED FROM ONE BLUES SINGER TO
ANOTHER [IBID].
3) THERE ARE GENERALLY TWO RECOGNIZED
FORMS OF BLUES
MUSIC:
DOWN-HOME COUNTRY BLUES
THE BLUES PRIOR TO THE 1920s
ORIGINATED IN THE DELTA SOUTH
[MISSISSIPPI, LA, AL]
ORCHESTRATED STYLE OF BLUES [?CITY
BLUES]
PERFORMED IN EUROPEAN ORCHESTRAL
FORM

GREATER APPEAL AMONG URBAN BLACKS


AND
SOME WHITES [AS WELL AS BRITISH
AND
OTHER EUROPEAN NATIONALITIES]
JAZZ:THE MUSICAL CREATION OF AFRICAN
AMERICANS
ALTHOUGH OTHER GROUPS HAVE CONTRIBUTED
TO JAZZ
DEVELOPMENT,THE BASIC RHYTHMIC
LANGUAGE OF THE
MUSIC IS DERIVED FROM THE MUSICAL
CULTURE OF AFRICAN
AMERICANS. JAZZ IS AN INSTRUMENTAL
EXTENSION OF THE
SPIRITUAL, GOSPEL, AND BLUES [p.310].
THE RHYTHMIC COMPLEXITY, THE EXECUTION,
THE POLYRHYTHMIC PERFORMANCE, THE INFLECTIONS,
AND THE SYNCOPATION OF JAZZ ARE INDISPUTABLY AFRICAN
IN NATURE
MANY OF THE AFRICAN CHARACTERISTICS OF
JAZZ ARE REPORTED TO BE DERIVED FROM THE
CONGO AND ANGOLA, OR CENTRAL AND SOUTH
WEST REGIONS OF AFRICA [IBID].
THE ESSENCE OF JAZZ IS IMPROVISATION.
TECHNICAL AND INNOVATIVE CREATIVITY IN THE EXECUTION OF A
PIECE, SONG, OR BALLAD IS EXPECTED OF
EACH INDIVIDUAL PERFORMANCE JAZZ IS A

LIVING AND FUNCTIONAL ART REFLECTIVE OF


THE ARTISTS DEPTH OF EMOTION AND
FEELING AT A GIVEN MOMENT OR TIME OF
PERFORMANCE. AN AUTHENTIC BLACK JAZZ
ARTIST NEVER PLAYS THE SAME PIECE OF
MUSIC THE SAME WAY TWICE [p.312].
1) NEW ORLEANS, LA IS THE BIRTHPLACE OF JAZZ;
ITS STORYVILLE
SECTION OF THE FRENCH QUARTERS
[CONGO SQUARE].
APPARENTLY, NEW ORLEANS HAD
SIGNIFICANT POPULATIONS OF BLACK [SLAVES] FROM
CENTRAL AND SOUTH WEST REGIONS OF
AFRICA [p.310].
2) DURING THE LATE 1890s, THIS FORM OF BLACK
MUSIC BECAME
INTERMIXED WITH AN OLDER TYPE OF
BLACK MUSIC,
RAGTIME, A PIANO-RAG MUSIC ADAPTED
TO THE DANCE
[CAKEWALK] OF BLACK FOLK[S][p.311].
WHITES LIKED RAGTIME MUSIC [AND SO]
THEY ADOPTED AND CONTRIBUTED TO ITS STYLE[THUS CREATING
A RAGTIME MUSIC THAT WAS] A SYNTHESIS
OF AFRICAN AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN
MUSICAL TRADITIONS[AND] A PRIME
MUSICAL FORERUNNER OF JAZZ [IBID].

