On the Margins: Muslims in West Bengal

Author(s): Abhijit Dasgupta

Source: Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 44, No. 16 (Apr. 18 - 24, 2009), pp. 91-96
Published by: Economic and Political Weekly
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On the Margins: Muslims in West Bengal

ABHIJIT DASGUPTA

ofdalitsand backwardMuslimsin
The marginalisation
WestBengalhas broughtintofocusthe issueof
actionforMuslimsinthe state.Despite
affirmative
indicators
pointingtowardsbackwardness,as manyas
and occupational
56 different
castes,communities,
groupsare includedintheOtherBackwardClasseslistin

thestate,whiledeservingdalitand backwardMuslims
havebeen excluded.Therehas also been a change inthe
in
contoursoflocallevelpoliticsinthe state,resulting
ofMuslims,
mobilisations
morecommunity-centric
of
whichhas preventedthecontinuedmainstreaming
in
West
thecommunity
Bengal.

the timeof Partitionin 1947,19.85%Muslimsturned

intoa religiousminority
inWestBengal,and
community
thesamewas thefateofsome22.03%Hindusinthethen
EastPakistan.1
Partitiondramatically
changedthedemographic
of
Muslim
of
West
profile
population
Bengal;it did thesame to
theHindusin EastPakistan.Massivedisplacement
ofpopulation
and resettlepartlyexplainsthis.In WestBengalrehabilitation
mentbrought
aboutmuchneededstability,
andboththecommunitieslivedin peace. However,occasionallycommunalconflicts
did martheharmoniousrelationbetweenthetwocommunities
in twopartsofBengal.Forinstance,in 1965,at thetimeofwar
betweenIndia and Pakistan,the two communities
experienced
theworstcrisis,whicheventuallyled to lossoflifeand displacewarforan independent
ment.In 1971,duringtheliberation
state
ofBangladesh,large-scaleviolencetookplace onceagainwhich
displacednearly10 millionBengalis.2In spiteof theseevents
Muslimcomtherewereunitingforcesthathelpedtheminority
to liveinpeace and harmony.
Theyremainedan integral
munity
state
partofBengalisociety.However,oflate,someexclusionary
andtheminority
policiesare drawinglinesbetweenthemajority
Thisis one ofthefactorsthatled to themarginalicommunities.
sationofMuslimsinWestBengal.Thispaperdealswithsomeissues thatare linkedwiththe questionofsocial exclusionofthe
inthestateofWestBengal.Twobroadareas
community
minority
actionfor"dalit"
thathavebeen addressedhereare: affirmative
and "backward"Muslims,and local-levelpolitics.I wouldlike
to examinewhytheseissuesare crucialto an understanding
of
relationsbetweenthe majorityand the minority
communities
in thestate.
Atthe end of 2001 Censusoperationsin WestBengal,itwas
foundthatMuslimsconstitute
25.25%ofthetotalpopulation.It
has been noted by several scholarsthat the underprivileged
sectionsofthisnumericallysignificant
minority
grouphas not
receivedsocial and politicalsupportfromthe state,especially
if theirpositionis compared with their counterpartin the
Thisbringsus to the important
Hinducommunity.
pointabout
affirmative
action forMuslimotherbackwardclasses (obcs)
and dalits.3
AffirmativeAction

Thisis a revisedversionofa paperpresentedat a workshopin Kolkata

and theState:ChangingSocial and
in February2008, on "Minorities
PoliticalLandscapeofBengal".ForcommentsI am gratefultoAndre
and SamirKumarDas.
RomaChatterji
Beteille,MeenaRadhakrishna,
of
is withtheDepartment
Abhijit
Dasgupta(dasgupta90@hotmail.com)
DelhiUniversity.
Sociology,
Economic& Politicalweekly

Q3Q

april

18, 2009

In a short account on Muslims in India W W Hunter wrote,

"...earlierit was impossible fora well born Musalman to become
poor; at present it is almost impossible forhim to continue rich"
(Hunter 1969:15s).4 Accordingto Hunter,
...duringtheirsupremacythe code of Islam remainedthelaw of the
land and the whole ministerialand subordinateofficesof governmentremainedpropertyoftheMusalmans.Theyalone couldspeak

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91

SPECIALARTICLE^E=.

EEzfzzzzzzzE^

=eeeee^zi:

---r^rr=E^===Z=^

the officiallanguageand theyalone could read the officialrecords amongthe Hindusand Muslims,dalitMuslimsare underpriviwritten
inthePersian...(ibid:1)
leged.To use Kaka Kalelkar'sphrasethisgroup,then,is "twice

He added,

officein Calcuttain whicha

...thereis now scarcelya government
Muhammadancan hope foranypost above the rankofporter,mesofink-pots
and menderofpens (ibid:162).
senger,filler

Theseobservations
weremadeinthecontextofchangesinthe
esdistribution
and natureofpowerin theIndiansubcontinent
at
a
was
its
time
when
the
British
pecially
government tightening
L
in
Hunter
Dumont
over
administration
Bengal.
grip
political
also arguedthatMuslimsdidnottaketo Englishandwereconsequentlyreplacedby Hindusin almostall walksoflife(Dumont
1970: 99). He wrote,

