Environmental Pollution 88 (1995) 147-154

0 1995 Elsevier Science Limited

Printed in Great Britain. All rights reserved
0269-7491/94/$09.00

ELSEVIER

AIR POLLUTION

AND ITS IMPACTS ON WHEAT YIELD

THE PAKISTAN PUNJAB

IN

A. Wahid, R. Maggqb S. R. A. Shamsi, J. N. B. Bellb & M. R. Ashmoreh*

Department of Botany, University of the Punjab, Quaid-e-Azam Campus, Lahore-54590, Pakistan
hDepartment

of Biology, Imperial College at Silwood Park, Ascot, Berkshire UK, SL5 7PY
(Received 23 August 1993; accepted 14 March 1994)

Abstract

1988). In Europe, a similar study, using a standardised

experimental protocol, has recently been completed, involving 12 sites in 10 countries. This study used a more
restricted range of crops, but also included wheat (J8ger
et al., 1994). Both the United States and European studies have shown clear evidence of ambient O3 pollution
reducing wheat yield at some locations (e.g. Kohut et
al., 1987; Fuhrer et al., 1989; Pleijel et al., 1991).
In contrast to the situation in the developed world,
research into the impacts of air pollution on crops in
developing countries is limited, and in most cases is
devoted to fumigation experiments with high concentrations of SO,. However, industrialisation, urbanisation and motor traffic are currently increasing on an
unprecedented scale in many developing countries. The
consequent air-pollution problems are serious, due to
the absence of the kind of controls imposed on emissions in the developed world. A recent report on air
nollution in twenty megacities, mainly in developing
countries, highlighted indications of rapidly deteriorating air quality, although in many cases reliable monitoring data are limited (WHOKJNEP,
1992). In
contrast to Europe and North America, most developing countries are endeavouring to increase agricultural
crop production to cope with high rates of population
growth. These efforts may be seriously hampered by reduced crop production due to ambient air pollution.
This paper describes an experiment aimed at assessing
the impacts of ambient air pollution on winter wheat at
a location on the outskirts of Lahore, Pakistan. It is the
first in a series of papers that will report on air pollution levels in the region and, in particular, their impact
on agricultural production. The experiment grew wheat
to maturity in open-top chambers, ventilated with ambient or charcoal-filtered air. Regular growth measurements and assessments of final-yield components were
made. This is the first known investigation of this type
conducted on the Indian subcontinent.

A study using open-top chambers ventilated with ambient

or charcoal-jiltered air in the vicinity of Lahore, Pakistan, has demonstrated a reduction of 46.7% and 34.8%
in the grain yield for two cultivars of winter wheat
(Triticum aestivum L.). The 6-h daily mean O3 concentrations were 254.5 nl litre- and on the basis of experience in North America and Europe, reductions in yield in
the present study are substantially greater than might be
predicted. The reasons for this discrepancy are discussed,
together with implications for the suitability of a simple,
relatively cheap, open-top chamber system for developing-country studies on the eflects of air pollution on
crops.
INTRODUCTION
Ambient air pollution has been shown to reduce the
growth and economic yield of a wide range of major
crop species in North America and Europe. Such
effects are currently attributed largely to the secondary
photo-oxidant ozone (O,), which is widespread in many
rural areas. The formation of ozone is influenced by
major emissions of its precursors, nitrogen oxides
(NO,) and hydrocarbons, of which the motor vehicle is
the most important source. However, in some areas nitrogen dioxide (NO,), sulphur dioxide (SO,) and other
air pollutants are also important in terms of crop yield.
The most detailed quantitative information on economic losses arising from air pollution has been
obtained by the United States National Crop Loss
Assessment Network (NCLAN). In this study, agricultural crops were grown to maturity in open-top chambers, ventilated with charcoal-filtered or ambient air,
supplemented with extra 0, in some treatments in order
to generate dose/response relationships. Outside plots
were also set up to determine any impact on the crops
by the chambers themselves. The NCLAN study, which
included wheat, produced an estimate of around $3000
x IO6 annual economic loss in the United States as a
result of 0, pollution on annual crops (Adams et al.,

