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Chapter 14
Burners and Combustion Systems
for Pulverized Coal
Furnace
Front Wall
Furnace
Rear Wall
Advanced OFA
System with
Two Levels of
NOX Ports
Windbox
DRB-4Z Third
Generation Low
NOX Burners
14-1
14-2
Combustion
The manner in which a coal particle burns depends
on how it was pulverized, its inherent characteristics,
and conditions in the furnace. Pulverization obviously
produces fine coal particles, but is also accompanied
by introduction of heated primary air (PA) to the coal
to facilitate grinding and drying, and for transport of
the coal from the pulverizer. The quantity and temperature of PA varies significantly with the type of pulverizer, grinding rate, and coal properties. Hot PA
causes some of the moisture in the coal to evaporate
and raises the temperature of the coal from ambient
to nominally 150F (66C). In a direct fired system, the
pulverized coal is immediately transported to the burners by the moisture laden PA. Secondary air is introduced through a burner to the PA/PC mixture, in a
controlled manner to induce air-fuel mixing in the
furnace. As a coal particle enters the furnace (see Fig.
3), its surface temperature increases due to radiative
and convective heat transfer from furnace gases and
other burning particles. As particle temperature in-
creases, the remaining moisture is vaporized and volatile matter is released. This volatile matter, which ignites and burns almost immediately, further raises the
temperature of the char particle, which is primarily
composed of carbon and mineral matter. The char particle is then consumed at high temperature, leaving
the ash content and a small amount of unburned carbon. The volatile matter, fixed carbon (char precursor), moisture and ash content of the fuel are identified on a percentage basis as part of the proximate
analysis discussed in Chapter 9.
pressure. Char reactions often begin as the coal particle is heated and devolatilizes, but they continue long
after devolatilization is complete. Devolatilization is
mostly completed after 0.1 seconds, but char-based
reactions continue for one to two seconds. The char
particle retains a fraction of the hydrocarbons. Char
reactivity lessens with increasing coal rank due to accompanying changes in composition and structure of
the coal. Younger coals benefit from higher inherent
reactivity and from a structure which more closely
resembles fibrous plant matter than rock. Many coals
go through plastic deformation and swell by 10 to 15%
when heated. These changes can significantly impact
the porosity and reactivity of the coal particle. Char
reactivity drops during the combustion process, which
further extends the time for char burnout.
Char oxidation requires oxygen to reach the carbon in the particle and the carbon surface area is primarily within the particle interior structure. Char combustion generally begins at relatively low particle temperatures. Reaction rates are primarily dependent
upon local temperature as well as oxygen diffusion
and char reactivity. Small char particles, with 10 to
20 micron diameters, benefit from high surface to mass
ratios and heat up rapidly, while coarse particles heat
more slowly. Rapid heat transfer to and combustion
of smaller particles lead to higher particle temperatures. Reaction rates increase exponentially with temperature, and oxygen (O2) for diffusion into the particle becomes the controlling parameter. Particle diameter and density change in the process. At higher particle temperatures, char reactions are so fast that oxygen is consumed before it can penetrate the particle
surface. The particle shrinks as the outer portions are
consumed, and transport of oxygen from the surroundings to the particle is the factor governing combustion
rate.
For larger particles, the solid mass is reduced as
carbon monoxide (CO) and carbon dioxide (CO2) form,
but particle volume is maintained. Coarse particles,
more than 100 micron diameter, burn out slowly as a
result of their lower surface to mass ratios. Longer burnout times cause these larger char particles to continue
reacting downstream where the flame temperature and
oxygen concentration have moderated. A portion of the
carbon may not be oxidized depending on the residence
time and combustion environment. This unburned carbon amounts to an efficiency loss for the boiler.
miliar coals. Correlations predict key aspects of combustion such as ignitability and char reactivity. The
correlations are often functions of proximate and ultimate analyses as these are nearly universally available. They relate experience to coal properties and
assist designers in formulating an appropriate combustion system for the coals in question.
