Atmospheric Re Entry

From John Adams, June 2003.
Adams was a hypersonics leader

at the Arnold Engineering Development Center for many years.
Atmospheric Re-Entry
Author: John C. Adams, Jr.
There are two types of entry which control the design of manned or
unmanned vehicles for hypersonic re-entry into the earths atmosphere from
space:
Ballistic (Re-Entry Vehicles, Decoys, Mercury Capsule)

Lifting (Maneuverable Re-Entry Vehicles, Gemini and Apollo Capsules,
Space Shuttle, HL-10, ASSET, PRIME, X24-A, X24-B)
Each of these types will be illustrated below with associated system design
implications. More complete information can be found in Refs. 1-6, with Ref. 1
being the primary source for trajectory flight mechanics material and Ref. 3 being
the primary source for hypersonic aerodynamic/heat transfer material (like the
Fay-Riddell stagnation point heat transfer rate correlation). For more detailed
insight into ballistic re-entry vehicle flight dynamic (including issues such as
angle-of-attack convergence, dynamic instabilities, roll dynamics, dispersion
from lift nonaveraging, and control considerations) the excellent History of Key
Technologies paper given in Ref. 7 is highly recommended.
Ballistic Entry
A ballistic entry is one in which the retarding force is always opposed to
the line of flight, that is, a "drag" force. As shown in Appendix A, the primary
design parameter for ballistic entry is the Ballistic Coefficient b
b=
W
C DA
where W is the vehicle weight, CD is the drag coefficient, and A is the reference
area used in the definition of the drag coefficient. If W has units of lbf and A has
units of ft2, then b will have units of lbf/ft2. Whenever b is used hereafter as a
numerical value the units associated with it are lbf/ft2. The Ballistic Coefficient
b is the single most important parameter in controlling flight trajectory during
entry. Heating and deceleration are less intense for a low b value (low weight
and/or high drag and large frontal area) than for a high b value (high weight
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and/or low drag and small frontal area) since the entry occurs high in the
atmosphere where the air is less dense. Early Inter-Continental Ballistic Missiles
(ICBM) with highly blunted sphere-cone-cylinder-flare geometries utilized this
re-entry method. Thermal protection for these early warheads was a massive
metallic heat shield, which merely provided a "heat sink" for the short heating
pulse at high altitudes. It was soon discovered that delivery accuracy could be
improved by increasing the values of b using slightly blunted slender spherecone geometries thus increasing the impact velocity so that the final descent
phase was less affected by winds. Thermal protection was provided by allowing
the material at the surface of the heat shield to melt or vaporize thus transferring
much of the heat back into the atmosphere. This method of thermal protection is
referred to as "ablation," and the material that is applied to the vehicles outer
surface is called an "ablator."
Representative ballistic earth entry trajectories are presented in Figure 1
based on application of a point mass ballistic entry computer program using the
1976 U.S. standard atmosphere model (see Appendix A). Initial entry conditions
are:
Altitude = 250,000 ft
Velocity = 22,500 ft/sec
Flight Path Angle = 12 deg
with four values of b, namely 100, 500, 1000, and 5000 (recall from the above
discussion that the units on b are lbf/ft2). A b value between 100 and 500 is
representative of the early ICBM highly blunted sphere-cone-cylinder-flare
geometry, while a b value of 1000 to 5000 is representative of the slightly blunted
slender sphere-cone geometry used in modern ICBM re-entry vehicles. The
stagnation point heat transfer is for a sphere having a nose radius of 1.0 ft using
the Fay-Riddell correlation. Note how peak deceleration, dynamic pressure,
dynamic energy, stagnation point pressure, and stagnation point heat transfer
are shifted to a lower altitude with increasing b. Entry times vary from slightly
over three minutes for a b = 100 value to slight less than one minute for a b =
5000 value. Range distance is about 160 miles for the lowest value of b (below
about 50,000 ft in altitude the vehicle has slowed to subsonic velocities and
literally falls out of the sky), and increases to 190, 200, and 210 miles for the other
three b values in increasing order. The flight path angle at entry controls range
distance and entry times, with shallow angles increasing range distance and
flight time. Further observe that modern ballistic re-entry vehicles with b values
on the order of 5000 impact the earths surface at hypersonic conditions!
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Deceleration (g)
Velocity (ft/sec)
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100000
80000
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20000
0
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Altitude (Kft)
Altitude (Kft)
50
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Altitude (Kft)
b = 500
b = 1000
b = 100
b = 5000
70000000
25
60000000
Reynolds Number (1/ ft)
30
20
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10
5
b = 5000
b = 100
100
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40000000
30000000
20000000
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Altitude (Kft)
b = 100
b = 500
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b = 5000
b = 100
d . M a c h Nu m b e r
b = 500
b = 1000
b = 100
b = 5000
8000
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b = 100
b = 5000
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b = 1000
b = 100
b = 5000
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b = 500
b = 1000
b = 5000
i. Entry Tim e (se c)
h. Stagna tion Po int He at Tran sfer (Btu/ft^2 -sec )
3000000
Dynamic Energy (Btu/ft^2-sec)
250
100
Altitude (Kft)
Altitude (Kft)
g. Sta gna tion Point Enth alpy (Btu/lm b )
200
Range (miles)
150
-1000
Altitude (Kft)
b = 100
200
250
0
-500
Entry Time (sec)
Stagnation Point Heat Transfer (Btu/ft^2sec)
10000
150
f. Stag na tion Po int Pres s ure (lb f/ft^2 )
50
100
Altitude (Kft)
e . Re yn o ld s Num b e r (1 /ft)
12000
50
Altitude (Kft)
b = 1000
b = 5000
250000
0
50
b = 1000
300000
10000000
b = 500
c . D yn a m ic P re s s u re (lb f/ft^2 )
50000000
Stagnation Point Enthalpy (Btu/lbm)
b = 1000
b . D e c e le ra tio n (g )
a . Ve lo c ity (ft/s e c )
Mach Number
b = 500
Stagnation Point Pressure (lbf/ft^2)
b = 100
150
100
50
2500000
2000000
1500000
1000000
500000
0
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b = 100
b = 500
b = 1000
j. Ra nge (m iles)
100
150
200
250
Altitude (Kft)
Altitude (Kft)
b = 5000
b = 100
b = 500
b = 1000
b = 5000
k. Dyna m ic Energy (Btu/ft^2-sec)
Figure 1. Ballistic Earth Entry Trajectory.