MATERIALS

AND METHODS

The experimental site occupied a 21 x 15 m area in the

Botanical Gardens of the Quaid-e-Azam Campus of
the University of the Punjab, some 7.5 km south of the
centre of Lahore. In 1985, Lahore had about 3.5 million inhabitants, a high volume of motor traffic and

*To whom correspondence should be addressed at: Centre

for Environmental Technology, Imperial College of Science
Technology and Medicine, 48 Princes Gardens, London,
SW7 2PE, UK.
147

148

A. Wahid, R. Maggs, S. R. A. Shamsi, J. N. B. Bell, M. R. Ashmore

some areas of light industry. The experiment site was

1500 m and 7 km from the nearest main road and industry, respectively, and was surrounded by agricultural areas to the west and south. Twelve plots were
constructed on the site: eight were occupied by opentop chambers, the remaining four were unchambered
control plots (OP). The chambers were constructed
according to the design of Bell and Ashmore (1986),
which has been used extensively in air-filtration studies
at a number of locations in south-east England over
the last thirteen years. These chambers are particularly
suitable for use in the developing world; their simple,
basic design can be constructed rapidly, using materials
readily available locally. They are 1.5 m in diameter
and height, consisting of an aluminium framework with
polyethylene walls, with air supplied at three changes
per minute via a vertical manifold. Four chambers were
ventilated with ambient unfiltered air (UFA), while the
other four were ventilated with air that had passed
through an activated charcoal filter (FA). Both types of
chamber were equipped with prefilters to remove dust.
The fans and filters were sheltered in order to minimise
any rise in temperature of the air entering the chambers. A metal fence was constructed around the entire
site for security purposes.
The chambers were operated as closely as possible to
the conditions prescribed under the European OpenTop Chamber Programme protocol (Jager, 1994).
Microclimatic measurements were taken within and
outside the chambers, to assist in interpreting the final
results. Light intensity, relative humidity and air temperature were measured at crop height in one chamber
and one outside plot at 0800, 1200 and 1600 h daily,
using a light meter and a portable temperature-humidity probe. Dust was washed from the outside of the
chamber walls on a regular basis. Ozone levels were
monitored in one of each of the treatment plots (UFA,
AA and OP) from 16 December 1991 to 11 January
1992. Having determined that there was little difference
between ozone levels in UFA and AA, monitoring was
switched to three of the eight chambered plots (one FA
and two UFA) thereafter. Periodic sampling of replicate chambers revealed agreement for both O3 and NO2
levels. Sampling was carried out at crop height in the
centre of the plots. The height of sampling was adjusted to crop height accordingly and varied from
33345 cm at the end of active vegetative growth,
depending upon cultivar and treatment.
In the absence of continuous monitors simple chemical methods were employed. Ozone concentrations
were monitored between 1000-1600 h three times per
week, using the neutral buffered potassium iodide
method (Saltzman & Gilbert, 1959). Interference from
light was minimised by encasing the impinger vessel in
black paper. No correction was made for interference
from other pollutant gases. Comparisons between the
KI method and a continuous ozone monitor at a site
elsewhere in Lahore showed close agreement between
the two methods. Mean NO2 concentration was determined over weekly periods using diffusion tubes