3) WITH THE GREAT MIGRATION, THIS FORM OF


BLACK MUSIC,
LIKE THE OTHERS [E.G., BLUES, GOSPEL..],
MOVED TO THE NORTH AND MIDWEST WITH
THE BLACK MUSICIANS ENTERING THESE
REGIONS OF THE U. S. THIS RAGTIME/
JAZZ MUSIC WAS BLENDED WITH THE
BLUES, FOLK, AND POPULAR TUNES
LEADING TO AN UNPRECEDENTED
INTERRACIAL COLLABORATION [IBID] OF
BLACK AND WHITE MUSICIANS,
ESTABLISHING JAZZ AS A UNIVERSAL
MUSICAL ART FORM,SPREADING
BEYOND THE U. S. TO PARIS AND LONDON

3) THREE MAJOR FORMS OF JAZZ DEVELOPED


BETWEEN THE 1920s
AND 1940s:
A) HOT JAZZSWING OR JUMPING,
JAMMING STYLE
B) SWEET JAZZMELODY AND FLOWING
HARMONY
C) CLASSIC JAZZA REFINED HYBRID
STYLE OF THE
OTHER TWO
4) AFTER WWII, A REBELLIOUS FORM OF JAZZ
DEVELOPED,
TERMED BE-BOP, THE MODERN JAZZ
MOVEMENT, WHICH

LASTED UNTIL AROUND THE MIDDLE 1950s;


IT, IN TURN,
WAS FOLLOWED BY COOL JAZZ

RHYTHM AND BLUESSOUL MUSIC


THE BLACK MUSIC THAT BECAME KNOWN AS
RHYTHM AND BLUES IN THE 1960s DEVELOPED
FROM THE SOUND, FEELINGS, AND RELIGIOUS
AURA OF THE BLACK CHURCH. FIGURATIVELY AND
LITERALLY, THE BLACK CHURCH SPAWNED THE
TALENT THAT CREATED RHYTHM AND BLUES IN THE
SAME WAY IT HAD FOR SPIRITUALS, GOSPEL,
BLUES, AND JAZZ [p.313].
AFTER WWII, MANY BLACK YOUTH YEARNED FOR
A MUSICAL
MEDIUM THAT WOULD BE SPIRITUALLY UPLIFTING,
ONE THAT THEY COULD RELATE TO AND DESCRIBE
THEIR LOVE RELATIONSHIPS IN A HOPEFUL AND
INSPIRING MANNER[THUS, RHYTHM AND BLUES]
DEVELOPED AMONG YOUNG BLACKS IN MAJOR
CITIES OF THE SOUTH AND IN THE GHETTOS OF THE
NORTH AS A MORE LIVELY, UPBEAT, AND
RHYTHMIC MUSIC THAT FULFILLED SUCH NEEDS
FOR THEM
[p.313].
1) ITS PRIMARY DEVELOPMENT WAS IN THE
SOUTH
2) THE LABEL, RHYTHM AND BLUES, WAS GIVEN
BY BILLBOARD

MAGAZINE IN THE EARLY 1950s AS A


SUBSTITUTE FOR THE EARLIER LABEL,
RACE RECORD, THAT WAS USED FOR
RECORDS BY BLACK ARTISTS BEFORE 1949
3) PRIOR TO THE MID-1950s, ESPECIALLY IN THE
SOUTH, WHITES
DID NOT GENERALLY APPROVE OF THEIR
CHILDREN LISTENING TO BLACK MUSIC AND
EMULATING BLACK DANCE [p.314];
DURING THESE TIMES, WHITES OFTEN
REFERRED TO BLACK MUSIC AS NIGGER
MUSIC, AND THEY FORBADE THEIR
CHILDREN TO LISTEN TO SUCH IMMORAL
MUSIC. BUT BECAUSE SUCH MUSIC WAS
SO POPULAR, WHITE ARTISTS RECORDED
THEIR VERSIONS OF R&B MUSIC TO CASH
IN ON AND TO CAPTURE [THIS] BROADENING MARKET[IBID]. SUCH RECORDINGS BY
WHITE ARTISTS SPAWNED WHAT CAME TO
BE CALLED, ROCK AND ROLL. AND MANY
WHITE ARTISTS [E.G., ELVIS PRESLEY]
BECAME RICH AND FAMOUS WITH THEIR
RECORDINGS AND IMITATIONS OF BLACK
MUSICAL ARTISTS.
4) DURING THE HEIGHT OF THE CIVIL RIGHTS
MOVEMENT, BLACKS
BEGAN TO REFER TO RHYTHM AND BLUES
MUSIC AS SOUL MUSIC
RAP MUSIC AND HIP-HOP CULTURE
RAP MUSIC ORIGINATED OR EVOLVED OUT OF THE
STREET CULTURE