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The first manned ballistic re-entry was the flight of Colonel John Glenns
Friendship 7 Mercury capsule in February 1962. The Mercury Capsule had the
following parameters:
Weight = 2662.8 lbf
Reference Area = 30.27 ft2
Reference Length = 6.2 ft
Nose Radius (Sphere) = 1.0 ft
CD = 1.60
which resulted in a Ballistic Coefficient b = 54.98. Initial earth entry conditions
were:
Flight Path Angle = 1.5 deg
Representative Friendship 7 Mercury capsule ballistic earth entry trajectories
are presented in Figure 2 based on application of a point mass ballistic entry
computer program using the 1976 U.S. standard atmosphere model (see
Appendix A). The important factor to observe is that Colonel Glenn was
subjected to a substantial deceleration g load (over 8) for a sustained time period
of about 30 seconds. This was the impetus for the development of lifting entry for
manned space flight in order to reduce sustained g loading over extended time
periods.
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Entry T ime (sec)
Velocity (ft/sec)
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A lt it u d e ( f t )
a . Ve lo c ity
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b . En try Tim e (s e c )
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Deceleration (g)
Range (miles)
200
500
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300
200
8
6
4
2
100
0
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d . De c e le ra tion (g )
c . Ra n ge (m ile s )
30
Mach Number
25
20
15
10
5
0
0
100
200
300
e . M a ch Nu m be r
Figure 2. Friendship 7 Mercury Capsule Earth Entry.
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Lifting Entry
A lifting entry is one in which the primary force being generated is
perpendicular to the flight path, that is, a "lift" force. Although drag is present
throughout the entry, the resulting flight path can be adjusted continuously to
change both vertical motion and flight direction while the velocity is slowing.
The gliding flight of a sailplane is an example of "lifting" entry without high
velocities and heating. The primary design parameter for lifting entry is the Lift
to Drag Ratio, or L/D;
L/D = Lift / Drag = CL/CD
Low values of L/D produce moderate g loads, moderate heating levels, and low
maneuverability. High values of L/D produce very low g loads, but entries are
of very long duration and have continuous heating. An example is Space Shuttle
re-entry at a L/D value of around unity with a total entry time of about 25
minutes. Although the peak temperatures of a lifting entry are below the peak
temperature of a ballistic entry, the total heat load that must be absorbed over the
duration of the entry is higher. Lateral maneuverability during entry (commonly
referred to as "cross-range capability") is dramatically increased as the L/D
increases.
Representative lifting earth entry trajectories for three initial values of the
entry flight path angle (namely 0.1, 1.0, and 2.5 deg) are presented in Figure 3
based on application of a point mass lifting entry computer program using the
1976 U.S. standard atmosphere model (see Appendix A). Initial entry conditions
are:
with the configuration being the NASA Space Shuttle possessing the following
parameters:
Weight = 200,000 lbf
Reference Area = 2690 ft2
Reference Length = 107.5 ft
Nose Radius (Sphere) = 1.0 ft
CD = 0.84
CL = 0.84
which results in a value of the Ballistic Coefficient b = 88.5 and a Lift to Drag
ratio of unity. This low value for the Ballistic Coefficient b reflects the high value
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of drag coefficient (due to high angles of attack during re-entry) and large value
for the reference area (the windward side planform area). The stagnation point
heat transfer is for a sphere having a nose radius of 1.0 ft using the Fay-Riddell
correlation. Reynolds number is based on the above specified reference length,
which is basically the length of the Space Shuttle. As is obvious from the figures,
entry of a lifting body with L/D ratio on the order of unity is super sensitive to
the entry flight path angle. Entry with too high an entry path angle results in the
vehicle flying an oscillatory trajectory at the higher altitudes, including the
possibility of skipping out of the earths atmosphere and returning to space. As
is the case with ballistic entry, an increase in the entry flight path angle results in
a decrease in entry time and range. The important factor to manned space flight
is the significant reduction in deceleration g loads with lifting entry relative to
ballistic entry. For Space Shuttle lifting entry, the astronauts will experience a
deceleration g load between 0.5 and 1 as compared to the over 8 g load which
Colonel John Glenn endured during his Mercury capsule ballistic re-entry.
Another important factor in lifting entry is the shift of peak stagnation point heat
transfer to high altitudes (over 200,000 ft) relative to ballistic entry where peak
stagnation heating occurs at lower altitudes (under 100,000 to 150,000 ft). This
has important consequences to the vehicle thermal protection system designer
who is concerned with management of the integrated heat load over time which
the vehicle structure must absorb during re-entry.
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Range (miles)
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A l ti tu d e (K ft)
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0.1
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1.0
50
0.1
S tagn ation P o int P ressure

