Mobility strategies in Colombia

s middle mountain range

between the early and middle Holocene
Francisco Javier Aceituno Bocanegra
Faculty of Anthropology, University of Antioquia, PO Box 1226, Medellin, Colombia csfjace@antares.udea.educ.co1
Neyla Castillo Espitia
Faculty of Anthropology, University of Antioquia, PO Box 1226, Medellin, Colombia neycas@epm.net1

Keywords
Colombia, Cordillera Central, mountain rainforest, hunter-gatherers, plant cultivation, mobility, territoriality

Abstract
This article is about the mobility of hunter-gatherers and cultivators, who inhabited two regions of mountain rainforest
in the Cordillera Central of Colombia between the early and middle Holocene. It aims to demonstrate that in tropical
rainforests mobility is a more effective economic and social strategy than sedentary settlement. Given the poor soils
and low carrying capacity of these environments, mobility provides a strategy which allows for periodic regeneration
of resources. We argue that the hunter-gatherer cultivators who lived in the valleys of the Porce and middle Cauca
maintained mobility even though the first evidence for cultivars appears between 7000 BP and 6000 BP. The later
introduction of sedentary settlement was not due to plant cultivation, but rather to other factors such as the necessity
to control territorial resources. Social factors thus played their part in influencing the reduction of mobility to produce
the settlement patterns described by the Spanish chroniclers across the study area.

1 Introduction

1983; Vickers 1983). Nowadays, the territorial reduction

Our western mentality is still influenced by biblical myth,

that the mayority of indigenous cultures have suffered,

in which the chosen people were sedentary (Hernando

has caused the sedentarisation of many traditional

1999:21). The ideological antagonism of nomad-

cultures, which has affected in a negative way the

savagery vs sedentary-civilisation still operates, even

animal protein consumption causing serious nutritional

in modern archaeology, which is still unable to

imbalances. In our region, for example, is the case of

overcome the dualistic epistemology when studying

the Ember, a society with serious nutritional probles

human societies, always trying to settle them into

due to a diet based on carbohydrates and with a high

idealised categories (Smith 2001), such as hunter-

deficit in animal protein (Glvez 1997). On the other

gatherers, agriculturist, etc.

hand, groups that still preserve their mobility like the

Yet if one opposes the dualistic vision of mobility-

Nukak (Colombian Amazonia) (Politis 1996) or the

savagery, sedentary-civilisation, it is possible to see

Huaorani (Ecuadorian Amazonia) (Rival 1999:102)

that mobility in tropical rainforests (including those sited

have achieved good animal protein access. We propose

in mountains), is a much more successful strategy than

that until c 4000/3500 BP the early inhabitants of

long-term settlement if mobility is not restricted by a

Colombias middle mountain range, despite the

high demographic density or by cultural or historical

introduction of cultivation, kept a certain degree of

limits, as has happened with the majority of indigenous

mobility as a resource access strategy.

soc ieties that have been comp elled to live in

The purpose of this paper is thus, on the one hand,

res ervations. I n tropic al e nvironme nts, total

to show the strategies of mobility in two regions of the

sedentarisation could be a risky subsistence strategy,

Central Cordillera of Colombia and, on the other hand,

due to the soils nutrients deficit and, specially, to the

to demonstrate the development of itinerant horticulture

low density of animal biomass1 compared with other

in the middle Holocene in much the same way that slash

natural ecosystems. As some authors have pointed out,

and burn cultivation is practised today among the small

the reduction of animal density is proportional to size

scale societies of the Neotropics (Correa 1993:28). In

and duration of settlements (Castellanos 2001; Gross

the study area it is necessary to adopt great caution

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Mobility strategies in Colom bia

s middle mountain range between the early and m iddle Holocene: Aceituno Bocanegra & Cas tillo Espitia

Fig 1 Site loc ations in Middle Range, Colom bia

over the idea of full-sedentary agriculture as an

submontane rainforest (Bmh-PM) (Castillo et al

inevitable development because one of the traditional

1999:10-11). The archaeological contexts with early

ways in which the tropical rainforests have been

evidence of hunter-gatherers and cultivator societies

managed is by mobile agriculture. From a historical

are found from 800 to 950 asl, in the upper zone of the

perspective, horticulture, mobility and the use of space

first thermal level, in the zone of transition between

are all intertwined and this complex interaction is

equatorial and sub-andino forest. The average

relevant to interpreting the lifeways of the first settlers

temperature of the valley is 24C (Botero 1977), the

of the study region. The cultivation of plants cannot be

relative humidity is 83%, and the average rainfall is 3050

reduced to a simple ecological or nutritional fact; it

mm per year, distributed with a bimodal regime of two

should be regarded as a broader cultural pattern. With

periods of maximum and minimum rainfall (EEPPM

cultivation, it is necessary to develop a new type of

1995). Porce
s valley is V-shaped, of tectonic origin,

relationship with the environment which can be

and it is crossed by faults that lie perpendicular to the

represented as a wider cultural change affecting the

course of the Porce River, along which the brooks that

entire social order of the groups which occupied the

flow into the main river course have formed small

mountain rainforests of north-west Columbia.

valleys. These dissect the main valley deeply and cause

2 Archaeological sites

its morphology to be definitely alluvial (Castillo et al

1999:12-13).

The middle sector of the Porce River is an internal valley

The study region of the Porce project is an area of

of the Middle Antioqueo Range (figure 1). There are

about 120 km, and contains three early archaeological

two thermic levels in the valley: hot, from 0 to 1000 m

deposits: sites 021; 045; and 107. The first two are

asl, with the typical vegetation of tropical rainforest (Bh-

ope n-air multi-com ponent sites e ach with f ive

T); and warm , fro m 100 0 to 2300 m as l, with

anthropogenic levels, of a sandy texture and dark brown

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Fig 2 Stratigraphic view site 021

in colour, which contrast with the natural soils of the

The archaeological sites of middle Cauca are

region (figure 2). These deposits contained provisioned

located in the basin of Campoalegre River (Department

rocks, lithic artefacts (flaked tools, cores and waste),

of Risaralda), a tributary of the right margin of the Cauca

carbonised seeds, animal remains, human remains at

River, in the western base where the Middle Cordillera

site 021, and thousands of ceramic fragments (Castillo

begins (figure 1). According to Espinal

s classification,

et al 1999:23). In addition pollen, phytoliths and starch

the settlements are located in the zone of very humid

grains, were recovered in the laboratory. These are

submontane tropical rainforest (Bmh-PM) (Espinal

camps with regular2 occupation from c 912090 BP3

1990), between 1200 and 1600 m asl, with an average

(Beta 72375) to 423070 BP, at 045 (Beta 99858) and

temperature of 21C, average rainfall of 2600 mm and

from 899080 (Beta 114687) to 435070 (Beta 99853)

a relative humidity of 80%. The geography of the zone

at 021 in a strategy of environmental exploitation that

is narrow and rugged with deep V-shaped incisions with

included hunting, gathering, and the beneficial use of

long waters heds mod elle d by mas s co lluvial

aquatic zones, and, from c 6500 BP, plant cultivation.

movements, and covered by volcanic ashes (ibid). This

In addition, there are burials at site 021, which date

geomorphology is the consequence of erosion cycles

between the period of c 7000 to 5600 BP, and which,

that have denuded the colluvial watersheds to be

according to stratigraphy, are associated with animal

deposited as small alluvial f ans, with a strong

remains and a higher quantity of carbonised seeds.

component of fluvio-volcanic sediments coming from

Around 5000 BP, pottery appears in both burial and

the Macizo Ruiz-Tolima. The result of the alluvial

occupation contexts, and this has been interpreted as

sediments and volcanic flows of the region is a

an indicator of higher levels of socio-political interaction

geography formed of small, round and flat-topped hills

in the region (ibid). The third archaeological site, site

on which most of the settlements and fluvial plains are

107, whose occupation ranges from c 5000 BP to 3900

located (ibid:6).