Conventional PC Pulverized coal firing is adaptable
to most types of coal. Its versatility has made it the
most widely used method of coal firing for power generation worldwide. Most PC-fired systems have the
burners located in the lower portion of the furnace.
Wall-fired systems usually have the burners positioned
on either one wall or on two walls in an opposed arrangement as shown in Fig. 4. The other common arrangement positions the burners in the corners of the
lower furnace, and is referred to as corner or tangentially-fired. Primary air typically at 130 to 200F (54
to 93C) conveys pulverized coal directly to the burners at a rate set by the combustion controls based on
steam generation requirements. Secondary air is supplied by the forced draft fans and is typically preheated to about 600F (316C). All or most of the secondary air is supplied to the windboxes enclosing the
burners. A portion of the secondary air may be diverted
from the burners to overfire air (OFA) ports (discussed
later) in order to control the formation of NOx. The
secondary air supplied to the burners is mixed with
the pulverized coal in the throat of the burner. This
permits the coal to ignite and burn.
The combustion process continues as the gases and
unburned fuel move away from the burner and up
Steam
Drum
Table 1
Key Tests and Correlations to Evaluate Coal
Test
Proximate analysis
Ultimate analysis
Drop tube furnace tests
Thermogravimetric
analysis
Free swelling index
Petrographic examination
Correlation
Dulong's heating value
Ignition factor (B&W)
(Volatile matter x coal
oxygen) dry, ash-free
14-4
Windbox
Information
Combustibles: volatile matter, char
Inerts: moisture, ash
Major elements: carbon, hydrogen,
sulfur, nitrogen, oxygen
Ignition and char burnout behavior
Ignition, evaporation and char
burnout behavior
Char reactivity
Char reactivity
Information
Windbox
Coal
Bunker
Coal
Feeder
Burners
Burners
Air
Heater
Coal Pipes
Pulverizer
PAX
Burners
Air Staging
Ports
Air Staging
Ports
Refractory
Lining
Burner integration
Burners are the central element of effective combustion system designs which include fuel preparation, air-fuel distribution, furnace design and combustion control. Burners can be categorized as pre-mix and
throat-mix types. Pre-mix burners combine secondary
air and fuel upstream of the combustion chamber.
Throat-mix burners, including essentially all PC-fired
burners, introduce secondary air to the fuel in the
burner throat at the entrance to the furnace (Fig. 6).
The secondary air is supplied in a manner to induce
air-fuel mixing and thereby sustain ignition and produce a stable flame. The mixing rate of air and fuel directly affects flame stability, flame shape, and emissions.
Fuel preparation influences Pulverizers are designed
to grind a specific quantity of coal, with given grinding characteristics, to a prescribed level of fineness (see
Chapter 13). The pulverizer type and operating conditions determine the quantity and fineness of pulverized coal supplied to the burner, as well as the required
quantity of primary air. The number of burner lines
per pulverizer varies with the furnace size and design
philosophy, with four to eight as the most common
range for medium and large utility boilers. In practice this results in burner maximum coal rates typically in the range of 10,000 to 30,000 lb/h (1.26 to 3.79
kg/s). Given the normal range of coal heating values,
this translates into maximum burner heat inputs of
100 to 300 million Btu/hr (29 to 88 MWt). In contrast,
small utility and industrial boilers have PC-fired burn14-6
100
1.5
100
1.2
12,000
12,000
7.5
7.5
9.0
9.0
0.17
0.13
1.15
1.15
5.8
7.6
Burner functions
Flame stability A burner introduces the primary air
and pulverized coal to the secondary air in a manner
that establishes a stable flame. This involves producing a flame front close to the burner over a range of
operating conditions. Igniters are used to sustain combustion when flames would otherwise be unstable. Igniters are always required to initiate combustion as
coal is first introduced to the burner, and during a
normal burner shutdown. The burner normally sustains a stable flame by using heat from coal combustion to ignite the incoming pulverized coal. A flame
safety system, included with modern burners, electronically scans the flame to verify stability and triggers corrective action if the flame becomes unstable.