(lb f/ft^ 2)
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E n try F l ig h t P a th A n g l e (d e g )
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100
0.1
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j. Stag natio n Point Heat Transfer (Btu /ft^2-sec)
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E ntry F lig ht P ath Ang le (d eg)
1.0
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Altitud e (K ft)
0.1
1.0
15
h. Stagna tion Poin t Pressu re (lbf/ft^2)
g. Reyn old s Num ber
300
20
Altitu de (K ft)
E ntry Flight P ath Angle (d eg)
1.0
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c. Ran ge (m iles)
2250
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1250
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E n tr y F l i g h t P a th A n g l e (d e g )
2.5
e. Dynam ic Pressu re (lbf/ft^2)
150
S tagna tion P oin t H eat T ransfer

(B tu/ft^ 2-s ec)
Reynolds Number
100
2.5
0.1
1.0
150
A lt it u d e ( K ft)
Altitu de (K ft)
E ntry Flight P ath Angle (d eg)
160000000
140000000
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d. Dec eleration (g)
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E n try F li g h t P a th A n g l e (d e g )
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Mach Number
D yna m ic P ressure (lb f/ft^ 2)
Deceleration (g)
150
250
b. En try T im e (sec)
1.2
100
200
2.5
a. Velo city (ft/s ec)
50
150
A lt it u d e ( K ft)
0.1
100
Stagnation Point Enthalpy

(Btu/lbm)
50
Dynamic Energy (Btu/ft^2-sec)
3500
3000
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1000
500
0
1500
Entry Time (sec)
Velocity (ft/sec)
25000
1.0
2.5
k. Dyna m ic Energy (Btu/ft^2 -sec)
Figure 3. Space Shuttle Lifting Earth Entry Trajectory.
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Lifting entry is a key component to flight trajectories of a Maneuverable

Re-entry Vehicle (MaRV) which flies a non-ballistic trajectory to help avoid
intercept by defensive systems. Shown in Figure 4 are comparisons of a
representative MaRV trajectory versus a ballistic trajectory for a Ballistic
Coefficient b = 1000 high performance vehicle. The initial conditions at 150,000
feet altitude correspond to ballistic entry with no lift to that point from an initial
entry condition of
Flight Path Angle = 12 deg
At 150,000 ft a constant L/D = 0.5 is applied to the MaRV trajectory for the
remainder of the flight. The stagnation point heat transfer is for a sphere having
a nose radius of 1.0 ft using the Fay-Riddell correlation. The MaRV continues
along essentially a ballistic trajectory until about 70,000 ft, executes a pull-up (as
lift becomes dominant over drag) to return to an altitude of about 140,000 ft, and
then flies basically a ballistic-like trajectory to earth impact. The consequences of
this maneuver is that the range is increased by a factor of about 2.5 over a pure
ballistic entry; corresponding entry time is increased from about 85 seconds for
pure ballistic entry to 352 seconds for lifting entry. Substantial reductions in
deceleration g loads, dynamic pressure, dynamic energy, stagnation point
pressure, stagnation point enthalpy, and stagnation point heat transfer result
from the lifting trajectory.
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R a n g e (m ile s )
E n try T im e (s e c )