BP (ibid:60), can be differentiated from the two previous

The contexts studied were Jazmn, El Antojo,

sites by the absence of the pre-ceramic component,

Guayabito, Campoalegre, which were all with the

since both the ceramic and the lithic industries

exception of El Antojo which is a single period site -

demonstrate the cultural correlation of all three sites.

multi-period, open air sites, with evidence of occupation

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from 902060 BP (el Jazmn) (Beta 95061) to 418080

useful
plants are few, many species have developed

BP (Guayabito) (Beta 95063) (Aceituno 2001b:239).

toxic substances as mechanisms of defence, the best

The soils of the sites are dark colored andisoles with a

known case must be the yucca (Bailey et al 1989;

franckeite and clayish texture and a high level of

Piperno & Pearsall 1998:55). To this background must

volcanic pyroclasts due to the proximity to the Park of

be added the problem of dispersion: the density of

the Nevados, which also explains the higher level of

individual plants by area is very low, thus augmenting

fertility. As opposed to the settlements in Porce, no

the costs of harvest (ibid). A similar situation prevails

regularity or intensity of occupation is observed. This

regarding fauna: the lack of large mammals; the solitary

is shown, firstly, by the reduced density and diversity

habits of many species (despite exceptions such as

of the archaeological record and secondly, by the

the peccary); and the arboreal habitats of species such

presence of scarce archaeological material, as in Los

as the primates and sloth, add greatly to the costs of

Arrayanes, El Jazmn or Campoalegre. These patterns

capture (Piperno & Pearsall 1998:62). Another

do share common elements, although they might at

characteristic of the tropical ecosystems is the low level

first suggest different patterns of settlement and

of prediction possible regarding resources because of

environmental exploitation in both regions. The

the year-round homogeneity of the climate, compared

archaeological record of the sites comprises only the

to more seasonal areas.

lithic component, with the exception of the carbonised

The previous paragraph offers a generalist

seeds recovered from Los Arrayanes (Rodrguez 1997)

interpretation in that it tends to regard all tropical

and the micro-botanical remains obtained from both

ecosystems as similar rather than taking account of

soils and stone tools.

the diversity of micro-environments which, in reality,

The lithic technology of middle Porce and Cauca is

exist in a tropical rainforest. Altitudinal differences,

basically formed by flaked tools (made especially of

pedological variation, different fluvial patterns, and

quartz), including projectile points. In addition there are

historical change in anthropogenic behaviour, all explain

edge ground cobbles, quern stone bases, axes, and

the diverse management which may be observed in

hoes. Overall, these lithic assemblages form part of

rainforest environments (Correa 1993:27). In addition,

the technological tradition of the Intermediate Archaic

though the seasons are not so pronounced as in

which is characterised by a high diversity of tools among

temperate latitudes, there is a dry season (

tropical

which are axes, adzes and quern stones. Together

summer
) and a wet season (
tropical winter
) both of

these indicate a broad spectrum economy well adapted

which affect the distribution of resources and thus of

to the ecological conditions of the tropical rainforests

human management and the cultural use of space.

(Ranere 1980:35). The sites, dated between the early

Hunter-gatherer literature most commonly uses the

and middle Holocene, represent an archaic way of life,

models of Binford (1980) and Kelly (1983, 1995) in order

but this concept should be understood not as a

to interpret mobility and access to resources. Both

chronologic al p erio d, rathe r as a way o f life

models are similar and propose that mobility does not

characterised, among other things, by a higher

depend so much on abundance as on the structure of

importance of vegetable resources, the beginnings of

resources as this determines their distribution and

plant cultivation and the regionalisation of technological

accessibility given the limitations of time and space

styles (Gnecco 2000:124-126).

which are, ultimately, set by the members of a group.

3 Mobility and human ecology

Tropical rainforests present environments with a high

primary biomass, minimal seasonal variation, and a

In order to infer the type of mobility it is necessary to

limited carrying capacity and in these cases adaptations

take into account resource structure (ie, how the

tend towards the practice of residential mobility (see

animals and plants are distributed in the landscape),

Boydston 1989:75; Lurie 1989: 48; Bettinger 1991;

anthropogenic management in the area, and the

Cowan 1999). Binford defined residential mobility as

characteristics of the archaeological remains. Tropical

the frequent displacement of all members of a group

rainforests are characterised by an inverse correlation

from one base camp to another within a homogeneous

between primary production and nutritional resource

environment (see also Kelly 1983). In this schema

quality (Bailey et al 1989; Bailey & Headland 1991;

nutritional resources and other basics such as fresh

Morn 1982). Despite the high diversity of species

water provide neither spatial nor seasonal problems

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Mobility strategies in Colom bia

s middle mountain range between the early and m iddle Holocene: Aceituno Bocanegra & Cas tillo Espitia

(Gnecco 1995:61; 2000:123-124). If we adopt Binford

s

(Posey 1984). The effect of this anthropogenic

model the hunter-gatherers who inhabited the mountain

intervention has been to augment diversity and alter

rainforests of the Cordillera Central must have practised

species distribution. In this way mobility was an

residential mobility. There is, however, a problem with

adaptation to anthropogenic management and not

this model in its deterministic reductionism: it does not

merely to the natural distribution of species.

take into account the diversity of tropical rainforests

and, simply because mobility is an adaptive response

4 The middle valley of Porce River

to the ecological distribution of resources, in this human

In the middle course of Porce River, three pre-

behaviour is comparable to that of animals.

ceramic stages were defined from c 9000 to 5000

In ecological terms the classic division into

BP and a ceramic stage from 5000 to c 3500 BP.

residential mobility and logistical mobility does not

The definition of these stages is based on changes

consider the fact that hunter-gatherer groups do modify

in the arc haeo lo g ic al re c o rd and als o o n

their environment by altering both the resource structure

biostratigraphic changes in the pollen columns.

and the diversity of species (Bale 1992). This should

G e ne rally, the site s are c harac te ris e d b y

lead us to re-evaluate the idea that human impact in

stratigraphic continuity, but there is low stratigraphic

the past was minimal, with hunter-gatherers as pristine

resolution as the separation of events into stages is

societies of ecological conservationists. This paper

both complex and shows high redundancy. The latter

therefore takes the theoretical point of view of a dynamic

is due to the recurrence of activities which were

paradigm based in post-modern thought and contrary

repeatedly carried out on these sites because of

to the classical static paradigm. We propose that natural

their reoccupation over the millennia.

ecosystems are not so much stable and homogeneous

Preceramic phase I is the most ancient period

as dynamic, chaotic and uncertain (Little 1999; Smith

in the middle Porce valley, dated to between c 9000

& W ishnie 2000; Leal 2002:133; Ulloa 2002:148).

and 7500 BP (921090 -045-Beta 72375; 899080

Following the ideas of anthropologists such as Emilio

-021- Beta 114687; 771070 BP -045- Beta 114681).