Air-fuel mixing The burner initiates the mixing process of secondary air with the PA/PC mixture. However, overall air-fuel mixing is a combination of several factors. An air staging OFA system, if so equipped,
14-7
Table 2
Pulverizer Impact on Burners (Unstaged)
Pulverizer Type
Vertical Spindle Attrita Ball Tube
Pulverizer capacity, % 100 100 100
PA/PC
1.8
1.8
1.8
(pulverizer), lb/lb
Coal heating value, 12,000 8000 6000
Btu/lb
Coal theoretical air,
7.5
7.5
7.5
lb/104 Btu
Theoretical
9.0
6.0
4.5
lb air/lb coal, lb/lb
Stoichiometry
0.20 0.30 0.40
to burner nozzle
Total burner
1.15 1.15 1.15
stoichiometry
SA/PA ratio
4.8
2.8
1.9
14-8
Performance requirements
Pulverized coal-fired equipment should meet the
following performance conditions:
1. The coal and air feed rates must comply with the
load demand over a predetermined operating
range. The burners have to operate in a reliable
manner with stable flames. For modern applications with high volatile bituminous or subbituminous coal, flames should be stable without the use
of igniters from about 30 to 100% boiler load. The
minimum load depends on the coal, burner design,
and pulverizer load; operation below this load is
performed in combination with igniters in service.
2. Boiler emissions of NOx, CO, and unburned carbon
comply with design expectations for the particular
application. The actual limits vary considerably due
to regulations, the coal and combustion conditions,
the use of downstream equipment to further reduce
emissions, and ash disposal requirements.
3. The burner should not require continual adjustment to maintain performance. This fundamentally requires consistency in the fuel preparation
system and SA systems supplying fuel and air to the
burners. The unit should be designed to avoid the
formation of localized slag deposits that may interfere with burner performance or damage the boiler.
4. Only minor maintenance should be necessary during scheduled outages. To avoid high temperature
damage, alloy steel should be used for burner parts
exposed to furnace radiative heat transfer. The
burner structure needs to accommodate differen-
Conventional PC burners
Prior to NOx emission regulations introduced in
1971 in the U.S., the primary focus of combustion system development was to permit the design of compact,
cost effective boilers. As a result, the burner systems
developed focused on maximizing heat input per unit
volume to enable smaller furnace volumes using rapid
mixing burners which generated very high flame temperatures. An unintended side effect was the production of high levels of NOx. Burners used on such boilers include the conventional circular burner, the cell
burner, and the S-type burner. Most of these have been
replaced with low NOx burners in the U.S., but an examination of their designs is useful as it forms a foundation for the more advanced designs which followed.
S-type burner
The S-type burner was developed in the early 1980s
as a functional and mechanical upgrade for the circular burner. The S-type burner separates the functional attributes of the circular burner for improved
SA control in a mechanically superior configuration.
(See Fig. 8.) The burner nozzle is generally the same
as that in the circular burner. However, secondary air
flow and swirl are separately controlled. Secondary air
quantity is controlled by a sliding disk as it moves
closer to or farther from the burner barrel. Secondary air swirl is provided by adjustable spin vanes positioned in the burner barrel. An air-measuring pitot
tube grid is installed in the barrel ahead of the spin
vanes. This provides a local indication of relative secondary air flow to facilitate sliding disk adjustments
to balance SA among burners. Swirl control for flame
shaping is controlled separately by spin vanes. The
S-type burner provides higher combustion efficiency
and mechanical reliability than the circular unit and
requires no pressure part replacement.
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1.6 lb/106 Btu (984 to 1968 mg/Nm3: see Note below). Low
NOx PC combustion systems are capable of reducing NOx
down to 0.15 to 0.5 lb/106 Btu (185 to 615 mg/Nm3).
