Dr. Ir. Dedy Kristanto, M.

Sc

RESERVOIR ASPECTS
RELATE TO FORMATION EVALUATION

Seven Key Elements of

Petroleum Reservoir
1. Source Rock
0

2. Reservoir Rock
1000

3. Timing / Burial
History
4. Maturation

3000

5. Migration

4000

6. Cap Rock
7. Trap

10.2 m
Y

2000

5000

HIGH
PRESSURE

6000
7000
10 km
8000
9000
10000

Geology Structural Products

Fold
Fault
Fracture

Structural Reservoir Trap

Structural Reservoir Trap

Structural Reservoir Trap - Anticline

Structural Reservoir Trap - Fault

Fault Leaked
Fault Sealed

Ilustration of HC accumulation on Hanging wall of Normal Fault

Stratigraphyc Trap

Pinch out Channel

Standard Scientific Units

Parameter

Symbol

Dimensions cgs

SI

Darcy

Field

Length

cm

metre

cm

ft

Mass

gm

kg

gm

lb

Time

sec

Sec

sec

hr

Velocity

L/T

cm/sec

metre/sec

cm/sec

ft/sec
stb/d
(liquid)

Rate

L3 /T

cc/sec

metre3 /sec

cc/Sec
Mscf/d
(gas)

Pressure

(ML/T2 )/L2

dyne/cm2

Newton/metre2

atm

psia

(Pascal)
Density

M/L3

gm/cc

kg/metre3

gm/cc

lb/cu.ft

Viscosity

M/LT

gm/cm.sec

kg/metre.sec

cp

cp

metre2

Darcy

mD

(Poise)
Permeability

L2

cm2

Common Conversion Factors

= 43560 ft2

1 ft = 0.3048 m

1 acre = 4047 m2

1 bbl = 0.159 m3

1 acre-ft = 1233 m3

1 dyne = 10-5 N

1 atm = 101.3 kPa

1 psi = 6.9 kPa

1 cal = 4.817 J

1 Btu = 1055 J

1 HP = 746 W

1 cp = 0.001 Pa s

1 md = 10-15 m2

1 lb = 0.454 kg

1 bar = 100 kPa

Properties of the Reservoir Rocks

y Properties of the rock material:
- Porosity
- Pore size distribution
- Permeability
- Formation compressibility
y Static rock-fluid properties (related to interaction of rock & fluids
contained in pores):
- Wettability & contact angle
- Capillary pressure & interfacial tension
- Irreducible & connate water saturation
- Residual oil saturation
y Dynamic rock-fluid properties (related to the interaction of rock
& fluids):
- Relative permeability
- Mobility
- Saturation distribution during fluid displacement

Properties of the Rock Material

Porosity
y Original or primary porosity - forms when rock
forming sediment was originally deposited,
compacted, & cemented together into matrix
y Induced or secondary porosity - developed by
geological process that occurred after deposition
y Total porosity - total void space in rock divided by
bulk volume of rock
y Effective porosity - ratio of interconnected void
space in rock to bulk volume of rock

Properties of the Rock Material

Porosity
Void Volume
Porosity = =
Bulk Volume

Effective Porosity =

Total Porosity
Bulk Volume

Interconnected Pore Volume

=
Bulk Volume
=

Total Pore Volume

Bulk Volume

= Rock Volume occupied by solid grains

+ Void volume beween cemented grains

Factor Affecting Porosity

y Porosity is affected by
- Sorting (well sorted means grains are all of
roughly uniform size)
- Roundness or angularity
- Compaction
- Contribution of secondary porosity i.e., vugs or
fractures
- Type of packing and cementation.

Porosity

Oil

Quartz Grain

= 0.08 mm

Notes on Porosity
y Porosity is a measure of the storage capacity of
the reservoir rock.
y Only interconnected pore space is of interest. If
pore space is isolated, i.e., there is no network of
pores that channel fluids to wells, fluid can not be
produced.

Effect of Pore Packing

Cubic
(Porosity 47,6%)

Rhombohedral
(Porosity 25,96%)

Porosity Case Example - 1

y Data :
Bulk volume (Vb), cc

= 100

Solid volume (Vs), cc

= 75

Interconnected pore volume (Vpef) = 50% Vp

y Determine :
1. Total pore volume (Vp)
2. Interconnected Pore volume (Vpef)
3. Total Porosity ()
4. Effective Porosity (ef)

Solution Porosity Case - 1

1. Vp

= Vb Vs
= (100 75) cc
= 25 cc
2. Vpef = 50 % x 25 cc
= 12.5 cc
3.