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A ltitu d e (ft)
A ltitu d e (ft)
B a llis tic
MaRV
35
100
150
Altitu d e (ft)
B a llistic
M a RV
b . E n tr y T im e (s e c )
a . V e lo c ity (ft/s e c )
B a llistic
c . Ra n g e (m ile s )
25
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R e y n o ld s N u m b e r
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/ ft
20
Mach N um ber
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5
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Altitu d e (ft)
M a RV
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B a llistic
M a RV
5000000
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B a llistic
MaRV
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S ta g n a tio n P o in t H e a t T ra n s fe r
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0
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B a llistic
f. Re y n o ld s Nu m b e r
10000
(B tu /lb m )
S tag n a tio n P o in t E n th alp y
60000
100
Altitu d e (ft)
12000
(lb f/ft^2 )
10000000
e . M a c h Nu m b e r
70000
50
15000000
Altitu d e (ft)
d . D e c e le r a tio n (g )
20000000
100
150
0
-2 0 0
50
100
150
-4 0 0
(B tu /ft^2 -s e c )
D e c e le ra tio n (g )
30
-6 0 0
-8 0 0
-1 0 0 0
-1 2 0 0
-1 4 0 0
-1 6 0 0
Altitu d e (ft)
Altitu d e (ft)
Altitu d e (ft)
M a RV
MaRV
B a llistic
M a RV
B a llistic
B a llistic
h . S ta g n a tio n P o in t E n th a lp y (B tu /lb m )
i. S ta g n a tio n P o in t He a t T r a n s fe r (B tu /ft^2 -s e c )
g . S ta g n a tio n P o in t P r e s s u r e (lb f/ft^2 )
7 0 00 0 0
30000
6 0 00 0 0
25000
20000
15000
10000
5000
(B tu //ft^2 -s ec )
35000
D y n a m ic E n erg y
D y n a m ic P re s su re (lb f/ft^2 )
S ta g n a tio n P o in t P re s s u re
V e lo c ity (ft/s e c )
350
5 0 00 0 0
4 0 00 0 0
3 0 00 0 0
2 0 00 0 0
1 0 00 0 0
0
0
50
100
Altitu d e (ft)
M a RV
150
50
100
150
Altitu d e (ft)
B a llistic
j. D y n a m ic P r e s s u r e (lb f/ft^2 )
M a RV
B a llistic
k . D y n a m ic E n e rg y (F tu /ft^2 -s e c )
Figure 4. MaRV vs Ballistic Trajectory.
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System Implications
The above example ballistic and lifting trajectory illustrations show quite
clearly that there are three primary factors available to the re-entry system
designer
1. Ballistic Coefficient b
2. Lift to Drag Ratio L/D
3. Flight Path Angle at Entry
which control the flight performance of a re-entry system. Application of these
factors to the design process for both ballistic and maneuverable warhead
delivery systems will now be illustrated.
Modern ballistic trajectory nuclear weapon system delivery vehicles
typically utilize slender sphere-cone geometries with multiple warheads on a
single delivery bus (see Appendix B). For a given warhead and associated
arming device, the designer selects the re-entry vehicle base diameter and vehicle
length, which effectively determines the cone half-angle. The nose bluntness
ratio is then selected based on drag and heat transfer considerations, with Figure
5 illustrating the effects of nose bluntness ratio on sphere-cone drag coefficient
CD for a family of sphere-cone half-angles on classical Newtonian theory.
0.4
CD
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
Bluntness Ratio (Rno se /Rba se )