Morn (1982) or Darrell Posey (1984) the relationships

Regarding the earliest settlement in the valley

between people and the environment should be seen

around 9000 BP we suggest that the sites were

from a historical perspective in that the environment is

logistical camps from which the hunter gatherers set

a dynamic system which has co-evolved alongside

out for other zones of the basin in order to obtain

culture. Historically these relationships have comprised

resources and information relating to a territory that

different states of conservation, alteration, evolution and

was in the process of colonisation. In this way, as

extinction. Resource structure as a determinant of

the colonisation of the valley became consolidated

mobility does not, thus, depend solely on climatic zone

these camps were transformed into residential

as proposed by Binford and Kelly, but also on the

camps from which expeditions to more distant zones

ecological relationships as articulated through the local

could be made. Archaeological material from the

historical traditions which have determined the mutual

lower levels of sites 021 and 045 comprises stone

development of both environment and culture. Thereby,

axes for opening up new clearings, cutting and

if we are going to use the residential and logistic

scraping tools for working on animal products, and

categories to describe the mobility type, the objective

quern stones for processing seeds the three basic

is to determine the stimuli that lead these people to

actions of colonisation. Thus, the first settlers made

practice one or another model of mobility.

their niche using local resources. The low density

Mobility is thus understood as a strategy by which

and diversity of stone tools, compared with those

to manage space which has operated through time in

levels dated from 8000 BP onwards, suggests that

the framework of the relationships between people and

the lower levels correspond with pioneer occupation

their environment. In the case of tropical rainforests

in an unknown land. This is supported by the low

we suggest that over millennia of experimentation the

d ivers ity o f the f o re st and the lo w leve ls o f

first inhabitants created anthropogenic forests by

disturbance to the vegetation in subzones 1A and

developing an agro-forestal economy based on both

1A1 which correspond to the oldest levels (tables 1

intentional and unintentional intervention across the

and 2).

forest as a whole rather than on individual species

The lower levels (V) at 021 and 045 can be dated

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by their stratigraphic position to around 8000 BP. By

settlement is found. These provide the richest

this time, the logistically organised settlements, related

ecozones, they attract animals from the forested interior

mainly to the peopling of the valley, transform into base

in search of water, and the open vegetation favours

residential camps. This shift is indicated by the high

the development of grains and herbaceous plants,

diversity and density of lithic tools, comprising axes,

tubers and rhizomes. These provide nourishment for a

pounders (figure 3), querns, flaked tools and two new

wide range of animals to which the local aquatic species

elements: quartz debitage and cores, and, above all,

should be added. All of this means that the riverine

the construction of stone flooring to augment the space,

ecozone is one of the most productive ecosystems,

which represents a considerable amount of work,

while also being highly predictable in respect of access

related to longer dwelling at the sites and, as a possible

to two types of resource that were fundamental for the

strate gy, with anticip ate d mo bility and regular

hunter gatherer populations of the tropical forests: game

occupations of the riverside camps (figure 4). At the

for the hunt and rapidly growing plants (grains and

same time, the pioneer camps disappear, adding

herbs). It seems that the initial inhabitants of the middle

support to the interpretation of logistic mobility. Based

Porce targeted a varied but limited spectrum of

on groups who practice residential mobility today, one

vegetable and animal resources that was predictable

would have expected more sites in the 120 km2 of the

and therefore easier to obtain in a restricted setting,

project had foraging occupation continued. In these

before settling down to exploit those few resources

cases the average distance between camps is less than

whose dispersion would lead to high mobility and higher

15km (Kelly 1995: 114-5).

costs of access.

But what does this type of occupation model mean?

During the preceramic stage II phase, represented

Colonisation in the valley took place through exploitation

by level IV at sites 021 and 045, from c 7500 BP to

of the river margins, which is precisely where the human

6500 BP (724080 -021- Beta 99862; 708080 021-

Subzone
Layer(Hz)
Sample cm

2B
I(A1)
5

Forest elements
22.24
Edge of forest
2.21
ferns
5.80
elements from cultivation
6.91
pioneering elements3.59
3.18
Arecaceae
3.59
grasses
9.39
cultivars (yucca and maize) 2.21
selective use [author query] 0.69
algae
1.38
moss
2.90
fungae
28.18
other
6.63
indeterminate
3.18
pollen sum
724

15

25

2A
III(Ap1)
35

32.84
5.51
1.48
7.42
6.67
4.66
7.20
4.87
1.06
0.00
1.91
21.19
7.63
1.06
472

35.56
5.68
3.95
3.95
1.72
3.95
4.44
3.21
1.73
0.99
1.73
18.27
8.40
1.48
405

23.37
3.09
2.75
6.53
3.80
3.44
6.53
14.43
4.47
0.00
3.09
20.96
7.56
2.06
291

II(Ap)

1D
III(Ap1)
45
31.65
1.90
2.53
8.86
5.47
1.90
9.49
1.90
0.00
1.90
2.53
22.78
5.06
5.70
158

1C
IV(Ap2)
55
65
24.32
1.82
0.91
5.47
3.04
0.91
8.81
0.00
0.61
0.61
0.61
41.95
5.17
3.34
329

13.31
1.90
2.28
6.84
4.59
2.28
6.46
0.00
0.38
1.52
3.04
38.02
14.45
6.46
263

1B
IV(Ap2)
75

1 A 1 A1
V (Ap3)
85
95

17.43
1.83
1.38
6.42
0.00
1.83
8.26
0.00
0.00
3.21
1.83
39.91
8.26
5.05
218

21.48
2.22
0.00
0.00
0.91
0.74
11.11
0.00
0.00
0.00
2.22
37.78
9.63
14.81
135

75

1A
V(Ap3)
85

24.66
1.83
0.91
8.22
0.91
12.33
0.00
0.00
0.00
1.83
31.05
7.31
9.13
219

Table 1 Variation by percent in the plants as sociated with s ettlement 021

Subzone
LayerHz
Sample cm

2B
II(Ap)
5

forest elements
15.1
pioneer elements
2.3
ferns
1.5
elements of cultivation
4.9
grasses
4.2
fungae
43.8
cultivars(maize, amaranto)
5.3
mosses
6.4
indeterminate
2.3
others
3.4
algae
10.9
pollen sum
265