25
=
100%
100
= 25%

4.

12.5
eff =
100%
100
eff = 12.5%

Porosity Case Example - 2

y Data :
Bulk volume total (Vb), cc

= 1250

Solid volume total (Vs), cc

= 983

Interconnected pore volume (Vpef) = 43% Vp

y Determine :
1. Total pore volume (Vp)
2. Interconnected pore volume (Vpef)
3. Total porosity ()
4. Effective porosity (ef)

Solution Porosity Case - 2

1. Vp = Vb Vs
= (1250 983) cc
= 267 cc
2. Vpef = 0,43 x 267 cc
= 114,81 cc
3.

267
=
100 %
1250
= 21,36 %

4.

eff
eff

114,81
=
100%
1250
= 9,1848%

Properties of the Rock Material

Permeability - Darcys Equation

y Darcys equation for horizontal linear flow of fluid
through a porous media:
Q

k A (p1 p2 )

q=

p2

L
p
Q

k=

qL
A(p1 p2 )

p1

Where:
q = volumetric rate (cm3/sec)
k = permeability (darcies)
A = area (cm2)
m = viscosity (cp)
p1 = upstream pressure (atm)
p2 = downstream pressure (atm)
L = length of porous media (cm)

Properties of the Rock Material

Permeability - Darcys Equation

y A sand of one Darcy permeability will permit a fluid
of one centipoise viscosity to flow through an area
of one cm2 at a flow rate of one cubic centimeter
per second under a pressure gradient of one
atmosphere per centimeter
- Usually a Darcy is much too large a unit for
reservoir rocks normally encountered in the field,
so a millidarcy, or one-thousandth of a Darcy, is
the customary unit
1000 md = 1 D

Properties of the Rock Material

Permeability - Darcys Equation

y In oilfield units, Darcys equation for the horizontal
flow of a liquid can be expressed as:

1.1271x10 3 k A (p1 p2 )
q=
L
Where:
q = volumetric flow rate of liquid (bbl/day)
k = permeability (md)
A = flow area (ft2)
p1 = upstream pressure (psi)
p2 = downstream pressure (psi)
= fluid viscosity (cp)
L = thickness of porous media (ft)

Properties of the Rock Material

Absolute and Effective Permeability

y Permeability
- Property of the rock & not of the fluid which flows
through it, provided that the fluid 100% saturates the
pore space of the rock
y Absolute permeability
- Permeability at 100% saturation of a single fluid is
called the of the rock
y Effective permeability
- Permeability of a rock to a particular fluid when that
fluid has a pore saturation less than 100%.

The sum of the effective permeabilities for different

fluids is always < absolute permeability of the rock

Factor Affecting Permeability

y Porosity
y Saturation
y Fluid flow velocity, Viscosity and
Pressure
y Flow Geometry

Flow Geometry for Parallel Layer

k =

j =1

k j hj

j =1

hj

Flow Geometry for Seri Layer

k=

L
Lj

K
j =1

Permeability Case - 1

y A core has length (L) 2.3 cm, diameter (d) 3.752

cm2, saturated with water (Sw) 100%, pressure
difference (P1 P2) 0.5 atm, obtaining water
producing rate (Qw) is 52 cc/sec, with the
viscosity of water (w) is 0.01845 cp.
y Question :
Determine the absolute permeability of these
core ?

Solution Permeability Case - 1

y A = 1/4 x x d2
= 1/4 x 3.14 x 3.752
= 11.04 cm2

kw
kw

kw

Qw . w . L
=
A . ( P1 P2 )
52 x 0.01845 x 2.3
=
11.04 x 0.5
= 0 . 39975 Darcy

Average Permeability Case - 2

y Data of three layers are as follows :

Layer I : k : 200 mD and thickness 75 ft
Layer II : k : 100 mD and thickness 50 ft
Layer III : k : 150 mD and thickness 100 ft
y Question :
Determine the average permeability if the layer is
parallel and seri ?