As theHindus,withthesame flexibility
as before,hastenedto adapt
tothenewpoliticalorder,theMuslimswereoutdistanced
themselves
and the
not onlyin economicpursuits,but also in administrations
(ibid:99).
professions

dalit
and thestate.8Therefore,
discriminated",
bythecommunity
in jobs
Muslimswill hardlyenjoyany benefitfromreservation
and highereducation.
The Muslimoutcaststhatare similarto thatof dalitsamong
theHindusexistedin Bengalforcenturies.RichardM Eaton,an
eminentscholarof Islam in Bengal,pointsout thatcaste-like
social stratification
began to emergeamong the Muslimsin
from
the
13thcenturyunderthe sultans.It flourished
Bengal
fromthe13thto the16thcentury(Eaton1993:100-01).He noted
broad divisionsof the ashrafs and non-ashrafsamong the
Muslims.He observed,

Sociallydistinctfromthe Ashrafwere Muslimurbanartisanswho

Theirorganisaformed
proletariat.
partofBengal'sgrowingindustrial
withdistinctive
tionintoseparate,endogamouscommunity
occupaofHindusocietyinthesouthwestern
tionsparalleledtheorganisation
mentions
delta,and suggeststheiroriginin thatsociety.Mukundaram
an idealised
fifteen
Muslimjatis in a listof communities
inhabiting
cake
(jola), livestockherders(mukeri),
Bengalicityofhisday-weavers
sellers(pithari),fishmongers
(kabari),convertsfromthelocalpopulation (garasal), loom makers (sanakar),circumcisers(hajam), bow
makers(tirakar),papermakers(kagaji),wanderingholymen(kalandar), tailors(darji),weaversof thickcord (benata),dyers(rangrej),
these
usersof hoes (halan), and beefsellers(kasai). So thoroughly
withBengalisocietythatbythelate16thcengroupswereintegrated
toconceiveof
itwas impossible
was writing,
tury,whenMukundaram
a citythatdid nothave,alongsidea longlistofHindujatis,a fullcomplementofMuslimartisangroups(Eaton1993:101).

BothHunterandDumontweretrying
toexplainhowchanging
of
a
equations poweradverselyaffect community.
actionfor
Duringthe Britishrulethe questionof affirmative
certainsectionsofMuslimswas raisedfromtimetotime.As early
as late 19thand early20thcentury,
whenitwas foundthatthe
Muslimswere laggingfarbehindfromthe Hindusin the economicsphere,especiallyin government
services,thedemandfor
was
A
discrimination
raised.
positive
spokespersonfromthe
Muslimcommunity
wroteintheearly20thcentury:
The onlypracticable
measurethatmaybe adoptedto securethe
administrators
whentheBritish
Mahomedans
their
fairshareofemployment
seemstometoreserve
a
Bytheturnofthe19thcentury
numberof appointments
forMahomedans, began collectingdata on castes amongthe Muslims,the Jola,
fairlyproportionate
without
whichthereisverylittlehopeofimproving
theirdeplorable Mukeri,Sanakar,Hazzam, Benata and Kasai were includedin
condition.5
On the
the census as outcastswithinthe Muslimcommunity.
Sucha movewas invariably
the
included
to
the
of
Hindu
fundamenbasis
census
following
opposed by
reports,
Risley(1892:342)
talists.The absenceoftheMuslimsin government
jobs remained as outcastsamongthe Muslims:Bhisti(watercarrier),Chamar
a vexedpoliticalissueduringtheBritish
rule.
(leatherworker),Chitrakar(painter),Dafali (weaveror drum
Afterindependence
the questionofaffirmative
actionforthe maker),Jamadar(sweeper),Mala (boatman),Methor(scavenMuslimshad been consideredon severaloccasions.6The issueof ger),Nikhari(fishseller),Patua (painter).Ahmed(1988: 18-19)
theinclusion
ofdalitMuslimsinthelistforscheduledcastes(ses) notedthatin the 1901Censusthefollowing
outcastsamongthe
was debatedearlier,thejudiciaryfoundno meritinthecase,and Muslimswerementioned:
Nikari(fishsellers),Kalu(oilpressers),
it was notedthatcaste systemis an integralpartof the Hindu Muchi(cobbler),Hazzam (barber),Jolaha(weaver)and others.
Whilecommenting
on the findingsof censusin the early20th
religionandthatithas no placeinIslam.
As a result,dalitMuslimswereoutofthepurviewofthereser- century,
Ahmed(1988:18)observed,
vationfortheses. The contentious
issuewas settledbythejudicifish
monSomeoftheoccupations
suchas gravediggers,
washermen,
on
the
that
the
outcast-like
Bajadars,
ary
ground
permanently
degraded;Nikharis,
gers,wereconsidered
occupationalgroups
andHazzams
asoutcastes
tooregarded
Dais,Dhuniyas
Beharis,
byothers.
amongtheMuslimswerenotlikethe dalitsin Hinducaste system.This is whyHindu outcastswho convertedto Islam and
caste-likehierarchy
These accountshelpus in understanding
were found ineligiblefor reservationbenefits, amongtheMuslimsin WestBengal.Atthetimeof 1931Census
Christianity
dalits
although
amongthe Sikhsand Buddhistwereincludedin operationsin Bengal,an attemptwas made to collectdata on
and
in
Dalit Muslimsand backward castesmoresystematically.
The enumerators
wereaskedto col1950,
1990, respectively.
classeswereincludedin theobc listsofseveralstatesin accord- lectinformation
aboutcastefromeach Muslimhousehold.In one
ance withthe recommendations
of the Mandai Commission.7 district
theclergyofa mosqueaskedthedistrict
to
censusofficer
the
lists
blurred
the
conventional
distinction
between
a
delete
caste
of
the
the
Muslims
as
Islam
is
However,
backgrounds
religion
dalitMuslimsandbackwardMuslims.Byincluding
dalitMuslims thatupholdsegalitarianism.
The districtcensusofficer
pointed
in the obc list along withthe backwardMuslims,the policy- outthathe wouldbe willingto do so iftheclergyissuesa fatwa
makersignoredthefactthatbackwardMuslimswerebetteroff encouragingintermarriage
betweenSayyadsand Jolahas.This
thandalitMuslims,bothsociallyand economically,
as was the indeedwas an ingeniousmethodin convincing
the clergythat
case withses and obcs amongHindus.In comparisonto obcs therewere castes among the Muslimsand theyneeded to be
92