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DRB-XCL burner
The Dual Register XCL burner is a second generation low NOx burner which incorporates fuel staging
technology along with the air staging technology
found in the original DRB. The DRB-XCL is physically arranged as shown in Fig. 10, and draws heavily
on the proven mechanical design of the S-type burner.
Air flow to the burner is regulated by a sliding disk.
Sliding Air
Damper Drive
Sliding Air
Damper
Air
Measurement
Pitot Grid
Adjustable
Outer Vanes
Adjustable
Inner Vanes
Flame
Stabilizing
Ring
Burner
Elbow
Primary Air/
Pulverized Coal Inlet
Burner
Nozzle
Conical
Diffuser
14-12
DRB-4Z burner
B&Ws third generation low NOx burner, the DRB4Z burner, incorporates even more advanced emission control technology in a well proven mechanical
configuration. The patented DRB-4Z design combines
primary zone stoichiometry control with fuel staging
and air staging technology to achieve very low NOx
emissions along with improved combustion efficiency.
Conceptual development, using Computational Fluid
Dynamics (computer modeling), indicated the benefits
of an additional air zone separating the coal nozzle
from the principal air zones of the burner.7 These concepts were proven through extensive testing8 during
the development of the burner in B&Ws Clean Environment Development Facility.9
This additional air zone, the transition zone, acts as
a buffer between the high temperature, fuel-rich flame
core and the secondary air streams (see Fig. 11). The flow
field produced by the transition zone draws gases from
the outer portions of the flame inward toward the flame
core. NOx formed in the oxygen-rich outer flame region
is reduced back to other nitrogenous species in the process. A further advantage of the transition zone is the
ability to alter primary zone stoichiometry.
Table 2 indicates the variations in primary stoichiometry which are inherent to different coals and pulverizer designs. Inadequate primary zone stoichiometry inhibits combustion during the critical stage of
devolatilization. Air supplied by the transition zone
can compensate for this without flooding the flame core
with secondary air from the main air zones. SA swirled
through the inner air zone serves to anchor and stabilize the flame. SA admitted through the outer air
zone is staged to gradually mix into the flame. NOx
Linear
Actuator
Inner Spin
Vane
Adjustment
Main Sliding
Air Damper
Fixed
Vane
Inner
Spin Vane
Outer
Spin Vane
E
D
B
A
Coal Inlet
Transition Zone
Air Flow Adjustment
Transition
Zone
Air Flow
Windbox
A
B
C
D
E
F
14-13
Air
Measurement
Pitot Grid
Fixed
Vane
Adjustable
Outer Vanes
Sliding Air
Damper Drive
Adjustable
Inner Vanes
Transition
Zone
Burner
Elbow
Sliding
Linkage
Primary Air/
Pulverized Coal Inlet
Main Sliding
Air Damper
LNB only
NOx Reformation
b NO
x
d Leaving
c Furnace
d
c
d
1.3
1.2
1.1
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
Burner Zone Stoichiometry
0.6
10
0
20
30
40
Minimum Unburned Fuel without OFA, %
14-15
Linear
Actuator
Total Flow
Air Damper
Biasing
Air Damper
(Inner Zone)
measure and regulate air flow to the OFA system distinctly from flow to the burners.
Maximum NOx reduction with air staging requires
operation at low burner zone stoichiometries, e.g. 0.85
or less. NOx reformation becomes a problem if all the
associated OFA is rapidly reintroduced to the furnace.
To avoid this, it is beneficial to employ two levels of
OFA. The level closest to the burner zone supplies a
lesser portion of the OFA to bring the BZS close to 1.00.
This is followed by the second level of OFA which supplies the balance of secondary air. This arrangement
reduces peak O2 levels and moderates combustion
rates in the upper furnace to control NOx, while providing the mixing necessary to limit unburned combustibles.