OF AFRICAN AMERICAN AND PUERTO RICAN YOUTH


DURING THE MID-1970s WITHIN THE NEW YORK
VICINITIES OF THE SOUTH BRONX, BROOKLYN, AND
QUEENSTHE FIRST RAP RECORD, RAPPERS
DELIGHT, WAS RELEASED IN 1979 [p.316].
ALTHOUGH RAP HAS SOME HISPANIC AND WHITE
ROCK INFLUENCES,
IT IS OVERWHELMINGLY AN AFRICAN AMERICAN
ART FORMINITIATED BY URBAN YOUTH WHO SOUGHT POSITIVE
DIVERSION FROM VIOLENCE AND DRUG ABUSE.
[RAP] PROVIDED A MEANS OF RELIEF FROM
ECONOMIC DEPRIVATION, UNEMPLOYMENT, AND
SOCIAL DESPAIR. BLACKS HAVE ALWAYS FOUND
THAT MUSIC, VERBAL DEXTERITY, AND DANCE ARE
PSYCHOLOGICALLY THERAPEUTIC IN THEIR
STRUGGLE FOR SURVIVAL AGAINST RACISM AND
OPPRESSION.
RAP MUSIC IS AN ART FORM OF RHYTHM,
RHETORIC, AND RHYMES CONSISTENT WITH THE
AFRICAN MUSICAL AND ORAL TRADITION
[IBID].
AN ENTIRE CULTURE HAS BEEN CREATED AROUND
RAP MUSIC BASED ON THE BLACK VERNACULAR.
THE CULTURE IS COMMONLY KNOWN
AS HIP-HOP [IBID].
HIP-HOP MUSIC EMBODIES A MYRIAD OF
DISCONNECTED ISSUES AND PHENOMENA FROM
AFRICAN SYMBOLISM, ANARCHY, CAPITALISM,
COMMUNALISM, ISLAMIC FUNDAMENTALISM,
SOCIAL PROTEST, SEXUAL IMAGERY, BREAK

DANCING, MURAL AND GRAFFITI ART, BLACK


HISTORY, PEDAGOGY, VIOLENCE, MATERIALISM,
DRUG ABSTINENCE, EGOISM, TO OBSCENITY. HIPHOP EMERGED, IN PART, AS A REBELLION AGAINST
THE MORE CONVENTIONAL MUSIC OF THE 1970s
AND 1980s IN THE SAME MANNER THAT BE-BOP
CHALLENGED CONVENTIONAL JAZZ IN THE 1950s
[IBID].
THE BROAD IMPACT OF RAP MUSIC CAN BE SEEN
IN THE FACT THAT
MOST PURCHASERS OF RAP CDs [DOWNLOADS]
ARE WHITE, AND WHITE LISTENERS, WHO
WERE [ARE] GENERALLY MORE AFFLUENT,
[HAVE] EXERCISED A DISPROPORTIONATE
INFLUENCE OVER WHAT THE INDUSTRY
PERCEIVED AS MARKET-PLACE TRENDS [IBID].

CLASSICAL MUSIC [EUROPEAN]


DESPITE MISCONCEPTIONS THAT BLACKS CANNOT
BE SUCCESSFUL PARTICIPATES IN THE CLASSICAL
MUSIC OF EUROPEANS, THERE IS ABUNDANT
EVIDENCE OF IMPORTANT ACHIEVEMENTS AND
CONTRIBUTIONS OF BLACKS TO THIS MUSICAL GENRE, I.E.
COMPOSERS, SYMPHONY CONDUCTORS,
INSTRUMENTALISTS, AND CONCERT AND OPERA
SINGERS [pp.317-318].
AFRICAN AMERICAN VISUAL AND PERFORMING
ARTS