April 18, 2009

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EQQ

Economic& Politicalweekly

= -

=^

SPECIALARTICLE

the1931Censusdata on
recordedinthecensus.Whilecompiling
WestBengalpossiblyrecycledthe listof obcs thatwas precastes,Porter(1933:423) pointedout thatMuslimsalwayshad paredway back in 1951.In accordancewithan orderfromthe
and thiswas by no government
Jolaha-like
outcastswithinthe community
ofWestBengal,thepercentageoftheses and sts in
on
the
each
district
meansa 20thcentury
was compiledin 1951.AshokMitra,whowas census
Jolahas,
Commenting
phenomenon.
in 1951,pointedoutthatthatdata on casteswere
Ahmed(1974: 127) notedthathandloomweaverswere found superintendent
bothamongtheMuslimsand theHindus,onlythenamesgivento also collectedbut remainedunclassified.As earlyas 1950 the
weredifferent.
The Hinduscalled home departmentof the government
thembythetwocommunities
publisheda list of nonthemTanti,Tantwas,andJogis.The Muslims,on theotherhand, backwardclasses whichwas preparedby a negativereasoning
called themJolahas,and sometimes,Momins.The weaversoc- thatanypersonnotbelongingto ses and sts butlistedas deserva listof 65
cupieda verylow social positionamongtheirown community, ingcases couldbe consideredas obcs. Accordingly,
and theyusuallymarriedwithintheirown caste.Intermarriage castes was preparedwho were backwardbut not "scheduled"
and not (Mitra1953: 15). The currentobc list of the stateis almosta
withotherswas regardedas improperand undignified
hereandthere.
allowed except on the paymentof special penalties to the replicaofthe1951list,barringa fewexceptions
to
Most
states
Muslim
without
included
castes
affixwith
Muslim
castes
began
specifically
hierarchy
along
clergy.Therefore,
in
or
"Muslim"
the
caste
for
followendogamy.
names,
ing suffixing
example,in
We learna greatdeal fromsociologistsand socialanthropolo- Bihar,Gujarat(beforethe rule by the BharatiyaJanataPartyinBengalvillagesandcommented bjp),Karnataka,and TamilNadu.The Gujaratlistwas a compregistswhocarriedoutfieldwork
on an elaboratecaste like stratification
among the Muslims. hensiveone and carefullyprepared,as in one case it included
left
out
for
Mukherjee(1971), instance,pointed thattheMuslimcom- Muslimcastesonlyinone area,and therestwerepresumably
conditionsin otherparts
between outdue to theirbettersocio-economic
munitiesin his surveyedvillageswere differentiated
followeda different
Muslimsand KoluMuslims,the latteroccupiedan outcast-like of the state.Pondicherry
pattern,and inin
list
"Muslim"
the
list.
The
central
their
cluded
because
of
caste
of
bottom
social
at
the
rejectedthisgejust
hierarchy
position
and
the
state
neric
who
Nazmul
of
oil
inclusion,
Karim,
subsequently
droppedthisnomenvillages
surveyed
pressing.
occupation
list includedas
foundan elaboratecaste-likestratifica- clature.Out of overenthusiasm,
in east Bengaldistricts,
Pondicherry
tion.He observeddivisionsamongMuslimoutcastsbased on en- manyas 262 Hinducastesand sub-castes,butfailedto include
RanjitBhatta- Muslimcastesbyname.Somestatestookgreatcareinexcluding
dogamouspractices(Karim1984).Anthropologist
advancedMuslimcastes.Forinstance,
stratification
social
studied
among the sociallyand economically
charya(1973: 269-98)
Muslimsin somevillagesin Birbhumdistrict.He too notedan Karnatakaexcludedfromits listcastessuch as CutchiMemon,