(Atkins et al., 1978) attached to chamber walls at

heights of 75 cm in four of the eight chambered plots
(two FA and two UFA). Difficulties were encountered
in attempting to measure air concentrations of SO,
using the acidometric method, probably due to interference by elevated levels of NH, arising from animal
waste on nearby farms.
Two locally grown, currently recommended cultivars
of Triticum aestivum L. were studied in the experiment,
using seed obtained from the Ayub Agricultural Research Institute in Faisalabad, Pakistan. These were selected on the basis of a screening programme of ten
Pakistan wheat cultivars, carried out by means of controlled 0, fumigation (80 nl litre for 8 h per day for 7
days) at Imperial College, followed by assessment of
visible injury. One cultivar (Pak-81) was relatively sensitive, while the other (Chakwal-86) was less sensitive
to 0,. The screening fumigation resulted in 80 and 61%
leaf-length injured, respectively.
Four plants of each cultivar were grown from seed in
a sandy-loam soil in 30-cm-diameter clay pots, with
four replicate pots in each plot, giving a total of 64
plants of each cultivar per treatment. The seeds were
sown on 30 November 1991 and the chambers placed
in position over the plots on 10 December 1991. The
experimental plants were managed throughout
the
experiment according to local agricultural practices;
plants were watered to excess every other day, and
inter-plant distances of lo-12 cm were comparable with
those in nearby agricultural fields. Cow manure was incorporated into the soil at the start of the experiment
and pesticides were avoided throughout.
Crop growth and development were monitored
throughout the growing season by weekly measurements of plant height and numbers of tillers, and of
numbers of live and senescent leaves. A single destructive harvest was performed at crop maturity on 28-9
April 1992, with measurements of number of ears per
plant, grains per plant, and spikelets per ear. Grain and
straw dry weights were determined for each plant and
the average ear and rachis lengths per plant were measured. Final harvest data were subjected to analysis of
variance based on plot means.
RESULTS
Results of the routine measurements inside and outside
the chamber showed relatively little impact upon microclimate (Table 1). Light levels at crop height were,
on average, reduced by 5% inside the chamber, while
the mean air temperature inside the chamber was 11 C
higher than outside. Relative humidity was 1.4%
higher inside the chamber. The 11C increase in temperature inside the chamber was not related to light
levels, but most likely was due to the heating effect of
the fan and motor (Fig. 1).
The concentrations of ozone and nitrogen dioxide
through the growing season are shown in Fig. 2. The
mean 6-h concentration of 0, through the growing
season was 35.6 nl litre- with a mean weekly NO,

Air pollution and its impacts in the Pakistan Punjab

149

Table 1. Mean monthly ambient air temperatures, light levels and relative humidities inside and outside the chamber environment.
Values are means of values measured daily at OWO, 1200 and 1600 h

Month

Air temperature (C)

December
January
February
March
April

Relative humidity (%)

Light intensity
(Lux x 1000)

Inside

Outside

Diff.

Inside

Outside

Diff.

Inside

Outside

Diff.

17.59
16-61
17.13
23.54
29.65

16.55
1544
15.99
22.36
28.54

+1.04
+1.17
+1.14
+1:18
+l.ll

20.98
20.09
24.78
31.97
39.29

22.34
21.34
25.99
33.49
39.29

-1.36
-1.25
-1.21
-1.52
-1.56

70.58
65.96
58.51
47.00
41.06

69.34
64.34
57.08
45.66
39.58

+1.24
+1.64
+1.43
+1.34
+1.48

of 23.3 nl litre-. The O3 concentration

increased during the experiment from a mean concentration of 27 nl litre- in December and January to a
mean of 39.5 nl litre- during March and April, whereas
NO, concentration remained virtually constant. This
increase in concentration coincided with an increase in
monthly mean temperature. Filtration efficiencies were
85 and 65% for ozone and nitrogen dioxide, respectively. Concentrations of 0, and NOz at crop height
were only l-2 nl litre- lower than those at 60 cm or
120 cm within the chambers, indicating little depletion
of Oj concentrations by the crop. Ozone levels in the
UFA plots were l-2 nl litre- below those recorded at a
similar position in the OP plots.
Crop growth and development showed dramatic
effects of treatment with increases seen in the rate of
tiller production in both cultivars in FA compared to
UFA and OP (Fig. 3); in cultivar Pak-81 this was apparent in mid-January, but in cultivar Chakwal-86 it
did not begin until late January. Final tiller numbers
were reduced by 25.9% in Pak-81 and 31.8% in Chakwal-86 in UFA compared to FA. There was also an accelerated rate of senescence of the main stem leaves in
UFA and OP when compared to FA (Fig. 4), which
became apparent from mid-February in Pak-81 and
late February in Chakwal-86. In both cultivars, the rate
of leaf production on the main stem was unaffected by
filtration, but was slower in OP than in the chambered
plots (data not shown).
concentration