Most OFA systems draw hot SA from the ducts or
plenums which supply air to the burners. Use of preheated air supplied from the FD fans through the air
heaters helps maintain boiler efficiency, but limits the
available static pressure for the OFA system. The location, quantity, size and design of the OFA ports have
to be compatible with static pressure constraints.
Booster fans can be used to raise static pressure, but
can become massive to accommodate the quantities
and temperature of OFA involved with many utility
boiler applications. Complications with locating such
fans, along with their expense and operating costs,
detract from their use. Most often the FD fans are
suitable as motive sources for proper system design.
OFA with corner-fired systems Overfire air has
proven to be very effective in corner-fired boilers and
is the dominant method of NOx control with modern
systems.13 It is useful to first consider the functionality of the corner-fired combustion system before considering the application of overfire air with such
Adjustable
Vane
Outer
Air Zone
Pitot Grid
NO x Port
Support System
Sliding
Linkage
Low
NO x
Burners
14-16
corner windbox assemblies. However, these cornerfired combustion systems embody air staging technology by virtue of the layered introduction of fuel and
air. This lowers NOx by slowing the mixing of air and
fuel as they proceed into the flame vortex.
Application of overfire air to a corner-fired system
involves diverting a portion of the auxiliary air to an
overfire air zone located above the combustion zone.
Depending on the required NOx reduction, OFA can
be introduced at the top of the windbox through two
or more air compartments and/or through separate
ports located some distance above the top coal elevation. Increasing the separation between the combustion zone and the OFA ports reduces NOx emissions
most effectively. Therefore, for a given quantity of
OFA, separated OFA is generally twice as effective as
windbox OFA for reducing NOx. Also, since separated
OFA ports require new openings in the upper furnace,
they can be made larger than windbox overfire air for
greater NOx reduction, as windbox compartment sizes
are limited by the existing windbox width and compartment heights.
A proven approach for retrofitting a separated OFA
low NOx system involves the addition of one level of
four to ten ports depending on furnace type. For
smaller four-corner furnaces, the ports are typically
located on furnace corners since adequate coverage
Windbox #3
Primary Air,
Coal and
Secondary Air
Imaginary
Firing Circle
Windbox #1
Windbox #4
14-17
14-18
Unburned combustibles
Unburned carbon (UBC) in solid form, as distinguished from partially oxidized carbon in gaseous
form (CO), results to varying degrees from all pulverized coal systems. Unburned combustibles represent
an efficiency loss to the process which can vary from
0.05% for lignite, to 0.5% for bituminous coal, and to
5.0% or higher for anthracite. These order of magnitude variations are largely a consequence of inherent
differences in coal reactivity. Variations around these
values can occur due to gradients in coal reactivity,
variations in coal fineness, and variations in how oxygen is made available to the coal during the combustion process.
Fineness
Given a coal of lesser reactivity, one of the most effective techniques to lower UBC is to reduce the quantity of coarse coal particles from the pulverizers. Pulverizer power is dependent on the mean particle size,
which is heavily influenced by the fine particles.
Therefore, the most efficient means of reducing UBC
is to selectively reduce the coarse particles without
over-grinding the fine particles. Advanced pulverizer
classifiers, especially dynamic versions, can essentially
eliminate the large 50 mesh particles and sharply reduce the 100 mesh fraction, with little change to the
dominant smaller 200 mesh size. Such fineness improvements have accomplished significant reductions
in UBC with bituminous and higher rank coals.
Oxygen availability
The influence of oxygen availability on carbon
burnout depends on each coal particles history regarding O2 concentration, and the corresponding temperature and time exposures. Global factors include the
excess air level for the process, rate and uniformity of
air-fuel mixing, and residence time. Increasing excess
air increases overall oxygen availability and reduces
UBC, but with some offset in boiler efficiency due to
increased dry gas loss. Increasing excess air also raises
NOx, placing further constraint on this countermeasure. Air infiltration to a boiler tends to indirectly increase unburned combustibles. Balanced draft units
Steam 41 / Burners and Combustion Systems for Pulverized Coal
Air/fuel imbalances
Air/fuel ratio and mixing rates are a consequence of
many factors and vary considerably even within a given
furnace. Fuel imbalance can occur because of variations
in raw coal feed rate to the multiple pulverizers.