15
18.6
0.5
0.3
2.7
6.5
49.2
0.5
3.0
5.1
2.7
10.8
370

Table 2 Variation in plant associations at settlement 045

Before Farming 2005/2 article 2

25
20.5
9.7
0.3
3.2
4.9
44.8
1.9
0.6
5.5
3.9
4.5
308

2A
III(Ap1)
35
34.7
5.1
0.6
2.3
1.9
42.1
1.3
1.0
3.5
5.5
1.9
311

45
25.5
7.5
0.9
3.8
6.6
44.3
0.9
0.0
0.0
4.7
5.7
106

1B
IV(Ap2)
55
65
28.3
4.7
0.0
0.0
0.9
17.9
0.0
6.6
2.8
1.9
36.8
106

11.0
4.7
0.0
0.0
0.8
30.7
0.0
3.9
2.4
3.1
43.3
127

7.1
0.0
0.0
2.0
11.1
32.3
0.0
10.1
4.0
5.1
28.3
99

8.3
0.0
0.0
2.1
0.0
20.8
0.0
2.1
6.3
2.1
58.3
48

95
3.9
0.0
0.0
0.0
9.8
31.4
0.0
0.0
3.9
5.9
45.1
51

Mobility strategies in Colom bia

s middle mountain range between the early and m iddle Holocene: Aceituno Bocanegra & Cas tillo Espitia

Figure 3 Edge ground cobbles, layer IV, site 021

Beta 99854; 7080130 -045- Beta 114681; 694070 -

evidence of plant cultivation, starch grains of Manihot

021- Beta 99863; 654050 -021- Beta 118091)

from c 7000 BP (layer IVb, site 021) (table 3).

important changes in the archaeological record can be

The alteration of the forest favours the increase of

seen and these clearly indicate a change in mobility.

nutritional plants such as wild tubers, and the expansion

Both the density and diversity of lithic artefacts

of palms and other fruit trees such as the Solanaceas

increases, new raw materials such as chert appear,

and Anonaceas that grow well in disturbed ground. An

together with rejuvenation flakes which reinforce the

additional attraction of such areas lies in the fact that

residential character of these base camps. The increase

this pioneer vegetation also favours hunting, as the

in pioneer vegetation and weeds of cultivation in

roots, fruits and seeds attract animals (Linares 1976).

subzones 1B and 1C at 021 (table 1) and 1B at 045

For this reason Posey (1984) has called them the

(table 2) clearly indicate higher levels of intervention

allotment-grainstoresof the hunt. The alteration of

and alteration of the area. This type of environmental

the forests increases the carrying capacity of the

management pre-dates the appearance of the first

environment and the general degree of predictability

of the resources. This would explain the longer duration
of settlements and the more regular and predictable
reoccupation of sites. Both are factors that increased
from c 6500 BP, when cultivated species such as
Amaranthus sp; Manihot sp; Zea mays and Cayapoima
sp appeared in subzones 1D at site 021 and 2A at site
045 (tables 1 and 2). This strategy served to
complement hunting and the gathering of wild plants
(Castillo et al 1999: 107; Castillo & Aceituno 2000).
After 6500 BP the time spent in the residential
camps increased as garden plots were created from
introduced species and cultivars. Along with a reduction
in residential mobility, logistical movements must also

Figure 4 Flaking tools, layer IV, site 021

have increased, especially regarding hunting: in order

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Mobility strategies in Colom bia

s middle mountain range between the early and m iddle Holocene: Aceituno Bocanegra & Cas tillo Espitia

Figure 5 Left, point of projectile, right, axes, layer IV, site 021

to maintain high return rates. This strategy follows since

1983: 459) are forced to set up logistical camps that

the reduction in animal populations is proportional to

can last for several weeks, in order to stock up with

the duration o f the se ttle ments, as has be en

sufficient game to avoid nutritional deficits.

demonstrated in recent studies (Castellanos 2001).

Up to now, we have not found archaeological

Currently, semi-sedentary groups such as the Yagua

evidence for logistical sites that might relate to the

(Chaumeil 1994:224) or the Siona-Secoya (Vickers

residential camps of the middle Porce. The only

Artefact

Site

Level

Axe
Moraceae).
Edge ground cobble

021

quern stone
quern stone
Edge ground
quern stone
Edge ground
Edge ground
quern stone
Axe
Crusher
Ceramic
Ceramic
Ceramic
quern stone
quern stone
Edge ground
Edge ground

cobble
cobble
cobble

cobble
cobble

Layer

Subzone pollen

Microscopic indicators

24

021

23

021
021
021
021
021
021
021
045
045
045
045
045
045
045
107
107
(sect 7)

23
15
10
12
10
8
8
13
8
6
5
6
4
3
6

V
IVb
IVa
IVa
IVa
III
III
V
IV
III
III
III
II
II
II

1A

2A
2B
2B
1A
1B
2B
2B
2B
2B
2C
2B

Phtyoliths of dicotyledonous angiosperm (some type

Phytoliths monocotyledonous angiosperm (type Palmae)
Zea mays starch and phytoliths from Poaceae and some
from corn
Cyperaceae phytoliths
Starch type Manihot
Annonaceae phytoliths
Starch type Manihot
Micro-carbons
Starch type Manihot
Palmae phytoliths
Palmae phytoliths
Palmae phytoliths
Starch type Manihot, starch masses; insect fragments
Altered starch grains, some characteristic of corn
Starch type Amaranthus sp.
Starch and Smylax sp.microfragments
Palmae phytoliths
Cucurbitaceae phytoliths

II

2B

Table 3 Sam ples of phytoliths and starch grains middle Porce

Before Farming 2005/2 article 2

Ipomea batatas and Zea mays Starch Cucurbitaceae,

Palmae and Zea mays phytoliths

Mobility strategies in Colom bia

s middle mountain range between the early and m iddle Holocene: Aceituno Bocanegra & Cas tillo Espitia

indication is the presence of chert, an exotic raw

specialisation. For this reason they probably maintained

material which could indicate access to more remote

a high degree of versatility as a tactic to avoid the risk

lands during logistically organised expeditions. It could

of losing access to a range of food which assured a

also, however, be an indication of a wide network of

high nutritional level, as indicated by the broad spectrum

alliances between groups and based on the affiliation

of plant remains in the archaeological record, both wild

of individuals.

and cultivated.