He pointed Navayat,Bohra,Sayyid,Shaik,Pathanand Mughals.Similarly
elaboratedivisionat thelowerrungofthehierarchy.
are Fakirs, the Kerala obc list excludedBohra,CutchiMemon,Navayat,
Muslims
the
outthattheoutcast-like
groupsamong
ofexclusionof
Dakahni.In keepingwiththeprinciple
on
were
restrictions
there
and
marriageamong Turukkan,
Momins,Patuas,
these
two
stateshave
advanced
and
the
in thishierarchical
thesegroups.Therefore,
group,
economically
socially
system position
in setexamplesforothers.In recentyearssomestatesenactedspecial
oftheMuslimoutcastsis similarto thoseoftheircounterparts
to all theMuslimsirrespective
of
benefits
reservation
theHinducastesystem.This is whythe questionofreservation actstooffer
AndhraPradeshoffered
4% reservation
benefitsto dalit and backwardMuslimswas consideredfrom theirsocialbackground.
Karnatakaintroduced
timeto time.Theywereleftout at thetimeof1950presidential in educationalinstitutions,
4% quota for
inview
in
in
and
Muslims
to
dalits
benefits
reservation
that
offered
education,
Kerala,
higher
jobs.
keeping
among
promulgation
todalit thehighpercentageofMuslimpopulationreserved12%seatsin
was offered
theSikhs,andin 1990whenthesamebenefit
ofjobs
orwhatis educationalinstitutions.
In 1979,theBackwardClassesCommission
Buddhists.
4% reservation
Manipuroffered
a
Such
was
never
considered
the
for
minorities.
the
asked
state
Mandai
the
as
known
Commission,
by
governstep
popularly
tocomeoutwitha listofsociallyand economically mentof WestBengal althoughyear afteryear officialreports
governments
oftheMuslimsineducation,
andtheir
backwardclasses.Somestatesfoundthisas an idealopportunity showeddismalperformance
inpublicsectorjobswas farfromsatisfactory.
to includea numberofcaste-likesociallydisadvantagedgroups representation
decennialrevisionofthecentral
In 2003,atthetimeofthefirst
TheWestBengalobc listwhichapparintheMuslimcommunity.
of
the
list
of
caste-like
obcs.
haste
included
in
was
obcs,
64
representative the WestBengalgovernment
Only
prepared
ently
thelist.
thestatehad tofaceinpreparing
the
in
that
found
Muslims
the
expressed difficulty
place
groupsamong
underprivileged
Chitrakar He observedthattherewas no databaseexcept1931Census,and
thelistare theJolas(AnsariMomins),Kasai-qurashi,
strucin 1947had immenseeffecton thedemographic
(a liminalcategorywhich observesboth Hindu and Muslim Partition
Hindu
outcastes
from
East
of
the
state
as
to
ture
caste
converts
all
the
scheduled
included
The
list
manyuprooted
rituals).
at
in
down
West
The
mass
exodus
had
settled
Pakistan
West
wonders
One
their
and
Bengal.
Bengal
why
progeny.
Christianity
on West
in thetimeofBangladeshliberationwar too had an effect
witha 25% Muslimpopulationmissed out an opportunity
He pleadedformorehelpfromthe
severalothersociallyand economically
disadvantaged Bengal'spopulationstructure.
including
for
the
enumeration
ofa revisedlist.10
Two
central
e
the
Muslims
the
government
especially outcastes, g, Nikhari,
groupsamong
made
with
to
were
reservation
benefits
for
dalit
The
the
like.
Hazzam
and
regard
neighbouring points
Bajadar,Dai, Dhuniya,
was availstateBiharincludedas manyas 19Muslimcastesinthelist,which and backwardMuslims.First,no reliableinformation
and thisstandsin thewayforinclusion
able forthesecategories,
includedbothdalitandbackwardMuslims.9
Economic& Politicalweekly

