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What is Force?

We define Force as:


1) Force is a push or pull.
2) Force is the capacity to do work or cause physical change.
3) Force= Mass times acceleration (F = ma)
4) A force is that which changes or tends to change the state of rest or motion of a body.
Lets See Some Examples here
For simplicity sake, all forces (interactions) between objects can be placed into two broad categories: contact forces,
and forces resulting from action-at-a-distance.
also,
Contact Forces include frictional forces, buoyant forces, normal forces, and air resistance forces.
while,
Action-at-a-distance forces include gravitation, electrostatic and magnetic forces.
Measurement of Force
Force is measured using either the English System of Measurements or the International System of Units (SI).
the most Common Units of Force are as following;
>>SI: Newton (N) 1 N = 0.225 lb;
One Newton (N) of force is defined as the amount of force needed to accede of mass at a rate of 1 meter per second
squared (m/s^2).
1 Newton = 1 kg m/sec2 (A kilogram is the amount of weight at which 1 N of force will accelerate at a rate of 1
m/s^2.)
>>English System: Pound (LB) 1 LB = 4.448 N
In English system of measurements, a slug is the amount of mass that 1 pound of force will accelerate at 1 ft/s^2, and
a pound mass is the amount of mass that 1 LB of force will accelerate at 32 feet/s^2.
Description of a Force
A force is a vector quantity. A vector quantity is a quantity which has both magnitude and direction. To fully describe
the force acting upon an object, you must describe both its magnitude and direction.
Thus we see, 10 Newtons of force is not a complete description of the force acting on an object. 10 Newtons,
downwards is a complete description of the force acting upon an object.
Now we must learn What the difference between vector and scalar quantities is?
A vector has both strength and direction, a scalar quantity can be described using only 1 quantity, magnitude.
Example of vector quantities are velocity, acceleration etc.
Examples of scalar quantities are time, energy and volume since they only represent magnitude and no direction.
What is the Difference between Mass and Weight?
Shown below are two types of scales commonly used in the classroom a spring scale (left) and a simple balance
beam scale on the right.
On earth the spring scale reads 100g with an unknown mass attached at the bottom. To balance the scale on the right a
100g mass was also needed.
If we were to take both scales to the moon, what would the the spring scale read? How much mass would be needed
to balance the 100g mass on the balance beam?
What does applying a Force do?
Force causes acceleration
Newtons Second Law states that: the acceleration (a) of an object is directly proportional to the force (F) applied, and
inversely proportional the objects mass (m).
That means that the more force you apply to an object, the greater the acceleration. And, the more mass the object
has, the lower the acceleration.
Newtons Second Law can be written in equation form:
F = ma.
For falling objects we can write F=mg where g is the acceleration due to gravity. The force of gravity is what causes
free falling objects to accelerate. These objects all accelerate at the same rate of 9.8 meters/sec^2.
What is Friction?
Friction is the force that opposes the relative motion or tendency to such motion of two bodies in contact. If we try to
push a block of wood across a table, there are two opposing forces that act: the force associated with the push, and a

force that is associated with the friction which acts in the opposite direction. As frictional forces are decreased (for
example, by placing oil on the table) the object moves further and further before stopping. This demonstrates
Galileos law of inertia too.
Cycle of Photosynthesis & Respiration

Mouseover picture
for information on RESPIRATION
Hello Readers, here we are posting some study notes on Biology. we hope that the below given post will be helpful
to you all in he upcoming exams..
The process by which plants make food is called"photosynthesis". The word "photosynthesis" is made up of two
words:

"photo" = light

"synthesis" = putting together

Plants take in carbon dioxide from the air and water from the soil; put them together (in the presence of light energy
and chlorophyll) to produce sugar (glucose) and oxygen.