The longer duration of the settlements and the

This supports the thesis about the maintenance of

tendency of reducing the mobility of the residential camps,

mobility. The pollen data does not show any great

therefore augmenting logistical mobility, increased in the

impact, or pressure on the environment between c 5800

third pre-ceramic stage between c 6500 BP and 5000

BP and 4500 BP (table 1). These sites do not show an

BP (6280120 -021- Beta 118994; 588080 -021- Beta

increase in size and the soils do not present changes

99864; 567070 -021- Beta 118095; 500070 -045- Beta

in struc ture, nor in chemical compone nts. The

114681). It is at this point that plant cultivation reaches

archaeological and palaeoecological data suggest that

its highest level, as seen in subzones 2A and 2B at both

the exploitation of the environment, despite the

sites 021 and 045 (tables 1 and 2) and according to

implementation of cultivation, maintained a certain

phytoliths and starch data (table 3). Pottery appears c

stability in relation to the primary elements of the valley

s

5000 BP, and in the archaeological record of 021 and

occupation. This means that there was a certain

045 one can see the first signs of structures that indicate

continuity in land management, based on mobility,

more stable constructions, though no increase in the size

group fission and, probably, on the amplification and

of the settlements can be observed (Castillo et al 1999;

maintenance of broad kinship relations, as a way in

Castillo & Aceituno 2000). An important fact that

which to exploit the environment and inhibit social

corroborates the theory that these settlements were

conflict (Castillo 1998: 40; Castillo et al 1999; Castillo

regularly reoccupied is the presence of burials in 021

& Aceituno 2000).

between c 7000 and 5600 BP. The visibility of death is a

The higher importance of plant cultivation does

way to create an ancestral memory, fusing past and

not correspond with the considerable decrease in

future. This temporal dimension is expressed in the

the quantity and diversity of lithic tools. This could

territory where all life cycles are experienced, thus making

b e an indicatio n of the c hang ing role o f the

the cemetery a clear indication of the symbolic

s e ttle m ents , which c o rre s p ond s with the

construction and appropriation of territory (Criado 1989;

disappearance of human burials in 021. It is not

Castillo 1998:48).

possible, therefore, to ignore that the role played

Although it is possible to observe an increase in the

by the settlements between c 7500 and 5500 BP

duration of the settlements in the middle Porce, up to

had been displaced to other sites. Between 5000

now there have been no other sites with which to make

and 3500 BP settlements were associated with

a correlation. Therefore, this reduction in mobility should

specialised activities such as the periodic gathering

not be confused with a sedentary life because in a

of the harvest and making of ceramic vases. The

tropical forest environment there are risks to this

semi-sedentary settlements of the previous period

strate gy. On the o ne hand, the pro duction of

were abandoned. The later groups, rather than

carbohydrates is guaranteed and optimised through

adapting to the gardens, adapted them as a strategy

cultivation (Flowers 1983: 389). On the other hand, the

by which to exploit the environment, reoccupying

risk of a scarcity of meat protein has to be taken into

disturbed areas, which were safe in the sense of

account (Castellanos 2001). This is why we suggest

resource exploitation. Thus, the introduction of

that retaining some mobility is a more effective strategy

gardens did not produce a rupture to the way of life;

at this stage than the completly sedentary life. The

it was simply an evolution of the strategy by which

Middle Porce groups, until their sites were abandoned,

the environment was exploited. In this way the

would have maintained the capacity for mobility

groups continued to maintain mobility in order to

throughout their territories, despite having adopted the

e xplo it the land . B ut this m o b ility was no w

cultivation of plants and having developed over time

c haracte ris e d b y the d is pe rsio n o f gard ens

the exploitation of horticulture. To manage this, these

throughout the territory.

groups had to evade becoming trapped into economic

Before Farming 2005/2 article 2

Mobility strategies in Colom bia

s middle mountain range between the early and m iddle Holocene: Aceituno Bocanegra & Cas tillo Espitia

5 The middle valley of the Cauca River

between components 1 and 2 which explain almost 80%

In the case of the middle Cauca the differences

of the variance (figure 6).

between the archaeological levels on the different

In general terms an increase in diversity is shown

sites are also visible in the pollen record and indicate

from the start of the Holocene. This corresponds with

that each settlement took advantage of separate

the initial s ettlement of the region, and in bio-

resources. A heterogeneous distribution of plant

stratigraphic terms it coincides with pollen subzone 2D

resources is indicated, not only as a result of natural

at El Jazmn, dated to 902060 BP Beta 95061. It

factors such as soil types, but also due to the

comprises a decrease in forest elements to 50% and

management of the area. A general diversity of

the increase of pioneering plants, weeds and palms

species and the presence of various successive

(table 4) all of which was indicators of the succession

stages of forest, suggestive of the evolution of

processes set in train by the anthropogenic alteration.

pioneering plants, is all a part of this In order to

Nutrient species include Solanum, Pasiflora, Manihot,

evaluate the dif fe re nce s be twe en c ontexts a

Xanthosoma and Dioscorea. There are also inter-site

principal component analysis was carried out. This

differences in the vegetation (tables 4 6) which might

shows these differences clearly, starting from the

reflect soil variation as much as human management.

opposition of the artefacts in the component graphs

These also correlate with changes in the lithic

(figures 5 and 6). Component 1, with the biggest

technology.

variance (60%) (table 7), marks the opposition of

The earliest record comes from el Jazmn where

the content of El Antojo (flaked lithic residues, quartz

axes, adzes, and querns have been recognised along

tools and one stone point) with respect to the other

with a reduced quantity of debitage. This seems to

settlements (quern stones and crushing stones,

indicate the use of plant based resources and is

edge ground cobbles and flaked debitage from other

supported by the increase in diversity that has been

raw materials as well as axes and hoes) (figures 7

observed. As there is only one site it is difficult to look

and 8).

at mobility, but we are dealing with a pioneer population

In contrast, component 2 picks up the variance that

whose groups had to maintain a high level of mobility

is not explained in the first component, being mainly

both to move into new territory and to learn about the

defined by hoes and axe/hoes (table 7). This clearly

distribution of resources in the new zones. The

shows the differences between the rest of the sites,

archaeological record of later occupation, between

due to the presence of hoes/axes in El Jazmn and

8500 and 7500 BP lies in level IV at el Jazmn (759090

their absence in the rest of the sites, as well as the

BP Bdta 95888) and el Antojo (838090 BP Beta

exiguous presence of axes with polished edges in

93154), level V at Guayabito (7990100 BP Beta

Campoalegre and Los Arrayanes. The opposition of

95064) and level IVa at Campoalegre (760090 BP Beta

the artefacts is clearly shown in the graphs of the

87730). These do not suggest change in terms of

principal components figures 5 and 6), especially

diversity from the earlier occupation of level AP2 at el

Subzone
Sample cm
Layer

1A
16
A1

37
A2

1B
51
AB

2A
65
Ap

forest elements46.6 45.9 50.4 55.6

Arecaceae
9.1
3.2
4.4
6.6
edge of forest 2.5
0.0
2.2
0.9
Pteridophyta
9.1 18.1 14.9 20.7
weeds
0.8
0.0
0.8
0.0
pioneering
elements
5.8
9.8
8.1
6.6
Gramineae
3.3
4.9
4.4
6.6
cultivars
0.8
0.0
0.0
0.0
mosses
0.8
0.0
3
0.0
fungae
11.6
9.8
5.1
2
other elements 3.3
0.0
2.9
0.9
indeterminate 5.0
8.2
3.7
0.0
pollen sum 360
183
405 318