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93

=z=L_
SPECIAL
ARTICLE

-_-__

^^

^==_==_::=:_=:^^,

ofdalitand backwardMuslims,and second,thenumberofdalit are yetto reachthem."11

WestBengal,then,is laggingbehindin
Inclusionofthe
and backwardMuslimshad depletedbecause of displacement
at protecting
interestsof its minority
community.
is
thetimeofPartition.
Atthedeliberations
in
affirmative
action
oftheNationalBackward underprivileged
the
programme
minority
ClassesCommission
therepresentative
fromWestBengalpointed a sine qua non forequalityand socialjustice,two fundamental
outthatHindubackwardcastesfortheobc listwereidentified
on principles
enshrinedin ourConstitution.
thebasisof1931Censusreports.
ThesameCensusreportincluded
aboutMuslimoutcastes,
information
theirnumberineachdistrict, Mainstreaming and Local-level Politics
and thenatureofsegregation
inWest
thattheyencountered
withintheir The"minority"
questionhas assumedspecialsignificance
own community.
It was pointedout thatPartition
forcedmany Bengalin the contextof a shiftfromclass to community-based
Muslimsto leaveWestBengal,as a resultofwhichtheirnumber politics.As a result,themajority
has gaineda privicommunity
hasdeclined.However,
censusdatado notshowsignificant
at
of
others
often
the
creatingtwopolarchanges legedposition,
expense
intheMuslimpopulation
and themarginafterPartition
inseveraldistricts.
isedsectionsofthecivilsociety- theprivileged
Social changeamongmanycastesand sub-castesduringthe alised.Withthehelpofdata on local-levelpolitics,thenatureof
lastseveraldecadeshardlyjustifytheirinclusionin theobc list. politicalparticipationof Muslimsin West Bengal can be exA closerlookat theobc listofthestatewouldshowthatthisfact plained.Local politics,as Cox argued,createsa "space fordewas ignoredwhileincluding
thecastesintheobc list.Letus take pendenceand a space forengagement"(Cox 1998:1-23).
Political
thecase of"telis"or oil pressers,who were includedin thelist. changesduringthelast fewdecades clearlyshowan attempt
by
TheTelisremainedupwardly
mobileforseveralyearsandshowed theMuslimstotakepartinmainstream
politicsbyaligningthemtheirabilityto adjustwiththe changingtime.Theyhave made selveswiththesecularnationalpoliticalpartiessuchas theConinroadsin tradeand commerce.Despiteupwardso- gressand theCommunist
significant
PartyofIndia (Marxist)- cpi(m).The
cial and economicmobility
Teliswere includedin the list.Like attempts
the
Muslims
to
by
pojoin thesecular,and democratic
fromtheearly liticalforcesin thecountrymaybe describedas mainstreaming.
Telis,Jogistoowerewellknownforsocialmobility
20thcentury.
a partoftheweavercaste. Asa resultofmainstreaming,
thepoliticalpartiesthatupheldthe
Theyweretraditionally
Becauseofuncertainty
in the textiletradetheyhad to lookfor ideologiesofcommunalism
losttheirsupportbase. Thisis whya
suitablealternativeoccupations.Accordingto Bose, Jogisfol- partyliketheMuslimLeaguefoundithardtocarryon itsactivity
lowed the footstepsof the service-oriented
middleclass (Bose inthestateofWestBengal,and nota singleMuslimLeaguecandi1975: 73-86). The Kansaristoo lefttheircaste occupationof datewona seatintheassemblyelections,
theywereeclipsedeven
makingutensilsseveraldecades back. Some have managedto fromthearena ofthethree-tier
panchayatipoliticsin thestate.
moveup sociallyand economically(Sarkar1994: 65-89).What Mainstreaming
in protecting
the
its
helped
minority
community
thenwas the groundforinclusionof upwardlymobileTelis, politicaland economicinterests,and at the same timeopened
forthe mainstreampoliticalpartieslikethe
Jogis,and Kansaris?If their inclusionis justifiedfor their up an opportunity
positionin the caste hierarchythen can the dalit Muslimsbe Congressand thecpi(m) to reachoutto theMuslimelectorate.
ofMuslimsin politicsmeantan acceptanceof
barred,especiallythose occupyinga similarlow positionin
Mainstreaming
theirowncaste-likehierarchy?
secularvalues,and at thesametime,rejectionoforthodoxy.
DurOtherissuestoo meritinvestigation
withregardto socialand ingthe firstphase of mainstreaming,
fornearlythreedecades
economicstatusoftheMuslims.In March2005, theupa govern- afterindependence,
theMuslimsacceptedthesecularpoliciesof
mentappointeda high-powered
committee
underthechairman- the CongressParty.Some of the Muslimstalwartsin the state
shipofRajinderSacharto studysocial,educationaland economic were activemembersof the Indian NationalCongress.During
statusoftheMuslimcommunity
all overthecountry.
The report thistime,theyfolloweda policyofdistancingfromthecommureferred
to WestBengal'spoortrackrecordin therepresentation nal partiesliketheMuslimLeague,and similarpoliticaloutfits.
ofMuslimsinpublicsectorjobs. According
tothereport,
thehigh- Electionresultsof1952showthata largenumberofBengaliMusest percentage
of government
forMuslimsis in As- limsdidsupporttheCongress.Candidateson theCongressticket
employment
sam (11.2%).However,
thisis farlessthantheshareofthestate's won in mostconstituencies
havinglargenumberofMuslims.In
Muslimpopulation(30.9%). Otherstateshavingbetterrepresen- 1952,as Chatterji(2007: 198) noted,80 Muslimscontested
inthe
tationare Karnataka(8.5% ofstate'sshareofMuslimpopulation electionsoutofwhich21 werein thefraywithCongressticket,
of 12.2%),Gujarat(5.4% of 9.1% of the total),and TamilNadu 14wereoppositioncandidates,and 45 wereindependents.
Outof
(3.2% of5.6% ofthetotal).Itwas pointedoutinthereport:
21 CongresssupportedMuslims,17made itto theassembly,
two
The most glaring cases of Muslim deprivation in governmentjobs are
won as independent,
butnota singleMuslimon theopposition
foundin the left-ruledstates of West Bengal and Kerala. In West Bengal,
ticketmanagedto winin thatelection.DistancingfromtheCononly 4.2% of governmentstaffwas Muslim as against theirpopulation
gressPartybegan whensome Muslimleadersencouragednew
share of25%. In Kerala, the Muslim representationin governmentjobs is
groupingsbeforethe electionsin 1957.The leadersof various
10.4%, a figurethatis shortof theirpopulation percentage. In Bihar and
up the percentage of Muslims in governmentjobs are found to be less
the
organisations,e g, the Rezai Mustafa,the Jamat-e-Islami,
than Muslimrepresentationin the population (Shah 2007: 836-83).
MuslimJamat(Bashirgroup),theAnjumanTanjimul,
Momenin,
The reportnotedthat,"overall,theconditions
ofMuslimobcs theItefaquiaCommittee
and theFiayan-i-Millar
decidedto form
areworse.Theabysmally
lowrepresentation
ofMuslimssuggests a unitedfrontto contestagainsttheCongress,butthefront
had
thatthebenefits
ofentitlements
meantforthebackwardclasses verylittlesuccessin theelectoralpolitics.The assemblyelection
94