Another aspect of fuel imbalance concerns non-uniformities in coal distribution among the multiple burners on a furnace. Techniques for measuring burner
line coal distribution have expanded, but retain a level
of uncertainty and can be time consuming and expensive. This complicates implementing and verifying the
effectiveness of corrective measures. Burner line
restrictors are a proven method of improving coal pipe
fuel distribution, but new techniques are under development to correct fuel distribution exiting the pulverizers. Air imbalances among burners can act to
magnify air/fuel imbalances. Many modern burners
are equipped with air measuring and adjustment
hardware to correct this. Air-fuel mixing rates are directly influenced by interactions induced by the burners and OFA (if so equipped), and consequential flow
patterns in the furnace. Adjustments which increase
mixing rates will tend to reduce UBC while increasing NOx.
Residence time
Furnace residence times combined with oxygen
availability, thermal environment, and coal reactivity ultimately control unburned combustibles. Full
load furnace residence times can vary from 1 to 3 seconds depending on burner location, furnace geometry,
and operating conditions. Adding an OFA system to
an existing furnace further reduces the residence time
for final carbon burnout. Increased air-fuel mixing
rates can help compensate for marginal residence time
and reduce UBC and CO, but with some increase in NOx.
Gaseous losses
CO emissions result from insufficient oxygen and/
or temperature to complete combustion. Localized or
global air deficiency and flame quenching are common causes for CO emissions in practical systems. Air/
fuel balance is difficult to maintain over all combustion conditions. Combustion tuning, to some degree,
involves compensating for errors. Fuel excesses from
one burner are offset by air excesses on another.
Changes in firing conditions, inevitable with different combinations of pulverizers/burners in service,
cause shifts in air-fuel distribution with resultant increases in CO.
14-19
Advanced techniques
New diagnostic tools and control systems are providing improved means to reduce unburned combustibles while maintaining low NOx emissions. Flame diagnostic equipment such as the Flame Doctor system
use non-linear analysis (chaos theory) to provide a
means to better tune individual burners. Diagnostic
instrumentation in the upper furnace or boiler outlet
can more accurately assess excess air and emission
levels, and identify localized areas with high emissions. Automated flow control devices on the burners
and OFA ports enable adjustments with conventional
or neural network control systems to dynamically
minimize emissions.
Auxiliary equipment
Oil/gas firing equipment
In some cases, PC-fired furnaces are required to
burn fuel oil or natural gas up to full load firing rates.
These fuels can be used when the PC system is not
available for use early in the life of the unit, due to
an interruption in coal supply, or as a NOx control strategy. Some operators avoid installing a spare pulverizer by firing oil or gas when a mill is out of service.
To fire oil, an atomizer is installed axially in the
burner nozzle. Erosion protection for the atomizer is
recommended. A source of air is needed when firing
oil or gas to purge the nozzle and improve combustion. This air system must be sealed off prior to PC
firing. Steam-assisted atomizers are recommended for
best performance.
Gas elements of several designs can be used in PCfired burners. These include designs with manifolds
which supply multiple elements in the air zone, or
single element designs mounted axially in the coal
nozzle. Gas manifolds can be located inside or outside
of the windbox. Installation in the windbox clears the
burner front of considerable hardware but prevents
on-line adjustment or repair of gas elements. External manifolds are more complex, but enable rotational
adjustment or replacement of the gas injection spuds.