2B
2C
2D
84
100 106 112 120 126
Ap1
Ap1
Ap2
Ap2
45.4 47.2 48.1 49.1
2.5 6.0 4.6 3.6
0.8 0.9 1.9 0.9
25.6 17.2 16.3 26.3
0.0 2.6 2.8 0.0

Before Farming 2005/2 article 2

49.4
4.5
0.0
19.3
4.5

62.1
4.5
0.0
9.0
0.5

143

56.9
3.9
1.4
14.2
0.0

3A
146 155 170
BP

61.8 48.9
2.9 3.8
1.7 0.7
14.2 21.3
0.8 1.6

3B
188
B

62.0 49.470.2
4.6 3.5 0.0
0.6 0.6 0.0
20.1 27.421.2
0.0 0.6 0.0

4.2 3.0 10.3 4.1

5.2
5.1
4.0
1.4
2.0 2.3
0.5 3.0 4.2
15.7 9.5 7.0 4.5
8.1
6.8 12.4
8.3
6.1 8.4
3.4 4.7 0.0
2.5 2.1 0.0 1.3
1.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0 0.0
0.0 0.0 0.0
0.0 2.1 0.9 0.4
0.4
1.1
2.2
0.5
0.4 1.5
1.7 2.3 0.0
0.0 5.5 6.0 7.8
9.5
3.4
4.5 11.2
6.9 9.9
6.3 4.8 4.2
3.3 2.1 1.4 1.8
1.9
2.8
0.5
0.5
3.2 1.5
0.6 1.8 0.0
0.0 1.7 0.4 0.0
0.9
2.8
0.0
1.5
0.0 0.0
0.0 1.8 0.0
242 233 214 220 210 352 354 204 246 262
174 168 141

Table 4 Variation by proportion in the ecologic al as sociations at El Jaz min

10

50
3.8
0.5
17.7
1.0

2E
136 139
BP

Mobility strategies in Colom bia

s middle mountain range between the early and m iddle Holocene: Aceituno Bocanegra & Cas tillo Espitia

Subzone

1A

1B

2A

Sample cm
Layer

28
A1

38
A2

41
AB

44
AB

50.20
4.49
1.22
16.33
0.00
4.08
2.86
0.82
2.04
9.80
2.86
4.90
245

51.65
3.30
1.47
18.68
0.37
3.66
3.30
1.10
2.20
5.13
2.93
6.23
273

54.69
5.08
1.17
11.72
0.00
8.20
3.91
1.17
1.56
7.03
4.69
0.78
256

47.06
0.00
0.84
16.81
0.84
4.20
4.20
2.52
0.00
13.45
8.40
1.68
238

Rainforest elements
Arecaceae
Edge of forest
Pteridophyta
weeds
pioneering elements
Gramineae
cultivars
mosses
fungae
other elements
indeterminate
pollen sum

2B
60

77
Ap

59.46
4.05
1.35
16.22
2.70
5.41
1.35
0.00
2.70
2.70
1.35
2.70
148

65.04
0.81
0.00
20.33
0.81
7.32
0.00
0.00
0.00
4.88
0.81
0.00
246

Table 5 Variation by proportion in the ecologic al as sociations at Guayabito

Subzone
Sample cm
Layer

Rainforest elements
Arecaceae
edge of forest
Pteridophyta
weeds
pioneering elements
Gramineae
mosses
fungae
other elements
indeterminate
pollen sum

18
A1

27
A2

2A
37
A3

47

2B
57
AB

67

55.96
3.37
1.12
18.20
0.45
6.29
7.64
0.00
4.94
1.80
0.22
445

50.56
5.06
1.12
15.73
5.06
3.37
3.93
4.49
7.87
2.81
0.00
178

26.67
1.33
0.00
4.00
4.00
4.00
6.00
4.67
42.00
1.33
6.00
150

30.39
0.00
1.96
3.92
6.86
1.96
3.92
1.96
36.27
7.84
4.90
102

40.32
3.23
0.00
11.29
4.84
4.84
4.84
1.61
19.35
3.23
6.45
62

46.55
0.00
0.00
5.17
5.17
6.90
5.17
0.00
22.41
3.45
5.17
58

2C
77
Ap1
34.25
0.00
0.00
4.33
1.18
11.81
1.97
1.57
36.22
7.09
1.57
254

87
43.48
0.72
0.00
4.71
11.59
2.17
4.71
1.45
20.29
5.07
5.80
276

Table 6 Variation by proportion in the ecological ass ociations at Cam poalegre

Graphic of components

Graphic of components
1.0

1.0
Axes

c
o
m
p
o
n
e
n
t

Milling stones
.5

Nutting stones
Flakes Qz
Tools Qz

Milling stones

E.G.C

0.0
Point Qz
Flakes other raw

.5

Handstones

-.5
Hoes

Flakes Qz

C Tools Qz
o
m
0.0
p
o
n
e
n
-.5
t

Hoes

Nutting stones

Axes
Flakes other raw

Point Qz

Handstones

E.G.C

3
-1.0
-1.0

-.5

0.0

.5

1.0

-1.0
-1.0

-.5

0.0

.5

1.0

Component 1

Component 1

Figure 6 Com ponents 1 and 2

Figure 7 Com ponents 1 and 3

Jazmn (subzone 2D), but there is clear evidence of

intervention in the forest. The latter holds good even

differences between contexts, as seen in pollen

when cultivars appear, the pollen of Xanthosoma and

subzones 2B at Guayabito and el Jazmn (tables 4 and

Dioscorea, and starches from Manihot (table 8) do not

5) and 2C at Campoalegre (table 6), all of which fall

correspond with change in the archaeological record.

within this chronological range.

The predominant model appears to have been one of

If we look at the differences between Cauca and

foraging, but neither the archaeological record nor the

the middle Porce, the archaeological record suggests

minor impacts on vegetation data are conclusive. The

that the groups of the Cauca moved camp more

lithic site of Antojo is specialised in the working of quartz

frequently. The lithic assemblages are less dense and

and seems to relate to the base camps that were

show less variability, and there is less evidence of

strategically located for visual control and reoccupied

Before Farming 2005/2 article 2

11

Mobility strategies in Colom bia

s middle mountain range between the early and m iddle Holocene: Aceituno Bocanegra & Cas tillo Espitia

Matrix of components
Component
2

1
Hoes
Axes
Handstones
Milling stone
Ed Gr Co
Residues QZ
Flakes other raw
Tools QZ
Point
Nutting stone
a

.529
9.455E-02
.836
.763
.888
-.883
.836
-.951
-.883
.682

-.735
.883
.347
8.980E-02
.115
.242
-.419
-3.13E-02
-.141
.374

3
.388
.191
-.113
.608
-.331
.344
.174
.249
.247
.459

Method of extraction: analysis of principal components

Table 7 Matrix of components

on a period basis. It is possible to suggest that these

inference, built as it is on the basis of phytoliths, starch,

groups functioned more as collectors, but were well

and pollen grains, is not completely fool proof, as it is

adapted to the specific conditions of the tropical

subject to the conservation, sampling, and recognition

ecosystems. They occupied strategic sites from which

of these microscopic vegetable particles. There are

all activities could be planned, taking into account the

certain contradictions to be resolved.