Chlorophyll is the green pigment found in plants. Both chlorophyll and light energy need to be present for
photosynthesis to take place, but they are not used up in the process.
Thus, the process of photosynthesis can be represented as follows:
chlorophyll
sugar (glucose) + oxygen
carbon dioxide + water
light energy

The chemical equation for this process is:


6CO2 + 12H2O + light C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O
6 molecules of carbon dioxide (6CO2) and 12 molecules of water (12H2O) are consumed in the process, while
glucose (C6H12O6), six molecules of oxygen (6O2), and six molecules of water (6H2O) are produced.
Carbon dioxide is obtained through tiny pores in plant leaves called stomata. Oxygen is also released through the
stomata. Water is obtained by the plant through the roots and delivered to the leaves through vascular plant tissue
systems.
Sunlight is absorbed by Chlorophyll, a green pigment located in plant cell structures called chloroplasts .
Chloroplasts are the sites of photosynthesis. Chloroplasts contain several structures, each having specific functions:
Some of the sugar produced during photosynthesis is used by the plant for its life processes (such as growing and
reproducing); the excess is converted mainly to starch and stored in various plant parts which may be used as food by
animals and humans.
Oxygen produced during photosynthesis replenishes the oxygen that was used up by living things during respiration
... mouseover the above picture for more information on respiration.

This cycle of photosynthesis and respiration maintains the balance of carbon dioxide and oxygen on earth.

Outer and inner membranes: protective coverings that keep chloroplast structures enclosed.

Stroma: dense fluid within the chloroplast. Site of conversion of carbon dioxide to sugar.

Thylakoid: flattened sac-like membrane structures. Site of conversion of light energy to chemical energy.

Grana: dense layered stacks of thylakoid sacs. Sites of conversion of light energy to chemical energy.

Chlorophyll: a green pigment within the chloroplast. Absorbs light energy.

Photosynthesis

Respiration

Occurs in the presence of light (and chlorophyll in


plant cells)

Occurs at all times in cells

Requires energy (light) to make sugar (glucose)

Releases energy from sugar

Complex substances (sugar) are formed from simpler


ones.

Complex substances (sugar) are broken down into


simpler ones.

Carbon dioxide and water are the raw materials.

Carbon dioxide and water are the waste products.

Oxygen is given out.

Oxygen is taken in.

About Metal and Non-Metal


METAL & NON-METAL:
1. All the materials found in the earth's crust are made up of chemical elements.
2. All these elements can be broadly divided into two classes:
Metals and Non-metals.
Note : Out of 117 elements 83 are naturally occuring. Out of total 117 elements about 24 are non-metals and rest are
metals.

3. Physical Properties of Metals


Metals, in their pure state, possess a shining surface(metallic lustre). Freshly cut metals have a bright metallic lustre.
Metals are solid at room temperature. Mercury is the only metal that is liquid at room temperature.
Metals are generally hard and strong. But metals like sodium and potassium are exceptionally very soft and can be
cut with a knife.
Metals have high melting and boiling points. Sodium,potassium, gallium and mercury have low melting and boiling
points.
Metals are good conductors of heat. Silver, followed by copper and aluminium, is the best conductor of heat. These
days, cooking vessels and other utensils are made up of copper and aluminium.
Metals are also good conductors of electricity. Silver, followed by copper, gold and aluminium, is the bestconductor
of electricity. Copper and aluminium are used for making electrical wires.
Metals are sonorous. They make a ringing sound when struck.
Metals are usually malleable. They can be hammered into thin sheets and rolled into different shapes without
breaking. Gold and silver are the most malleable metals.
Metals are generally ductile. They can be easily drawn into wires. Gold and silver are most ductile metals. Copper
wires are used for electrical purposes.