Cone Half- Angle (deg)
5
7.5
10
12.5
15
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Figure 5. Classical Newtonian Drag Coefficient for a Sphere-Cone.

Vehicle weight is now fixed as the combined weight of the warhead, arming
device, and re-entry vehicle. At this point the Ballistic Coefficient b is fully
determined so the designer can assess ballistic trajectory performance of the
design relative to mission requirements, e.g., deceleration g loads, range, and
flight time. It is these mission requirements which effectively set the flight path
angle at entry. Iteration of this process may be required several times before all
mission requirements are fully satisfied.
L if t to D r a g C o e ff ic ie n t ( L /D )
A similar approach is followed for a MaRV warhead delivery system.

Maneuvering is a defensive tactic that a re-entry vehicle designer uses to
confound the guidance algorithms of an interceptor vehicle. There are multiple
ways for the designer to provide maneuverable capability in a re-entry vehicle,
such as moveable flaps which can provide one, two, or three degrees of freedom
(pitch, yaw, and roll). Control can also be effected by moving a mass laterally in
the vehicle to offset the vehicles center of gravity (e.g., the Gemini capsule had a
slight mass offset to provide a trim angle of attack whose direction and
magnitude could be controlled by the astronaut). The resulting mass asymmetry
is equivalent to an aerodynamic asymmetry. Another aerodynamic approach is
jet interaction, but this appears best suited to steering out navigational errors
rather than defensive maneuvering. The common element is that the additional
design variable of L/D lift to drag ratio is introduced. Figure 6 illustrates the
effects of nose bluntness ratio (Rnose/Rbase) on a 10.0 deg half-angle sphere-cone
lift to drag coefficient L/D based on classical Newtonian theory over an angle of
attack range from zero up to the cone half-angle.
2 .5
2 .0
1 .5
1 .0
0 .5
0 .0
0
10
A n g le o f A t t a c k ( A lp h a , d e g )
B lu n t n e s s R a tio ( R
0
0 .1
0 .2
nose
/R
0 .3
base
)
0 .4
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Figure 6. Classical Newtonian Life to Drag Coefficient