The results of the final harvest showed highly significant effects of treatment. Large yield losses in UFA
were seen when compared to FA (Table 2) with total
grain weight per plant showing reductions of 46.7% for
Pak-81 and 34.8% for Chakwal-86. Reductions in straw
weight were similar to reductions in total grain weight,
37% for Pak-81 and 35% for Chakwal-86. A substantial
part of the yield reduction was due to reductions in the
number of ears per plant, 20% for Pak-81 and 22% for
Chakwal-86, respectively; this is largely a reflection of
the reduced level of tillering in UFA in both cultivars.
However, for Pak-81 there was also a 25% reduction

(a) Ozone

Unfiltered air

Filtered air

I
January

.
.
.
.

8
5 1.2 cz
B
2
3

':
.=...

??

..

--- . .:
:

??
. .

1
.

f0,6

??
.

.
.

:z,g
I=
:
=
.

'.'
.

'm.'I
..I.
.I

April

dioxide

.I.=.
.

??

.
.

._'.L

I
March

Date

(b) Mrogm

1.4

1---7..-.,,.
February

??

0.6 .
04
15

20

25

30

35

40

45

Solar radiation (Lux x1000)

Each reading is an average of three daily readings

Fig. 1. Relationship

between solar radiation and temperature

differences inside and outside chambered plots. Each value
is an average of three daily readings.

40192

l/2192

4l4192

2ei92

Date of Tutm CoGzl

Fig. 2. Ozone and nitrogen dioxide concentrations (nl litre-)

in filtered-air and unfiltered-air plots. Ozone concentrations
represent a 6-h mean (1000-1600 h). Nitrogen dioxide values
are weekly means.

A. Wahid, R. Maggs, S. R. A. Shamsi, J. N. B. Bell, M. R. Ashmore

150

(a). cv. Pak-81.

??

19/12/91

Filtered air

Unfiltered air

2ill92

16/l/92

30/l/92

13/2/92

3OlOll92

13102192

Date

(b). cv. Chak-86.

4
3.5
f

Filtered air

Open plots

+
g5
P
$
!

2.5
2

1.5

$
?

1
0.5
0
19/12/91

02/01192

16/01192

Date
Fig. 3. Effect of treatment

on tiller development

in the number of grains per ear in UFA, while the third

major yield component, the lOOO-grain weight, was reduced by 11% in UFA in this cultivar. In contrast, the
yield reductions in UFA for these two components were
smaller in Chakwal-86 (12% in the number of grains per
ear and 6% in lOOO-grain weight), accounting for the
smaller overall yield reduction. It is important to note
that the differences between filtered and unfiltered air
were statistically significant for both cultivars and for
all three yield components. The percentage reduction in

for cultivars Pak-81 and Chakal-86.

the number of spikelets per ear was similar to that in

the number of grains per ear, suggesting that the effect
of filtration was on spikelet production rather than
numbers of grains produced per spikelet.
A number of parameters showed lower values in OP
than UFA, although differences were small compared
with those between chamber treatments. Grain yields in
the OP were significantly reduced compared to UFA,
by 10% for Pak-81 and 12.5% for Chakwal-86. The
reduced yield was due primarily to reductions in the

151

Air pollution and its impacts in the Pakistan Punjab

(a). cv. Pak-81.

??

Filtered air

Open plots

Unfiltered air

2/I/92

3ON92

27l2i92

2613192

2314192

2613192

231492

Date

(b). cv. Chak-86.

10
9

??