BLACK ART AND THE EVOLUTION OF THE BLACK


ARTIST
ART IS THE CREATION OF THINGS OR IMAGERY BY
HUMANS THAT
THAT DISPLAY OR MANIFEST FORM, BEAUTY, OR
PERCEPTIONS THAT INTEREST OR
ATTRACT.BLACK ARTCAN BE DEFINED AS
AFRICAN AMERICAN CREATIVE INFLUENCES
AND CONTRIBUTIONS IN THE FIELDS OF
PAINTING AND SCULPTURE IN AMERICA. BLACK
ART IS DEMONSTRABLY RACIAL IN CONTEXT
AND REFLECTS THE SYMBOLISM OF AFRICA
AND THE SOCIAL EXPERIENCES OF BLACK
PEOPLE IN THE UNITED STATES AND THE
WORLD [p.320].
1) BLACK ART PORTRAYS SOCIAL, POLITICAL,
AND ECONOMIC
REALITIES FROM A BLACK PERSPECTIVE
REALITIES
REFLECTING THE EXPERIENCES OF BLACKS
IN MEETING THE CHALLENGES OF RACISM
AND OPPRESSIONAND THE STRATEGIES
AND PARADIGMS THAT HAVE ALLOWED
BLACKS TO SURVIVE SUCH
CHALLENGESTHE BLACK ARTIST SEEKS
TO DEFINE AND REDEFINE UNIVERSAL
PHENOMENA FROM AN AFRICAN
WORLDVIEW [IBID].
2) MUCH OF THIS ART HAS ITS ROOTS IN WEST
COAST AND

EQUATORIAL AFRICA, AREAS WHICH WERE


NOTED FOR THE ARTS OF WOOD AND
METAL SCULPTURE, METAL FORGING,
WOOD CARVING, IVORY AND BONE
CARVING, WEAVING, AND POTTERY
[p.321].
3) BLACK ART BEGAN TO RECEIVE RECOGNITION
AROUND 1928.
4) SOME AFRICAN AMERICAN ARTISTS DO NOT
SUBSCRIBE TO
THE BLACK AESTHETIC CONCEPT[AND]
REJECT THE NOTION THAT THERE SHOULD
BE AN IDENTIFIABLE BLACK ART
AESTHETIC [IBID].
5) BLACK VISUAL ARTISTS HAVE PROVIDED THE
MOST CONSISTENT BODY OF WORK WITH POSITIVE
REPRESENTATIONS
[OF BLACKS]. THERE APPEARS TO BE
FEWER NEGATIVE INFLUENCES ON SUCH
WORK BECAUSE OF LESS COMMERCIAL PRESSURE [IBID].
BLACK THEATRE
1) ENSLAVED BLACKS OFTEN WERE FORCED TO
ENTERTAIN
THEIR CAPTOR CREWS ON THE DECKS OF
SLAVE SHIPS
[AND LATER] ON PLANTATIONS, CITY
SQUARES, AND RIVERBOATS THROUGHOUT
THE SOUTH [p.322].
2) WHEN FREE BLACKS OF THE NORTH FORMED
THEIR OWN

PLAYHOUSES AND SHOWS [EVEN THEY]


WERE FORCED TO PERFORM IN
STEREOTYPICAL, COMIC, AND BUFFOONISH
ROLES TO SATISFY THE PREJUDICIAL
HUMOR OF WHITE AMERICANSEVEN INTO
THE 20TH CENTURY [p.323].
3) BLACK DRAMA IS THOUGHT TO HAVE
ORIGINATED DURING
SLAVERY WHEN BLACKS MIMICKED THE
MANNERISMS,
WALKING, AND TALKING STYLES OF THEIR
ENSLAVERS
WHITES, FINDING THESE PERFORMANCES
ENTERTAINING, THEN STARTED TO MIMIC
BLACKS WHILE USING MAKEUP
[BLACKFACE] TO DARKEN THEIR FACES TO
APPEAR AS
BLACKS[IBID].
4) THE ABOVE PERFORMANCE STYLE BY WHITES
BECAME KNOWN
AS MINSTRELSY. WHITES IN BLACKFACE
STARTED A
THEATRICAL TREND OF PROJECTING
BLACKS AS LAZY, SHIFTLESS, SIMPLE,
DIALECT-SPEAKING PEOPLE WITH KINKY
HAIR AND LARGE LIPSAFTER THE CIVIL
WAR,
BLACKS BEGAN TO FORM THEIR OWN
MINSTREL SHOWS, AND WHEN THEY DID
SO, THEY ALSO PAINTED THEIR FACES AND
PAINTED THEIR LIPS TO AMUSE WHITE
AUDIENCES [IBID].