For a 10.0 deg Half-Angle Sphere Cone.
High L/D requires small bluntness ratio for a sphere-cone geometry. For small
bluntness ratio, a small angle of attack generates substantial lift to drag, i.e., only
a little more that two degrees angle of attack is required to generate a lift to drag
coefficient of unity for a 0.1 bluntness ratio. Given this sensitivity to bluntness
and angle of attack, the MaRV designer must carefully incorporate lift effects into
the desired maneuver control schedule. Choice of altitude at which to initiate
and terminate maneuver is one of the key factors, which must be optimized
based on vehicle characteristics and mission requirements.
Decoys are re-entry bodies which are intrinsically benign but which
accompany warhead carrying re-entry vehicles for the purpose of confusing
defense radar systems. In order for a decoy to be credible, it must present to the
defense radar system a set of measurable quantities or observables, which are
sufficiently close numerically to those of a hostile re-entry body to leave
considerable doubt as to the threat of the vehicle. If our interest is confined to
ballistic re-entry vehicles, then the key parameter, which characterizes the
trajectory of the body, is the Ballistic Coefficient b. With reference to Appendix
B, the weight of the warhead in a typical high performance re-entry vehicle is
between 50 and 75 percent of the total vehicle weight. If the decoy has the same
physical size characteristics (and thus aerodynamic drag) as the warhead
carrying vehicle, then the Ballistic Coefficient b for the decoy will be between 25
and 50 percent of the warhead carrying vehicle. With reference to Figure 1,
assume the warhead carrying vehicle has a b of 1000 and the decoy has a b of 500.
The radar defense system will be able to detect changes in Ballistic Coefficient b
below about 150,000 feet in terms of vehicle deceleration. By 100,000 ft altitude
there is a factor of two difference in vehicle deceleration due to the Ballistic
Coefficient b, i.e., as altitude decreases there is an increasing divergence between
the measured decelerations of a decoy and the hostile re-entry vehicle. Thus the
observables associated with a decoy and the warhead-carrying re-entry body
become increasingly distinct with decreasing altitude. The decoy designer has
many available options, such as changing the vehicle size characteristics and/or
nose bluntness to alter vehicle drag, in order to achieve one paramount
requirement best match of the Ballistic Coefficient b between the warhead
carrying vehicle and the decoy over the portion of the flight trajectory where the
defensive system must commit to choice of target to intercept.
It is interesting to compare the differing design philosophies of the United
States and Former Soviet Union ICBM delivery systems as they were developed
in the 19601970 time frame. Shown in Figure 7 are three United States Mark12A re-entry vehicles mounted on a delivery bus which armed a portion of the
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Minuteman III ICBM Force. Each re-entry vehicle is a slender slightly-blunted

sphere-cone (order of 10 degrees half-angle) with a total weight of about 800
pounds (warhead and re-entry vehicle) having a warhead yield of around 350
kilotons. Figure 8 displays a Former Soviet Union SS-6 re-entry vehicle which is
a highly-blunted sphere-cone (order of 10 degrees half-angle) with a total weight
of about 10,000 pounds (warhead and re-entry vehicle) having a warhead yield
around 3 megatons. The United States design philosophy involved small multiple
independently targeted re-entry vehicles delivered from a carrier bus with high
precision accuracy while the Former Soviet Union design philosophy was a large
single re-entry vehicle with a massive warhead yield to make up for any delivery
inaccuracy with raw explosive power.
Figure 7. United States Mark-12A Re-Entry Vehicles

.
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Figure 8. Former Soviet Union SS-6 Re-Entry Vehicle.
References
1. Regan, Frank J. and Anandakrishnan, Satya M. Dynamics of Atmospheric
Re-Entry. AIAA Education Series, American Institute of Aeronautics and
Astronautics, Washington, DC, 1993.
2. Regan, Frank J. Re-Entry Vehicle Dynamics. AIAA Education Series,
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Washington, DC, 1984.
3. Bertin, John J. Hypersonic Aerothermodynamics. AIAA Education Series,
4. Hankey, Wilbur L. Re-Entry Aerodynamics. AIAA Education Series,
5. Ashley, Holt. Engineering Analysis of Flight Vehicles. Addison-Wesley
Publishing Company, Reading, MA, 1974.
6. Martin, John J. Atmospheric Reentry, An Introduction to its Science and
Engineering. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1966.
7. Platus, Daniel H. Ballistic Re-entry Vehicle Flight Dynamics. AIAA
Journal of Guidance, Control, and Dynamics, Vol. 5, No. 1, JanuaryFebrauary 1982, pp. 4-16.
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Appendix A Point Mass Planar Motion Entry Trajectory Equations