Filteredair

UnMered air

8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
2/l/92

30/l 192

27/2/92
Date

Fig. 4. Effect

of treatment on main stem leaf senescence for cultivars Pak-81 and Chakwal-86.

number of grains per ear, rather than in the lOOO-grain

weight or the number of ears per plant. The number of
grains per ear in OP was significantly reduced compared
to UFA, by 10% for Pak-8 1 and 15% for Chakwal-86.
DISCUSSION

This work has demonstrated the feasibility of using a

simple. relatively cheap, open-top chamber system to
test the effects of ambient air pollution on crops in a

developing country. Even under conditions where mean

air temperatures approached 30C towards the end of
the experiment, temperature increases within the chambers remained small. In any filtration experiment involving comparisons
of plant performance
inside
chambers, the environmental modification imposed by
the chambers themselves (and consequently possible interactions with pollutant impacts) are inevitably criticised. In the present study, comparison of UFA with
OP shows relatively small differences, and none at all in

A. Wahid, R. Maggs, S. R. A. Shamsi, J. N. B. Bell, M. R. Ashmore

152

Table 2. Treatment means for final harvest parameters of Pakistani wheat a~ltivars Pak-81 and Chkwal-86

Harvest parameter

Cultivar
Pak-8 1
FA

Straw weight per plant (g)

Grain weight per plant (g)
Number of ears per plant
Average number of grains per ear
Average number of spikelets per ear
lOOO-grain weight (g)
Total number of grains per plant
Average grain weight per ear (g)

UFA

Chakwal-86
OP

9.28b

585a

5.53a

25.80~

13.75b

12.31a

3,986

3.18a
59.93b
16.36a

3.19a
53.71a
14.36a

72.35a

71.75a
171a

80,lOc
20.326

81.50b
316~
6.53~

1906
4.346

3.86a

FA
9.616
31.78~
3.86b

92.99~
22.21c
89.49~
355c
8.32~

UFA

OP

6.21a

5.88a

20.69b
3,Ola
82.216

18.10a
3.12a
69.92a

19.46b

17.79a

84.396
2456
6.94b

83.21a
217a
5.82a

Treatment means followed by different letters within cultivars are significantly different from one another at PcO.05.
[FA: filtered air; UFA: unfiltered air; OP: outside plot.]

the case of some growth parameters.

This places further confidence on the validity of the results. Where
differences were detected, for example on grain yield,
they took the form of UFA>OP. This difference may
possibly reflect the small increase in temperature inside
the chambers. However, another factor may be the potentially adverse impacts of dusts, especially during the
drier period of the year. Dust levels in the chambers
will have been substantially lower than in the outside
plots.
The relatively small differences in temperature and
light intensity, and in plant growth, between the inside
and outside of the chambers may be due to the completely open-top design, without any type of frustrum,
together with the higher solar angle. The ozone concentration in the UFA chamber was also only l-2 nl litre-
below OP, while measurements indicated little evidence
of a vertical gradient in the chamber at the planting
density in this experiment. Despite the open-top design,
overall filtration efficiencies were high, perhaps reflecting the relatively low ambient windspeeds at the site.
Thus, overall, the design of these chambers appears
highly suitable for work in regions like Lahore.
Both cultivars showed similar reductions in the number of ears per plant (20% for Pak-81 and 22% for
Chakwal-86), which can be related to the reduced tiller
development also shown in both cultivars in UFA. This
delay in tiller production in UFA was first seen in late
January, at the time when 0, concentrations began to
increase, but this does not necessarily imply a causal relationship. Both cultivars also showed significant reductions in other yield components in UFA, but the
reduction in UFA was smaller in Chakwal-86, both in
the case of number of grains per ear (reduced by 12%
in Chakwal-86, compared with 25% in Pak-81), and
loo&grain weight (reduced by 6% in Chakwal-86, compared with 11% in Pak-81). These differences are of
interest as an initial screening of cultivar sensitivity
showed Pak-81 to be more sensitive to ozone than
Chakwal-86.
In this study, the reductions in total grain weight
were attributed to the combined effects of reductions in