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OSES

Economic& Politicalweekly

==EE

SPCIAL ARTICLE

in 1967was a turningpointas faras Muslimsupportto nonThe introduction

of new three-tier
panchayatiraj made vilwere
In
concerned.
this
election
a
vibrant
arena
of
local
For
Congress
parties
opposition
oppo- lages
politics. manyyears,thislocal
sitionpartiesfielded30 Muslimcandidatesoutofwhich14have arenaofpoliticsremainedfreefromtheinterference
ofcommuinthestatewith nal parties,partiesthatrepresented
UnitedFrontgovernment
won.Thenewlyformed
theHindutvaagendaorcarry
itsneweconomicand politicalagendaappearedas an alternative outpropagandaforthespreadofHindufundamentalism
anditdid
notallowIslamicpoliticaloutfits
to two-decadelongCongressruleinthestate(ibid: 199).
either.Sincethemid-1980sthe
in statepoliticsbeganto phenomenalriseof the bjp in IndianpoliticswithitsHindutva
Fromthelate 1970sa reconfiguration
oftheLeftFrontin thestateassembly. agenda helpedthe partyto spreadits tentaclesto the remotest
takeplacewiththevictory
and affected
oftheLeftFrontin1977and 1982,andvarious partofthecountry
thelocalpoliticsinWestBengalas
Thepolitical
victory
it
a
them
for
the
minorities
made
suitwell.
The
rise
of
this
new
undertaken
by
politicalforcewidenedthegapbetween
programmes
In WestBengal,thepopularity
Withthisbeganthesecondphase thecommunities.
totheCongress.
ablealternative
ofthebjp at the
followedthepol- localpolitics
to
rise
inmainstreaming
whentheMuslimsconsistently
and
from
theearly1990s.
began
slowly steadily
an
from
the
The
election
data
how thebjp
of
would
reveal
(not
outright
rejection
grampanchayat
Congress
icy distancing
in
a
in
maintained
its
some
Muslimbase
local
The
1 shows,inas
the
as
Table
bjp,
gained
stronghold
politics.
though,
Congress
from
from0.08% oftotalseatsin 1983to7.78%in
todislodgetheCongress
some creaseditsstrength
dominated
areas). Itwasdifficult
inthedistricts
ofMaldaandMurshidabad.
oftheconstituencies
1998. The rise was spectacularin some northBengaldistricts.
theLeftFrontcandidateswonfrom Forinstance,in Cooch Bihar,thebjp increaseditselectoralgain
In 1982assemblyelections,
ofMuslimpopula- in grampanchayatfrom3.27% in 1993to 8.83% in 1998,and in
mostoftheareashavinga highconcentration
a
thegainwas 3.07% to 7.26%duringthesameperiod.
had
the
where
areas
tion,
powerbase. This Jalpaiguri
previously Congress
in the centralpartofWestBengal,bjp's tally
In
of
the
Left.12
The
some
districts
of
the
an
new
shows
policies
acceptance
clearly
in
all
more
was
the
which
resulted
redisof
the
Left
landreforms
Front,
impressive.Between1993 and 1998 in Nadia
programme
districts
therisewas 8.11%to 11.83%.In southern
suchas
of district
of surplusland amongthe landlessand protection
tribution
the
of
increased
from
of
both
North
sections
the
benefited
of
the
24
4.44
Parganas percentage support
poorer
sharecroppers
rights
in
a
like
Purulia
this
from
and
western
district
rose
Media
to
theMuslimand Hinducommunities
0.77%
8.44
(Dasgupta2007: 1-29).
takes to 10.28%.Thusthebjp gainedin almostall partsofthestatehowmainstreaming
wouldhelpus inunderstanding
reports
Atthetimeof2001 assemblyelectionsinMuslim posinga threattosecularpoliticsinthestate.13
placeinpolitics.
Muslim
in Murshidabad
dominated
district,
Lalbaghconstituency
Table 1: The BJP'sPerformancein GramPanchayat Elections
a Hinducandidate,althoughMuslimcandidates Year
voterssupported
Seats WoninGramPanchayatElections
PercentageofTotalSeats
Avoterobserved: 1978
forthesameseatas independents.
werecontesting
34
O08
then...theHinducandidate 1983
Hadwecaredforourreligious
affiliation,
36
O07
.
Lai Baghconstituency
wouldhaveneverwonfrom
(AnandaBazar 1988
1993
Patrika,5 May2001:1).