Solution Average Permeability Case - 2

Parallel Layer
n

j =1
n

k =

k j hj

j =1

k =

hj

(75 200 ) + (50 100 ) + (100 150 )

75 + 50 + 100

=155,56 mD

Solution Average Permeability Case - 2

Seri Layer

k=

L
Lj

K
j =1

225
k=
75
50 100
+
+
200 100 150

= 238,95 mD

Average Permeability Case - 3

y Data of three layers are as follows :
Layer I : k : 135 mD and thickness 46 ft
Layer II : k : 121 mD and thickness 101 ft
Layer III : k : 109 mD and thickness 72 ft
y Question :
Determine the average permeability if the layer is
parallel and seri ?

Solution Average Permeability Case - 3

Parallel Layer
n

j =1

k =

k j hj

j =1

k =

hj

(46 135) + (101121) + (72 109 )

46 + 101 + 72

=119.99 mD

Solution Average Permeability Case - 3

Seri Layer

k=

L
Lj

K
j =1

219
k=
46 101 72
+
+
135 121 109

= 119.255 mD

Note for Permeability

y Heterogeneities in permeability can have a
dominant effect on secondary recovery and EOR
operations.
- Thin high-permeability sand streaks can cause
water to bypass oil sand and breakthrough
prematurely at production wells during
waterflooding.

Fluid Saturation

y Fluid saturation is defined as the fraction of pore volume

occupied by a given fluid

V
Saturation =
V

specific fluid
pore space

y Definitions
Sw = water saturation
So = oil saturation
Sg = gas saturation
Sh = hydrocarbon saturation = So + Sg

Fluid Saturation

y Amount of water per unit volume = Sw

y Amount of hydrocarbon per unit volume = (1 - Sw)

(1-Sw)
Sw

Hydrocarbon

Water
Matrix

Fluid Saturations
y Basic concepts of hydrocarbon accumulation
- Initially, pore space filled 100% with water
- Hydrocarbons migrate up dip into traps
- Hydrocarbons distributed by capillary forces
and gravity
- Connate water saturation remains in
hydrocarbon zone

Fluid Saturation Case - 1

y Give the pore volume of the rock material occupied

by oil is 400 cm3, pore volume occupied by gas is
75 cm3, while total pore volume is 500 cm3.
y Question :
Determine the saturation for each fluids.

Solution Fluid Saturation Case - 1

400
So =
500
75
Sg =
500

= 0 .8
= 0 . 15

y Sg + So + Sw = 1
1 So Sg = Sw
1 0.8 0.15 = 0.05
y Hence

So = 0.8
Sg = 0.15
Sw = 0.05

Fluid Saturation Case - 2

y Give the pore volume of the rock material occupied by
oil is 176 cm3, pore volume occupied by gas is 57 cm3,
while total pore volume 250 cm3.
y Question :
Determine the saturation for each fluids.

Solution Fluid Saturation Case - 2

176
So =
= 0 . 704
250
57
Sw =
= 0 . 228
250
y Sg + So + Sw = 1
1 So Sw = Sg
1 0.704 0.228 = 0.068
y Hence

So = 0.704
Sg = 0.068
Sw = 0.228

Reservoir Heterogeneities
y Reservoir heterogeneities which can have impact
on oil recovery:
-

Pay discontinuities/pinchouts

Faults

Permeability variations/anisotropy

Porosity variations

Horizontal fractures

Vertical fractures

Vertical flow barriers (shales, etc.)

Formation dip

Reservoir Heterogeneities
y Methods used to detect and quantify areal
reservoir variations:
-

Mapping of core data, log data, and well test data

Detailed lithological studies

Pressure transient testing:

Pulse tests

Interference tests to detect and quantify directional

permeability trends

Fault or barrier detection

Environment of deposition:

Recognition of depositional environment allows one to

infer probable directional changes in grain size, grain
orientation, permeability etc.

Determination of Original Oil in Place

7758Vb (1 Swi)
N=
Boi
where :
N
: Original oil in place, STB.
Vb : Bulk volume occupied by hydrocarbon, cuft.

: Porosity, fraction.
Swi : Initial water saturation, fraction.
Boi : Initial oil FVF, bbl/STB.
7758 : Constant (Convertion factor), bbl/acre-ft.

Determination of Original Gas in Place

43560Vb (1 Swi)
G=
Bgi
where :
G
: Original gas in place, SCF
Vb
: Bulk volume occupied by Hydrocarbon, cuft.

: Porosity, fraction.
Swi : Initial water saturation, fraction.
Bgi
: Initial gas FVF, cuft/SCF.
43560 : Constant (Convertion factor), cuft/acre-ft