three parameters: the number of ears per plant, the

number of grains per ear and the lOOO-grain weight. It
is of interest to assess whether the nature of the observed effects is consistent with those observed in fumigation experiments with the major air pollutants at the
Lahore site. The reduction in IOOO-grain weight is consistent with observations by Heagle et al. (1979), Mulchi
et al. (1986), Kohut et al. (1987), Pleijel et al. (1991),
Fuhrer et al. (1989, 1992) and De Temmerman et al.
(1992), following exposure of wheat to 03, although in
the latter case there was no significant effect on overall
grain yield. Fuhrer et al. (1989, 1992) also reported
reductions in numbers of grains per ear, but not in
numbers of ears per square metre. The absence of an
effect on the latter parameter was also noted by Kohut
et al. (1987) and Pleijel et al. (1991) and indicates some
differences in the responses observed in the present work
from field fumigation experiments with ozone.
The lack of any indication of adverse effects on
growth before late January 1992, at which point 6-h
mean 0, concentrations were starting to rise above 25 nl
litre-, provides indirect support for 0, being responsible
for the reductions in growth and yield. However, the
effect of the substantial concentrations of nitrogen dioxide at this site cannot be excluded. Relatively few studies
on O,/NO, interactions have been performed, but three
recent studies by European workers on wheat, barley,
rape and bean crops (Adaros et al., 1991a,b; Bender et
al., 1991) have shown either additive or antagonistic
effects in experiments with NO2 concentrations very similar to those recorded at Lahore. Furthermore, Adaros
et al. (199 1) reported no negative effects of NO2 alone at
these concentrations on the growth and yield of two
European wheat cultivars in two successive seasons. This
is consistent with other studies which show that adverse
effects of NO2 on crop plants only occur at concentrations well above those found at the Lahore site. Nevertheless, this issue cannot be finally resolved until
controlled fumigation experiments are performed, exposing Pak-81 and Chakwal-86 to O3 regimes simulating
those recorded in the chambers at Lahore, with or without addition of 20-30 nl litre? NO*.

Air pollution and its impacts in the Pakistan Punjab

This study has demonstrated remarkably large reductions in the grain yield of wheat, given the prevailing
pollutant concentrations.
Depressions of grain dry
weight of between 35 and 47% in chambers ventilated
with ambient air compared with charcoal-filtered air
are considerably greater than nearly all of those reported from open-top chamber studies in Europe and
North America. While the latter have shown examples
of significant reductions at O3 levels with 7- or 8-h
daily means of 4&50 nl litre- it_should be noted that
in the present investigation such concentrations were
only reached in the latter part of the growing season.
Furthermore, with one exception, the reported reductions in yield at such 0, concentrations have been less
than half of those recorded at Lahore. For example,
Pleijel et al. (1991) reported yield reductions in Sweden
of 13% in two seasons with 7-h mean concentrations of
42 nl litre- and 44 nl litre- while Adaros et al. (1991a)
working in Germany, reported yield reductions of 22%
and 18% in two cultivars of wheat as a result of fumigation with an 8-h mean concentration of 48 nl litre-.
In Switzerland, Fuhrer et al. (1989) have found 7-13%
reductions in grain yield with 40 nl litre- O3 for 8 h per
day, while in Belgium, De Temmerman et al. (1992) detected a 7.5% reduction after 38 nl litre- for 8 h per
day. Most North American experiments have shown
little effects at these concentrations but Kohut et al.
(1987) found a 33% reduction in yield in a filtration experiment with one cultivar, Vona, in one particular
year with a 7-h ozone mean of 41 nl litre-. It is worth
noting that the European experiments involved spring
cultivars; the North American studies used winter cultivars, but only placed the chambers over the crop from
spring onwards.
The ambient levels of ozone and other pollutants at
Lahore had a substantially greater impact on yield than
would be predicted, on the basis of European and
North American studies of wheat. The reasons for this
are unclear. Local cultivars may be more sensitive, or
local climatic conditions may lead to enhanced pollutant impacts. Another factor of possible relevance is
that the experiment was carried out in winter with
chambers in position from germination; in most other
field experiments with winter cereals, chambers are
positioned in the spring.
It is possible that pollutants other than those measured
on-site may contribute to the observed effects. Continuous
sulphur dioxide measurements have just begun in Lahore;
early measurements at a site close to the city centre
show a mean concentration of 5.9 nl litre- (24 h), and
concentrations should be substantially lower than this
at the experiment site. On the basis of experience in
Europe, where a critical level of 11 nl litre- SO, has
been adopted to protect the most sensitive crop species
(Ashmore, 1994) these concentrations would not be
expected to have any direct effect on crop yield.
However, ammonia concentrations at the site may be
significant, while the presence of other photo-oxidants
associated with high levels of ozone, such as hydrogen
peroxide and peroxyacetyl nitrate, cannot be excluded.