Following Refs. 1-6 with the assumption of point mass planar motion over
a nonrotating planet per the sketch below
the governing equations of motion for re-entry into the atmosphere are as
follows:
Ballistic trajectory with altitude h as the variable of integration
dV
=
dh
dg
=
dh
g[
Q
- sin(g )]
b
V sin(g )
cos(g )[- g +
V2
]
Re + h
V 2 sin(g )
dt
-1
=
dh V sin(g )
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dq
dr
- Re cos(g )
= Re dt =
dh
dh
(Re + h) sin(g )
dt
Lifting trajectory with time t as the variable of integration
dV
-Q
= g[
+ sin(g )]
dt
b
dg
=
dt
Qg L
V2
+ cos(g )[ g ]
b D
Re + h
V
dh
= -V sin(g )
dt
dr
dq Re V cos(g )
= Re
=
dt
dt
Re + h
where in the above equations
V = Vehicle velocity (ft/sec)
g = Vehicle flight path angle (radians considered positive when the
velocity vector is below the local horizontal)
h = Vehicle altitude (ft) above Earths surface
r = Vehicle flight range (ft) along Earths surface
t = Vehicle time of flight (sec)
Re = Radius of Earth (20,930,000 ft)
ge = Acceleration due to gravity at Earths surface (32.174 ft/sec2)
g = Acceleration due to gravity at altitude h (ft/sec2)
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g = ge (
Re 2
)
Re + h
Q = Dynamic pressure at altitude h (lbf/ft2)

W = Vehicle weight (lbf)
CD = Vehicle Drag Coefficient
A = Vehicle reference area used in definition of drag coefficient (ft2)
b = Vehicle Ballistic Coefficient (lbf/ft2)
W
b=
C DA
CL = Vehicle lift coefficient based on same reference area used in CD
L CL
=
= Vehicle Lift to Drag Ratio
D CD
With reference to the above equations, note specifically that the Ballistic
Coefficient b is the single controlling parameter for ballistic re-entry flight. For
lifting re-entry flight, the Lift to Drag Ratio L/D joins the Ballistic Coefficient b as
joint parameters. With initial entry conditions (V, g, h, t, r) specified from
mission constraints, flight motion of the vehicle through the atmosphere is solely
a function of these two independent parameters. Thus they comprise the
primary factors for system design considerations.
Spreadsheet-type solution of the above equations via an Excel 97 Visual Basic
for Application macro may be found using the following Excel 97 Spreadsheets
Point Mass Ballistic Earth Entry Trajectory Altitude Integration.xls

Point Mass Lifting Earth Entry Trajectory Time Integration.xls
These spreadsheet capabilities provides easy to use numerical input and

graphical output in the form of trajectory plots versus altitude based upon
fourth-order Runge-Kutta numerical integration of the governing equations of
motion. Also output are spherical stagnation point flow properties (assuming
thermally perfect, calorically imperfect air) and heat transfer (using the FayRiddell correlation). All atmospheric properties (pressure, density, temperature,
dynamic pressure, speed of sound, Mach Number, and Reynolds Number) as a
function of altitude are determined from the 1976 U.S. Standard Atmospheric
model which is included in the macro as an auxiliary subroutine.
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Appendix B Warhead Fact Sheets

The following internet links to warhead fact sheets are taken from the web site
which can be accessed via the home page link