On-line adjustability is very useful for optimizing
emissions and to counteract any tendency toward
burner rumble. A single axial high capacity gas element (HCGE) in the coal nozzle offers the most effective NOx control in use with advanced low NOx PCfired burners. The HCGE (see Chapter 11) has to be
inserted for operation and has to be retracted and supplied with seal air when out of service. Regardless of
gas element type, the issue of compatibility with the
combustion system has to be considered. Retrofit of gas
or oil elements increases the forced draft fan load in
many cases. Primary air is eliminated which results
in higher quantities of secondary air compared to PC
firing. As a result, fan flow and static margins need to
be considered.
See Chapter 11 for more information on oil and gas
firing equipment.
14-20
Igniters
An igniter is required to initiate combustion as pulverized coal is first introduced to the burner, as the
burners are being normally shut down, and as otherwise required for flame stability. Additionally, the igniters may be used to warm the furnace and combustion air prior to starting the first pulverizer. In some
cases they are used to synchronize the turbine prior
to firing coal. Igniters typically use a High Energy Ignition spark system to ignite the fuel, which is usually natural gas or No. 2 fuel oil. Igniters on utility
boilers and most large industrial boilers are operated
with an input capacity of approximately 10% or more
of the main PC-fired burner. Such igniters are categorized by NFPA (National Fire Protection Association)
as Class I. The use of Class I igniters reduces the complexity of the flame detection system and permits operation of the igniters as desired under any boiler conditions. Modern boilers have automated controls to
start, operate, purge, and shut down the igniters from
the control room. (See also Chapter 11.)
Flame safety system
Modern PC-fired boilers are equipped with a flame
safety system (FSS). The FSS uses one or more flame
scanners at each burner to continuously monitor flame
conditions electronically. The flame scanners are used
to evaluate several characteristics of the igniter and/
or main flames. The lack of satisfactory flame signals
causes the FSS to automatically initiate actions to prevent hazardous operation of the burner and boiler.
The specific actions taken by the FSS can vary with
the boiler design, boiler load, fuel in service, and the
status of the igniters in a burner group. The steps
taken, and their sequence, are designed to prevent
unburned fuel from entering the furnace and avoid
large swings in the total furnace fuel-to-air ratio,
thereby significantly reducing the risk of an explosion.
Other PC applications
Pulverized coal in metal and cement industries
The application of pulverized coal firing to copperand nickel-ore smelting and refining has been standard practice for many years. With the use of pulverized coal, high purity metal can be obtained because
the furnace atmosphere and temperature can be easily controlled. Pulverized coal may be favored over
other fuels for several reasons: it may be less expensive, it offers a high rate of smelting and refining, and
it readily oxidizes sulfur.
References
1. Lowry, H.H., Ed., Chemistry of Coal Utilization,
Horizon Publishers & Distributors, Inc., New York, New
York, pp. 1522-1567, January, 1945. See Chapter 34, The
Combustion of Pulverized Coal, by A. A. Orning.
2. Standard test method for volatile matter in the analysis sample of coal and coke, D3175-89a, Annual Book of
ASTM Standards, Vol. 5.05, American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, pp. 329331, 1991.
3. Beer, J.M., and Chigier, N.A., Combustion Aerodynamics, Chapter 5, Krieger Publishing, Malabar, Florida, 1983.
4. Brackett, C.E., and Barsin, J.A., The dual register
pulverized coal burner, presented at The Electric Power
Research Institute NOx Control Technology Seminar, San
Francisco, California, February 1976.
5. LaRue, A.D., The XCL Burner Latest Developments and Operating Experience, presented to Joint Symposium on Stationary NOx Control, San Francisco, California, March 1989.
6. LaRue, A.D. and Nikitenko, G., Lower NOx/Higher Efficiency Combustion Systems, presented to the EPA/DOE/
EPRI MegaSymposium, Chicago, Illinois, August 2001.
7. Sivy, J.L., Kaufman, K.C., and McDonald, D.K., Development of a Combustion System for B&Ws Advanced
Coal-Fired Low-Emission Boiler System, presented at the
22nd International Technical Conference on Coal Utilization
and Fuel Systems, Clearwater, Florida, March 1997.
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14-22