5) PRIOR TO THE 1940s, BLACK THEARTE LARGELY


CONTINUED
TO PRODUCE SHOWS IN WHICH BLACKS
PORTRAYED STEREOTYPICAL ROLES. BUT
THIS PATTERN CHANGED IN THE 1940s
WHEN BLACKS BEGAN TO BE CAST IN
ROLES OF GREATER DEPTH AND
HUMANITY [p.324].
6) THE MOST POPULAR THEATRICAL
PRODUCTIONS EXAMINING
THE EXPERIENCES OF BLACK AMERICANS
HAVE TENDED TO BE MUSICALS RATHER
THAN DRAMAS. TO SOME EXTENT THIS
PREFERENCE IS NATURAL. AFRICAN
AMERICAN MUSIC, SONG, AND DANCE ARE
INTEGRAL TO THE PERFORMANCE OF BLACK THEATRE [p.326].
BLACK DANCE
IN TRADITIONAL AFRICAN SOCIETIES THERE IS NO
FORMAL SEPARATION BETWEEN MUSIC AND DANCE, AS IS THE CASE
IN WESTERN
SOCIETIESAFRICAN AMERICAN VERNACULAR
DANCE IS CHARACTERIZED BY PROPULSIVE RHYTHM [AND] BLACK
AMERICANS DEMAND A STEADY BEAT IN THEIR
DANCE MUSIC. ALTHOUGH THE BEAT CAN BE
EMBELLISHED, THE BASIC RHYTHM PROVIDES THE
DANCER WITH DRAMATIC EXITS AND ENTRANCES
[p.325].

1) BLACK PUBLIC DANCE PLAYS A CRITICAL ROLE


IN CREATING A
SENSE OF SHARED CULTURE AND IDENTITY
THROUGH A COMMON EXPERIENCE ACROSS
REGIONAL, CLASS, AND AGE DIFFERENCES
[IBID].
2) BLACK CONCERT DANCE DATES BACK TO AT
LEAST THE 1930s,
NUMEROUS BLACK CONCERT DANCE
COMPANIES HAVE BEEN CREATED OVER THE
YEARS.
3) BUILDING ON PUBLIC DANCE TRADITIONS,
CONTEMPORARY
MANIFESTATIONS OF THIS GENRE CAN BE
SEEN IN BREAK
DANCING AND LINE DANCES LIKE THE CHA
CHA SLIDE
[AS WELL AS] BLACK FRATERNITY AND
SORORITY STEP SHOWS, [AND] BLACK
MARCHING BANDS [p.326].
BLACKS IN FILM AND TELEVISION
1) BLACKS INVOLVED IN FILM AND TELEVISION
HAVE GENERALLY
HAD TO GRAPPLE WITH THE PROBLEM OF
STEREOTYPES
[AND] THE COSTS OF THE ENTERPRISE
[p.327].
2) TRADITIONAL FILM ROLES AVAILABLE TO
BLACKS WERE

HIGHLY CIRCUMSCRIBED AND CAN BE


CLASSIFIED INTO FIVE ARCHTYPES: TOMS,
COONS, MULATTOES, MAMMIES, AND
BUCKS. A CURSORY EXAMINATION OF
CONTEMPORARY CINEMA SUGGESTS THAT MANY
BLACK CHARACTERS STILL CONFORM TO
THE OLD STEREOTYPES [p.328].
3) STEREOTYPES PORTRAYED OF BLACKS
INCLUDE: ANTISOCIAL
BEHAVIOR, VIOLENCE, DRUGS, SEX, STREET
TALK, FANCY
CLOTHES AND CARS, AND GETTING OVER
ON THE MAN
[IBID].