http://nuketesting.enviroweb.org/hew/
The purpose of this site is to tell the story of nuclear weapons development and testing
through historical documents, photos, and videos and to create an online public domain
archive from the large body of U.S. government information about nuclear weapons.
Weapon 62 (The W-62 is the warhead used with the Mk 12 reentry vehicle which arms a
portion of the Minuteman III ICBM force. Designed for use on MIRV (multiple
independently targeted reentry vehicle) bus upper stage.)
http://nuketesting.enviroweb.org/hew/Usa/Weapons/W62.html
Weapon 76 (The W-76 is the warhead used with the Mk 4 reentry vehicle which arms
Trident I (C-4) and Trident II (D-5) submarine launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs).
Designed for use on MIRV (multiple independently targeted reentry vehicle) bus upper
stage.)
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Weapon 78 (The W-78 is the warhead used with the Mk 12A reentry vehicle which arms
a portion of the Minuteman III ICBM force. Designed for use on MIRV (multiple
independently targeted reentry vehicle) bus upper stage. The W-78 replaced part of the
W-62 to provide an increased hard target kill capability by increasing both accuracy and
yield.)
Weapon 87 (The W87 warhead belongs to the newest missile warhead family, sharing a
design similar to the W88. It was designed for use on the Peacekeeper (MX) ICBM. It
combines a relatively high yield with increased accuracy to make it an effective hard
target kill weapon. It is hardened against nuclear effects, and has enhanced safety
features.)
Weapon 88 (The W88 warhead belongs to the newest missile warhead family, sharing a
design similar to the W87. It was designed for use on the Trident II (D5) SLBM. It
combines a relatively high yield with increased accuracy to make it an effective hard
target kill weapon. It is hardened against nuclear effects, and has enhanced safety
features.)
Soviet Weapons
http://nuketesting.enviroweb.org/hew/Russia/Sovwarhead.html
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Atmospheric Re Entry

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Atmospheric Re Entry

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From John Adams, June 2003.

Adams was a hypersonics leader

Ballistic (Re-Entry Vehicles, Decoys, Mercury Capsule)

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Dynamic Pressure (lbf/ft^2)

i. Entry Tim e (se c)

h. Stagna tion Po int He at Tran sfer (Btu/ft^2 -sec )

g. Sta gna tion Point Enth alpy (Btu/lm b )

Stagnation Point Heat Transfer (Btu/ft^2sec)

f. Stag na tion Po int Pres s ure (lb f/ft^2 )

Stagnation Point Enthalpy (Btu/lbm)

Stagnation Point Pressure (lbf/ft^2)

k. Dyna m ic Energy (Btu/ft^2-sec)

Figure 1. Ballistic Earth Entry Trajectory.

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Figure 2. Friendship 7 Mercury Capsule Earth Entry.

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S tagn ation P o int P ressure

i. Sta gna tion Poin t Entha lpy (Btu /lb m )

j. Stag natio n Point Heat Transfer (Btu /ft^2-sec)

E ntry F lig ht P ath Ang le (d eg)

h. Stagna tion Poin t Pressu re (lbf/ft^2)

g. Reyn old s Num ber

e. Dynam ic Pressu re (lbf/ft^2)

S tagna tion P oin t H eat T ransfer

d. Dec eleration (g)

D yna m ic P ressure (lb f/ft^ 2)

a. Velo city (ft/s ec)

Stagnation Point Enthalpy

Dynamic Energy (Btu/ft^2-sec)

k. Dyna m ic Energy (Btu/ft^2 -sec)

Figure 3. Space Shuttle Lifting Earth Entry Trajectory.

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Lifting entry is a key component to flight trajectories of a Maneuverable

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S tag n a tio n P o in t E n th alp y

g . S ta g n a tio n P o in t P r e s s u r e (lb f/ft^2 )

Figure 4. MaRV vs Ballistic Trajectory.

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Bluntness Ratio (Rno se /Rba se )

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Figure 5. Classical Newtonian Drag Coefficient for a Sphere-Cone.

A similar approach is followed for a MaRV warhead delivery system.

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Figure 6. Classical Newtonian Life to Drag Coefficient

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Minuteman III ICBM Force. Each re-entry vehicle is a slender slightly-blunted

Figure 7. United States Mark-12A Re-Entry Vehicles

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Figure 8. Former Soviet Union SS-6 Re-Entry Vehicle.

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Appendix A Point Mass Planar Motion Entry Trajectory Equations

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Q = Dynamic pressure at altitude h (lbf/ft2)

Point Mass Ballistic Earth Entry Trajectory Altitude Integration.xls

These spreadsheet capabilities provides easy to use numerical input and

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Appendix B Warhead Fact Sheets

which can be accessed via the home page link