Anothervoterin a villageexpressedhis views in thefollow-

1998

2,372
3,830

^89
778

"

Source: CP\(M)SlateCorc\rr\\XXee,PaschimBangaPanchayat Nirbacahan, 1998 (in Bengali).

ingway:
Oflate,theLeftFrontwithitspoortrackrecordforthedeveinBengal
I don'thavetolistentoImamBukhari's
fatwa,theMuslims
whom lopmentoftheminorities
I willvoteforthecandidate
conscience.
totheir
is perhapson thevergeoflosinga solid
voteaccording
I promised.
vote bank. In 2001 it was reportedthat literacyrate among
One can citemanysuchexamplesthatshowa consciousat- Hinduswas 72.44%whereasamongMuslimsitwas 52.47%.The
temptonthepartoftheMuslimsto riseabovecommunalconsid- gap widenswhen one looks at femaleliteracyrate,whichwas
erationswhenitcomestothequestionoftakingpartinpolitics. 63.09% forHindusand 49.75% forMuslims.The official
reports
at
birth
and
life
infant
rate
low
show
the
Left
of the three-tier
The introduction
mortality
expectancy
higher
panchayatiraj by
in
of
women
ofMuslim
Muslims.
to
totheminority
newpoliticalopportunities
offered
political
Participation
community among
won
2006
low.
of
women
candidates
who
Out
26
is
for
the
fices
a
it
also
created
in
local
an
active
role
abysmally
space
politics,
play
withthesupportoftheLeftFront,
elections
onlyonewas
politicalgroups.Between1978and 2003, panchayat assembly
right-wing
that
These are some ofthefactors
electionsinWestBengalwereheldon six occasions(1978,1983, fromtheMuslimcommunity.
Front.
from
the
Left
the
are
to
alienate
in
elections
on
In
a
and
minority
community
likely
2003).
study panchayat
1988,1993,1998,
a village in the Jalpaiguridistrictin 1978 and 2003, it was
observedthatMuslimswhosupportedtheCongressin 1978pan- CriticalEvents
role in bringing
chayatelectionsswitchedoverto thecpi(m)later.In 2003, Mus- The electronicmedia has playedan important
ortheGuout newsoftheeventssuchas theBabrimasjiddemolition
limsbackedthecpi(m) candidatesin thevillageforcarrying
to
and
towns.
The
news
of
and
riots
arson
and
for
landreforms
andimplementing
riots,
villages
undertaking jarat
programmes,
electronic
from
are
flashed
on
the
media
the
where
Several
in
the
a numberof development
place
looting
village.
programmes
otherpoliticalpartiesliketheTrinamoolCongress,thebjp, the eventactuallytakesplace. These visual imageshavea catalytic
BahujanSamajPartycontestedfromtimetotime,butthecpi(m) effect,theyaffectalmost all sectionsof civil society.These
has managedto holdon to itssupportbase especiallyamongthe visualshavea longlifein publicmemoryas theyare recycledby
thepoliticalpartiesfromtimeto time,especiallyat thetimeof
Muslimsforabouttwodecades(Dasgupta1998:122-87).
Economic& Politicalweekly