seasonal changes of climate. Changes of base camp

In the first place, there is not a great correspondence

were dictated by the demands of the management

between the individual data sets relating to phytoliths,

regimes; there were more base camps but each was

starch and pollen grains in the two areas, since the

re-occupied regularly.

same type of plants were not found in both sets of

An important fact that marks the clear difference

analysis (see tables 4 and 5). This signifies that more

with respect to the middle Porce is the co-incidence of

analysis of this type is necessary. In the second place,

plant cultivation with m obility. Some degree of

the fact that plant cultivation did not have a higher

contradiction can be observed in middle Cauca

importance in a region with such fertile soils is still

because, although the evidence of cultivation goes back

odd, as it would have been a strategy sufficiently

to c 7500 BP, as seen in the Manihot starches and

effective to increase resources and minimise the risk

Xanthosoma and Zea pollen, perhaps as far back as

of food shortage. Another important difference in relation

8000 BP, this means of food production is not as

to middle Porce that can also be correlated with stability

important as in Porce. The lesser importance of plant

in the strategy of environmental exploitation is the

cultivation in Cauca could be a reason why changes in

absence of ceramics, since in Cauca pottery does not

mobility cannot be observed here, unlike the middle

appear until the first millenium BC. All of these are

Porce, where a clear tendency of reduction in residential

important differences that explain certain regional

mobility can be seen. Also because of plant cultivation,

developments going back to the final periods of the

there is higher residential mobility and greater

Pleistocene.

irregularity in the occupation of the sites. However, this

Artefact

Site

Level

Layer

Pollenzone

Milling stone base Jazmn

Nutting stone base Jazmn
Milling stone base Jazmn
Sediment
Jazmn
Sediment
Jazmn
Sediment
Jazmn
Sediment
Jazmn
Edge ground coobleJazmn
Edge ground coobleJazmn
Axe
Jazmn

24
24
23
84 cm
100 cm
112 cm
120 cm
21
20

VI
VI
VI
V
V
V
V
V
V
V

2D
2D
2C
2B
2C
2C
2D
2C
2C
2C

Edge ground coobleCampoalegre

Milling stone base Campoalegre

15
11

Iva
IV

2C
2B

Table 8 Sam ples of phytoliths and starch grains, middle Porce

12

Before Farming 2005/2 article 2

Microscopic Indicators
Starch type Manihot
Palmae phytoliths
Starch type Manihot
Starch type Zea maysPoaceae phytoliths
Gramineous phytoliths (Poaceae)
Gramineous phytoliths (Poaceae)
Gramineous phytoliths (Poaceae) and Palmae
Starch type Dioscorea sp
Starch type Manihot
Gramineous phytoliths, Palmae and
unidentified dicotiledoneous angiosperms
Starch type Manihot
Starch type Manihot

Mobility strategies in Colom bia

s middle mountain range between the early and m iddle Holocene: Aceituno Bocanegra & Cas tillo Espitia

6 Territoriality

in the environment and cultivation sho uld be

The identification of a nomadic strategy across a defined

proportional to an increase of the territorial behaviour

space takes us to the concept of territoriality and to the

of the people of the Porce river. Given the limitations of

demarcation of spatial identity. In hunter-gatherer

the soils available for developing gardens, the

archaeology, territoriality has been studied mainly from

inhabitants of the Porce should have developed

an ecological perspective, according to which, it is an

territoriality patterns enabling them to control the

adaptable mechanism by which human societies

riverside ecotone of the Porce river and its tributaries,

articulate control and access to resources depending

on which they focused most of their activities of

on the size of the communities. This is done through

subsistence.This idea of more rigid territorial control is

the maintenance of an optimal space per individual.

reinforced by the presence of the cemetery in settlement

This strategy also works as a strong inhibitor of social

021. The visibility of death would work as a strong

conflict (Cashdan 1983; Dyson-Hudson & Smith 1978;

symbolic act which legitimised the right to move and

Peterson 1975; Kelly 1995:163). Therefore, as a

control an ancestral territory that had been transformed

strategy for resource access, territoriality has a strong

and yet had various meanings for the inhabitants of

relationship with the mode of resource exploitation

middle Porce (Criado 1989).

(Peterson 1975; Cashdan 1983).

On the contrary, the information relating to plant

According to the theoretical framework proposed

cultivation is more diffuse in middle Cauca where the

by Dyson-Hudson and Smith (1978), there are two types

intensity of occupation of sites is less. The degree of

of territorial behaviour, depending on the abundance,

mobility here was greater, and groups in this region

predictability and grade of resources (Brown in Cashdan

had to develop more flexible territorial behaviour

1983). The first type concerns rigid territorial behaviour

compared to the middle Porce. It is likely that individuals

based on the strict control of resources and on the

had to change from one territory to another with greater

exclusive demarcation of territories. The second type

frequency. This is supported by the ethnographic data

is a more fluid territorial behaviour in which there is

which also emphasises individual affiliation as a

less control of resources, and where the spatial limits

mechanism to support moves from one territory to

are very flexible.

another.

The rigid territorial behaviour increases:

when resources are abundant and predictable,
both in time and space, as the costs of using and
defending the area are compensated with the
benefits obtained by this defence. However, the
resources must not be super abundant because
the cost would be higher than the benefits. (DysonHudson & Smith 1978; see also Peterson 1975;
Cashdan 1983).
On the contrary, in areas where resources are not
predictable, the costs of controlling them are much
higher. As a result, in these circumstances a rigid
territorial system is not very effective (Dyson-Hudson
& Smith 1978).
Assuming the relationship of availability of resources
with degrees of territoriality, the inhabitants of the Porce
River
s middle valley should have practised greater
territorial control of the resources than the huntergatherers of the Cauca River
s middle basin. This
expectation is seen in the archaeological record with
the regular reoccupation of the base camps, greater
levels of alteration of the vegetation and the cultivation
of gardens, especially from c 6500/6000 BP when
foreign crops appear. The increased predictability and
density of resources resulting from human intervention

However, the fact of developing different degrees

of territoriality does not mean that people lived in
exclusive and closed territories.I It is necessary to
remember that severe environmental crises such as
soil depletion or the decrease of game can carry serious
risks. A common strategy in huntergatherer groups to
tackle the fluctuation of resources or strong intralocal
competition is the establishment of alliances between
groups, allowing the flow of individuals among different
bands as an act of reciprocity (Kelly 1995:186-187).
The mobility of individuals from one area to another
is not undertaken at random. Rather, it is regulated
through individual affiliation. Mobility makes it possible
for a community to adjust to the available resources
through the fission and fluidity of the individuals within
different groups. This is also a mechanism by which to
inhibit social conflict (Peterson 1975). This kind of social
organisation of space is established by a system of
alliance based on mutual reciprocity, (Peterson 1975;
Cashdan 1983; Kelly 1995:194), which enables a
balanced distribution of resources and inhibits conflicts
between groups.
If we look at the variables of abundance and