153

Finally, ozone levels were only measured between lOOO1600 h and this could have provided an unreliable estimate of ozone exposure. Data from the mobile
laboratory in Lahore consistently show low 0, concentrations at night, with maximum hourly means typically between 1100 and 1500 h. On days with maximum
hourly mean concentrations in the range of 60-80 ppb,
0, levels typically exceeded 40 ppb between 0900 and
1800 h. Thus there is evidence from the data available
that our 6-h mean concentration does not provide a
reasonable basis of comparison with data from European and American studies using a 7-h seasonal mean.
The large yield effects may also be due to differences
in cultivation techniques. The experiment was run
according to local agricultural practices which are
in stark contrast to the high-intensity, high-input agricultural practices seen in Europe and North America.
The planting density, irrigation practices and low use
of commercial fertilisers, along with the fact that the
plants were grown in pots, make comparisons with
other work difficult. Comparisons between field- and
pot-grown crops elsewhere (Sk&-by et al., 1994) have
indicated reduced sensitivity to ozone in pot-grown
plants when compared to those in the field, possibly
due to deficiencies in nutrient and water status. This
could be offset in the current study by the lower planting density leading to a greater ozone exposure of individual plants.
Given all these factors, it is very difficult to be confident in making quantitative comparisons of our results with those obtained by workers in Europe and
North America, or in identifying the cause of the observed discrepancies. Nevertheless, because we closely
followed local agricultural practice, because pot-grown
cereals are generally less sensitive to air pollution than
field-sown crops, and because yield in the outside plots
was only slightly lower than that in the unfiltered air
chambers, we consider that our results do not overestimate the effects of ambient gases at this site
Resolution of the importance of the different pollutants in the observed effect will be central to any evaluation of the wider significance of these results from a
single location. Measurements with diffusion tubes
indicate that NO, concentrations decrease rapidly with
increasing distance from Lahore, and the same would
be expected for SO,. Thus, the study needs to be repeated further away from Lahore, in order to assess its
significance for crop losses in the region as a whole. If
0, is the only pollutant responsible for the observed
effects, then it is likely that these large reductions in
yield are widespread, in view of the medium distance
dispersion of this pollutant; if other pollutants are important, this may not be the case. It should be noted in
this respect that 0, injury has been reported on fieldgrown potatoes in the Indian Punjab, some 120 km
east of Lahore (Bambawale, 1986).
The hitherto undetected substantial impact of air
pollution at a semi-rural site in a developing country
on a major agricultural crop must be a matter of great
concern. If such impacts are widespread, and not just a

154

A. Wahid, R. Maggs, S. R. A. Shamsi, J. N. B. Bell, h4. R. Ashmore

result of particular features of the experimental

site, the
implications
for agricultural
production
are considerable not only for Pakistan but for many other countries. Pakistan
is currently
self-sufficient
in grain
production
but the high rate of population
growth may
alter this situation.
Air-pollution
levels are likely to
continue to rise over the coming decades in many developing
countries;
clearly their potential
impact on
agriculture
needs urgent consideration.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors acknowledge
gratefully the financial support of the European
Commission
via the Directorate
General XII Scientific Co-operation
Programme,
and
in particular,
the interest and enthusiasm
of the programme officer, Mr H. Denecke. We also would like to
thank Professor Roger Perry of Imperial College for
the organisation
of a seminar at Lahore,
in March
1989, which permitted
the relevant UK/Pakistan
links
to be established and the research programme
described
in this paper to be formulated.
Finally, we are grateful
to the University
of The Punjab
for access to the
Botanical Garden.
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