4) THE NEW GENRE OF BLAXPLOITATION FILMS


HAS BEEN FUELED
BY THE HIP-HOP/RAP MUSIC MOVEMENT
AND MADE
POSSIBLE BY THE SUCCESS OF
INDEPENDENT BLACK
FILMMAKERS [p.329].
5) THE REPRESENTATION OF BLACKS ON
TELEVISION IS NO LESS
GUILTY OF PERPETUATING STEREOTYPES
[LEADING TO] THE CONCLUSION THAT THE
FULL RANGE OF BLACK HUMANITY HAS NOT
BEEN REFLECTED IN TELEVISION
OFFERINGS DURING ANY PERIOD AND IN
ANY GENRE, RANGING FROM SITCOMS. TO

LAWYER AND COP PROGRAMS. TO


WESTERNS, TO SCI-FI, OR DRAMAS
[IBID].
6) IN SPITE OF THE INCREASE IN BLACK SITCOMS
[IN RECENT
DECADES ON TELEVISION], THE SHOWS
HAVE REMAINED CONFINED TO COMEDIC
SITUATIONS WHERE THE CASE IS OF THE
SAME RACIAL BACKGROUND
[APPARENTLY] THE BLACK COMMUNITY
PREFERS BLACK SITCOMS BECAUSE THEY
ARE ABLE TO IDENTIFY WITH THE LIFE
ISSUES THAT ARE DEPICTED[WITH]
WATCHING ORDINARY EVENTS IN BLACK
COMMUNITIES PORTRAYED IN COMICAL
WAYS
THE SEGREGATION OF RACIAL GROUPS IN
SITCOMS HAS BEEN SO SUCCESSFUL THT
TELEVISION NETWORKS HAVE NOTICED
THAT PROFITS ARE HIGHER, THEREFORE,
THEY FEEL ENCOURAGED TO CONTINUE THE
SAME RACIAL AND SOCIAL STRUCTURE IN
THEIR SHOWS [p.330].
7) MOREOVER, THE EXPERIENCE WITH BET
[BLACK ENTERTAINMENT TELEVISION] UNDER BLACKOWNERSHIP SUGGESTS THAT EVEN BLACK
OWNERSHIP AND CONTROL ARE INSUFFICIENT TO EMPLOY THE MEDIA FOR
COLLECTIVE EMPOWERMENT [IBID].

THE LITERATURE OF AFRICAN AMERICANS


DEFINING BLACK LITERATURE
1) BLACK LITERATURE IS THE CREATIVE WRITTEN
AND ORAL
EXPRESSION OF PEOPLE OF AFRICAN
DESCENT AND IS PARTICULARLY RELATED
TO THE CULTURAL AND SOCIOPOLITICAL EXPERIENCES OF AFRICAN
AMERICANS[IT]
PROJECTS THE REALITY AND MYTHOLOGY
OF BLACK
LIFE AND EXPERIENCE [p.330].
2) THE CONCEPT OF BLACK LITERATURE IS NOT
SHARED BY ALL
AFRICAN AMERICAN WRITERS[RESULTING
IN] A
DISTINCTION BETWEEN BLACK
LITERATURE AND
LITERATURE BY BLACK WRITERS [p.331].
3) THE ORAL TRADITION IN MOST AFRICAN
SOCIETIES IS MORE
INSTITUTIONALIZED THAN THE USE OF THE
WRITTEN
WORD. ALTHOUGH ANCIENT WRITING
TRADITIONS DO EXIST ON THE AFRICAN
CONTINENT, IN MOST AFRICAN SOCIETIES,
ART FORMS ARE ORAL RATHER THAN
LITERARY
[p.331].
4) ALTHOUGH SLAVERY TOOK AFRICANS FROM
THEIR HOMELAND,

THEY WERE ABLE TO RETAIN MUCH OF THE


ORAL TRADITIONS OF EACH COUNTRY AND REGION AND
INTEGRATE SUCH TRADITIONS INTO
WESTERN WRITTEN LITERARY
FORMATSTWO OF THE EARLIEST GENRES
USED BY ENSLAVED AFRICANS THAT
INVOLVED ADAPTATIONS OF THE AFRICAN
ORAL TRADITION WERE POETRY AND THE
SLAVE NARRATIVE [IBID].