Before Farming 2005/2 article 2

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Mobility strategies in Colom bia

s middle mountain range between the early and m iddle Holocene: Aceituno Bocanegra & Cas tillo Espitia

predictability, the hunter-gatherers of Porce and the

anthropogenic pressure. This tends to result in

middle Cauca ought to have been increasing their

mediating strategies in order to increase the production

control over resources as both variables increased due

of food-stuffs. Such strategies can be accompanied

to anthropogenic management. This is especially so

by the development of cultural mechanisms which

at the time when the first indications of cultivars appear

reinforce rights with respect to territory and the sense

in the archaeological record, around 6500 BP in middle

of belonging. These can be marked in the landscape

Porce. However, the fact that they were able to exercise

as is the case with burial in the middle Porce, thus

better control does not necessarily mean that these

making a symbolic statement regarding appropriation.

groups lived in closed territories. Both ecological

W ith the passage of time important changes

pressures and natural catastrophes such as the

between the two regions are visible. In the middle Porce

volcanic events recorded in the middle Cauca (Toro et

one can see a clear tendency for a reduction in mobility,

al 2001:29) could threaten survival at an individual level.

which accords with a typical gatherer model regarding

In environm ents where resources are not very

the use of space. This requires logistical movement in

abundant, especially game, and where soils are not

order to maintain a high level of returns from hunting

very fertile, territorial flexibility can be a more effective

(Vickers 1983). From around 5000 BP the advance of

strategy as it makes it possible to control larger

cultivation, along with ceramics, and the presence of

territories for exploitation, and in this way fluctuations

more substantial structural traces clearly indicate a

in resources may be dealt with by moving to other areas.

semi-sedentary lifestyle, not withstanding the fact that

7 Discussion

these hunter-gardeners kept up a certain amount of

mobility in order to avoid over-exploitation and allow

In the middle valley of the Porce River and in middle

for the re-generation of both soil and resources. This

Cauca, (San Eugenio and Campoalegre Rivers), we

was fundamental given the low fertility of the tropical

propose that the hunter-gatherers who lived between

soils. On the contrary, the archaeological record

c 9000 and 4000 BP in the tropical rainforest and

indicates that in the middle Cauca the inhabitants could

submontane rainforest, maintained mobility as the most

maintain higher rates of mobility compared to the middle

effective way in which to exploit the environment and

Porce. This was largely due to the reoccupation of

control their territory. The initial populations of hunter-

previously disturbed areas. Over and above the

gatherers based in other zones must have used

ecological differences between the two regions, the

logistical camps from which to obtain resources and

cultural specifics of each area were important. These

information relating to the lands they were in process

determined relations between nature and the human

of colonising. This strategy required a process of

population and are highlighted by many ethnographic

learning that was codified into the language of the group

examples which show how the world view of each

in order to order their relationship with the natural world

culture was a potent factor (see Echeverri 2001 and

(Hornborg 2001:68). Obviously, this exploratory phase

Descola & Palsson 2001).

required strategies of mobility that related to pioneering

One of the main conclusions is that the development

settlement and were different from those where the

of plant cultivation did not mark a rupture in the lifestyle

ecology and symbolic worlds were better known. This

of these groups. Conversely, hunting, gathering and

is seen clearly in the middle Porce where death

plant cultivation became part of a continuum of

becomes a visible feature around 7500 BP. A reduction

environmental exploitation (Aceituno 2001b; 2002).

in mobility is implied afterwards as repeated trips were

This resulted in
forest domesticationand had both

required where areas were controlled and this allowed

economic and symbolic meaning. According to Rindos

the re-visiting of nutrional plants as they re-germinated

(1990), it permitted the existence of agro-ecological

from the previously abandoned settlements. This

systems based in a relationship of co-dependency with

increased the predictability, dispersal, and production

the plants cultivated in the allotments.

of resources, and thus made the periodic reoccupation

that these groups, instead of adapting themselves to a

of sites a more effective strategy.

life in gardens, were adapted to a system of hunting

This implies

W ith this type of management, a reduction in

and gathering which allowed a high degree of continuity

mobility can lead to an imbalance between the

in their interactions with nature. In this way, though plant

distribution of resources and population, due to

domestication is always considered as one of the

14

Before Farming 2005/2 article 2

Mobility strategies in Colom bia

s middle mountain range between the early and m iddle Holocene: Aceituno Bocanegra & Cas tillo Espitia

triggering factors of cultural evolution it is necessary to

Crdenas & Politis 2000:33-37) are a good example of

separate the concept of plant cultivation from others,

this mode of exploitation, based on the maintenance

such as sedentary life, agriculture, or social complexity.

of mobility as a way by which to access a wide range

The adoption of plant cultivation in a nomadic

of resources, including the harvest from the gardens.

system must be understood as a very effective strategy

Finally, we would like to note that we do not intend

of adaptation, rather than a limiting factor. The

to idealise these groups of hunter-gatherers. We are

maintenance of moblility within the framework of forest

only trying to demonstrate that under specific

horticulture allowed the hunter-gatherer farmers from

circumstances, dependent on time and space, mobility

these regions of the Cordillera Central to rely on various

can be a more effective strategy for survival than a

gardens dispersed across the territory. On the one hand

sedentary life. We also wish to counter the image by

they used a system of poli-culture in order to collect

which plant cultivation is equated to a sedentary life,

throughout the year, and on the other hand periods of

and the sedentary life to civilisation. we simply argue

fallow provided for the regenetration of the resource

that plant cultivation is one of many factors and that it

(Aceituno 2001b:318). However, this strategy does not

alone cannot explain cultural evolution.

appear with plant cultivation but must be traced back

to a long tradition of environmental exploitation: the
reoccupation of areas where, due to anthropogenic
effe cts, re sources tended to be renewed and
concentrated. In this way, plant cultivation should be
understood as the prolongation of gathering, not as a
rupturing of the system. This is demonstrated in the
archaeological record of both regions, regardless of
their differences. In this sense, the Nukak Mak of
Colombia (Sotomayor et al 1998; Politis 2000;

Acknowledgements
Research was supported by the Universidad de
Antioquia and Empresas Pblicas de Medelln. We are
ind ebte d to Caroline W ickham-Jo nes for her
suggestions and unconditional support in the translation
of the paper. Thanks to Nicols Loaiza who also helped
in the translation. Our acknowledgements go also to
the reviewers for for their accurate comments, but the
paper contents are the responsibility of the authors.

Notes
1 For Amazonia, Terborrgh et al (in Castellanos 2001)
have calculated a 36,005 biomass (Kg/Km2) and
Castellanos (2001) a 9,551 biomass for the humid
forests of Guayana.
2 Regular here does not mean continuous occupation,
but rather nomadic occupation at intervals, the
periods of which it is, of course, almost impossible to
determine with accuracy.
3 Dates in this paper have not been calibrated.

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