E33S9 april

18, 2009

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95

z=z=

SPECIAU!^^^

Z-

======

to growin
communalism
elections.For instance,duringthe 2006 assemblyelectionsin an ideal breedinggroundforminority
WestBengal,itwas reportedthattheelectioncampaigncompact thestate.
To conclude,it mayonce again be emphasisedthatsocialexdiscsweredistributed
bythe cpi(m)depictingscenesofhouses
beingburnt,and a place ofworship clusionand politicalalienationhavegivenrisetosomeimportant
beingtorchedand residents
is concerned.
a questionsas faras minorityMuslimcommunity
pulleddownin the Gujaratriots.A poll panel commissioned
in
West
Muslims
of
teamof censorsand all such campaigncds were censoredand Aftersix decades independence,
Bengalare
thequesthe
on
themselves
tofind
scannedbeforetheywere broughtinto circulation.The panel beginning
margins.Although
on
several
come
action
had
censoredcds ofthe cpi(m)and the Congressas theycontained tion of affirmative
occasions,
up
material.
nothingtangiblehas happenedto addressthisand Muslims,by
inflammatory
benefits.
The campaignof targetingthe minorityMuslimswith the and large,remainedoutsidethepurviewofreservation
and
communities
as
different
Hindutvaagenda has createdan ideal space forthe growthof As many 56
castes,
occupational
In a politicallychargedatmosphere, groupswereincludedin the obc listofthestate,preparedafter
communalism".
"minority
but deservingdalit
the minority
Muslimcommunity
has come out withan agenda the Mandai Commissionrecommendation,
social exclusionary
out.
The
left
Muslims
were
backward
and
thatis opposed to secularvalues of the country.The secular
the
in
SacharCommittee
to
notice
was
of
the
state
and
their
brought
policy
politicalpartieshave hardlyquestioneditsexistence,
inthepublic
Muslims
of
the
dismal
It
out
brand
an
to
new
of
indifference
has offered ideal space
this
presence
report. pointed
and
that
in
the
education
and
showed
and
sector
Like
commucommunalism
to grow.
its counterpart,
jobs
private
minority
nalismat timesfindsitsadversarieswithinitsown community, political arenas Muslims were lagging behind. The broad
as it was noticedin the case of a clash betweentwo sects in contoursof local-levelpoliticshave been changingin the state
WestBengal
in carryingoutan attackin Kolk- duringthe last fewdecades. Afterindependence,
Kanpur,up,and morerecently
which
for
ata againstBangladeshiwriterTaslimaNasreen.14
In the latter remainedan infertile
politics
ground community-centric
withthemainsecularpolitical
case the proteststurnedviolentand the police had to impose helpedMuslimsinmainstreaming
curfewin the city,and the writerwas asked to leave Kolkata. forcesin thestate.However,theemergenceofHindunationalist
As statedearlier,the spreadof Hindu communalism,
and the politicsat the local level panchayatelectionshad createda
thathas onlyalienatedtheminority
indifference
ofsecularpartiesto minority
issueswere creating situation
community.
notes
i An estimatebased on 1941CensusofIndia.
2 Verylittleis knownabout riotsin 1965. In East
Pakistan,riotscaused massivedisplacementof
theminorities
especiallyin thenorthern
partsof
thecountry.
The Garos,Khasisand Hajongswere
the worstsufferers.
No detailed studyhas yet
been undertaken
on thenatureofmassivepopulationdisplacement
thattookplace in 1971.
3 DalitMuslimswouldincludeall thoseoccupational
categorieswhose social positionsare similarto
thoseofHinduuntouchables,
e g,weavers,barbers,
cobblers.MuslimOBCs,likewise,are thecounterthe
partof HinduOBCs.SomeoftheMuslimOBCs
wereincludedin theMandaiCommission
Report
foraffirmative
action,theirnames figurein the
centralandstatelistsofOBCs.
4 The firsteditionofthebook appearedin 1888.
5 For a detailed accounton the disproportionate
of Muslimsin jobs, see Ahmed
representation
(1974:139).
6 Dalit Muslimsare thecounterpartof the Hindu
untouchablesalthoughbasic tenets of Hindu
caste system,e g, thenotionofpurityand polluare notpresentin Islam but
tion,commensality
the practiceof endogamy,division of labour,
etc,givedifferent
occupationalcategoriescastelikecharacter.Muslimactivistsdemandedfrom
timeto timethatdalits amongthemshould be
treatedat par withthe scheduled castes, as it
was done in thecase ofSikhs,and Buddhists.
7 The OBC lists in the Mandai CommissionReportwerepreparedin 1979in consultationwith
thestategovernments.
8 In 1953,Kaka Kalelkarused the phrase in his
report while describing conditions of dalit
Christians.The OBC listsof mostof the states
haveincludeddalitconvertsto Christianity.
9 TheseMuslimcastesare Bhathiara,Chik,Dafali,
Dhobi, Dhunia, Idrisi or Darzi, Kasab (Kasai),
Madari, Mehtar (includingLalbegi, Halakhor,
Bhangi), Mirisin, Mirsikar, Momin, Mukri,
Nalband, Nat, Pamaria, Rangrez, Rayeen or
Kunjra,Sayeed.
96

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in
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Dumont,Louis (1970): Religion,Politics,and History
in India: CollectedPapers in Indian Sociology
(Paris: Mouton).
Eaton,RichardM (1993): The Rise ofIslam and the
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ofCaliforniaPress).
Hunter,W W (1969): The IndianMuslims(London,
Delhi: IndologicalBookHouse),(severaleditions
of the book have come out fromWestBengal,
Dacca and Karachi).
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Karim,A K (1984): "Social Stratification
among the Muslims of Certain Districtsof
East Pakistan"in MuhammadAfsaruddin(d.),
A K NajmulKarimSmarakGranthain Bengali,
(Dhaka: SociologyDepartment).
Mitra,A (1953): TheTribesand CastesofWestBengal
Press).
(Calcutta:WestBengalGovernment
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"The
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(1973):
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ManoharPublications').
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Bose, N K (1975): The Structureof Hindu Society
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Chatterji,
Joya(2007): TheSpoilsofPartition:Bengal
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Cox, Kevin(1998): "Spacesof Dependence,Spaces of Schendel,Willem van (2007): The Bengal Border:
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AnthemPress).
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Political
17:1,pp 1-23.
Geography,
10 National Commission for Backward Classes,
Annual Report; 2001-2002 and 2002-2003,
New Delhi,2003, p 172.
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Report,Chapter12,p 213.
from
The Committeehas collectedinformation
governmentdepartments,census, privatesurdata
as
well
as
e
vey organisations, g, NCAER,
collectedwiththehelpoftheirown surveys.
12 The leftpartiesparticularlythe CPI(M) had a
Muslimleaders like
large numberof prominent
MuzaffarAhmed,AbdulHalim,AbdullahRasul,
MuhammadIsmailand others.
13 This new brandof communalismis thrivingin
somepartsofthestate.
14 On 22 November2007 the All India Muslims
Forum(AIMMF)cameouton thestreets
Minority
withhundredsofsupporters
fromdifferent
parts
ofthestatedemandingcancellationofvisa ofthe
BangladeshiwriterTaslimaNasreen.The chairman oftheAIMMFsaid thattheywereforcedto
take an agitationalpath as neverbeforein the
India had someonemade
historyofindependent
suchderogatory
remarksagainsttheprophetlike
TaslimaNasreen.

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weekly
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