BLACK LITERATURE18TH AND 19TH CENTURIES


1) BLACK POETRY BY ENSLAVED BLACKS DATES
BACK TO THE
EARLY 1700s; TYPICALLY SUCH WORKS
WERE PUBLISHED
WITH THE HELP OF WHITES
2) OTHER LITERARY WORKS [WHICH OFTEN WERE
PUBLISHED
LATER] BY BLACKS INCLUDED:
STORIES [I.E., STORYTELLING] OR TALES
[UNCLE REMUS]
SLAVE NARRATIVES
PROTEST WRITINGS
LETTERS/PETITIONS TO GOVT
AUTHORITIES
NOVELS [BEGINNING IN THE 1850s]

MOST OF THESE WORKS SERVED AS EITHER


A FORM OF
SOCIAL CEMENT [FOR SURVIVAL
PURPOSES] OR AS
DISGUISED PROTESTS AGAINST SLAVERY
[OR] PROACTIVE
EFFORTS TO OVERCOME OPPRESSION
[p.332].
BLACK WRITERS AND LITERATURE20TH CENTURY
NOTABLE DEVELOPMENTS IN BLACK LITERATURE
DURING THIS
PERIOD INCLUDE:
1) JAMES WELDON JOHNSONS POEMLIFT
EVERY VOICE
AND SING WHICH HAS BEEN PUT TO
MUSIC AND
NOW SERVES AS THE BLACK NATIONAL
ANTHEM
[p.334]
IN 1900, TO CELEBRATE ABRAHAM
LINCOLNS
BIRTHDAY, JOHNSON WROTE [THIS
POEM]. HIS
YOUNGER BROTHER JOHN ROSAMOND
JOHNSON
COMPOSED MUSIC TO ACCOMPANY THE
WORDS.
IT WAS PUBLISHED IN 1921 AND SOON
THEREAFTER
WITH THE ENCOURAGEMENT OF THE
NAACP

THE SONG WAS EMBRACED AS THE


NEGRO
NATIONAL ANTHEM [HHH, p.452].
2) IN THE 1950s, THE DOMINANT
MOVEMENT [IN BLACK
LITERATURE] EMPHASIZED THE
REDISCOVERY AND REVITALIZATION OF MYTH, LEGEND, AND
RITUAL AS
APPROPRIATE SIGN SYSTEMS FOR
EXPRESSING THE
DOUBLE CONSCIOUSNESS, SOCIALIZED
AMBIVALENCE,
AND DOUBLE VISION OF THE POST-WORLD
WAR II
EXPERIENCE OF BLACK AMERICANS [p.
335]
3)

THE BLACK ARTS MOVEMENT [SEE ABOVE]

4) THE MOST CREATIVE, PROLIFIC, AND


CRITICALLY
ACCLAIMED NOVELISTS OF THE 1970s AND
1980s
[WERE] BLACK WOMEN [p.337]
THOUGH LITERARY
CRITICISM WITHIN AFRICAN AMERICAN
STUDIES HAS
BEEN LESS INFLUENCED BY THE WORK OF
BLACK FEMINIST
LITERARY CRITICSBECAUSE THE
CONTEMPORARY BLACK

FEMINIST DISCOURSE ON IDENTITY IS


MOTIVATED BY AN
IMPULSE TO DISPLACE THE PRESCRIPTIVE
MODEL OF BLACK IDENTITY, UNIFIED
AROUND THE SIGN OF RACE, THAT WAS
PROMOTED TO BLACK AESTHETIC CRITICS
THOUGH CONTEMPORARY BLACK FEMINIST LITERARY
THEORY EXTENDS THE BLACK AESTHETIC
GESTURE OF CHALLENGING THE
DICHOTOMY BETWEEN ART AND IDEOLOGY
[p.338].

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