Metals have high tensile strength, i.e. they can hold heavy loads without breaking.
Metals have high densities i.e. they are heavy in nature. Sodium and potassium metals are exceptions as they have
low densities and float on water.
4. Corrosion is the process of slowly eating away of metal due to attack of atmospheric gases and water on the surface
of metal. The most common example of corrosion is the rusting of iron.
Rusting: Rusting is the corrosion of iron on exposure to atmosphere
Non-metals are quite abundant in nature. They are main constituent of atmosphere.
Oxygen, nitrogen and noble gases are present in the air.
Non-metals are also present in large amounts in oceans.
Hydrogen and oxygen are present as water and chlorine is present as chlorides in the oceans.
Oxygen, silicon, phosphorus and sulphur are present in the earth's crust.
6. Physical Properties of Non-metals:
Non-metals are either solids or gases at room temperature. Bromine is the only liquid non-metal at room
temperature.
Non-metals are soft. Phosphorus is so soft that can be cut with a knife. Diamond, an allotrope of carbon, is the
hardest known substance.
Non-metals have low tensile strength, i.e. they are not strong and break easily.
Non-metals are non-lustrous and have a dull appearance. Graphite, an allotrope of carbon and iodine have shining
lustrous surfaces.
Non-metals are non-malleable and non-ductile. They cannot be hammered into sheets or drawn into wires. These are
brittle solids. When non-metals like sulphur, are hammered or stretched, they break into pieces.
Non-metals are non-conductors or bad conductors of heat and electricity. Gas carbon and graphite are good
conductors of heat and electricity.
Non-metals are non-sonorous i.e. do not make a ringing sound when struck.
Non-metals usually have low densities
Shots Notes on Pollutant
Dear Readers,

As you all know that pollutants really have an affect on our atmosphere, we need to go through them seriously
- "What they are" and "What are their types". Lets study them properly in detail as this topic has its
importance in coming SSC CHSL 2015 and also for SSC CGL.
POLLUTANT :
A pollutant is substance or energy introduced into the environment that has undesired effects, or adversly affects the
usefulness of a resource. The pollutants may be inorganic, biological or radiological in nature.

There are many types of Pollutant :


1.Primary Pollutants :
(Eg: H2S , SO2 , CO, NO, HF, NH Smoke, Dust, Fumes)
2. Secondary Pollutants :
(Eg : SO3 , NO2 , CH4 , Aldehydes, Ketones, Nitrates, Sulphates)
3.Bio-degradable Pollutants :
(Eg : Domestic Waste)

4.Non-Biodegradable Pollutants :
(Eg : Mercuric salt, Lead,compounds, Pesticides.etc.)
AIR POLLUTION :
Major Air Pollutants :

Carbon monoxide (CO)

Sulphur dioxide (SO2)

Oxides of nitrogen (NO2 and NO )

Smoke, dust

Ammonia

Chlorine and hydrogen chloride

Chlorinated hydrocarbons

Mercaptans

Zn and Cd

Freon

Photochemical pollutants : The nitrogen dioxide by absorbing sunlight in blue and U. V. region decomposes into
nitric oxide and atomic oxygen followed by a series of other reactions producing
O3, formaldehyde, acrolein and peroxy acylnitrates.
SMOG : It is a mixture of smoke and fog in suspended droplet form.
It is two types :
(a) London smog or classical smog : It is coal smoke plus fog.
(b) Photochemical smog or Los Angeles smog : The oxidised hydrocarbons and ozone in presence of humidity cause
photochemical smog.
ACID RAIN :
The oxides of C, N and S present in the atmosphere, dissolve in water and produce acids which lowers the pH of
water below 5.5.The acids are toxic to vegetation, react with marble and damage buildings.
GREEN HOUSE EFFECT :
The retention of heat by the earth and atmosphere from the sun and its prevention to escape into the outer space is
known as Green House Effect. Global warming refers to an increase in average global temperature.
(i) Global warming would result in rise in sea level due to increased rate of melting of glaciers and floods.
(ii) Increase in infectious diseases like Malaria, Dengue etc.
OZONE LAYER AND ITS DEPLETION :
The ozone layer, existing between 20 to 35 km above the earths surface, shield the earth from the harmful U. V.
radiations from the sun. The U. V. radiations cause skin cancer, cataract of eye, and
are harmful to vegetation. Depletion of ozone is caused by oxides of nitrogen The presence of chlorofluorocarbons
also increase the decomposition of O3 .
WATER POLLUTION :
The contamination of water by foreign substances which would constitute a health hazard and make it harmful for all
purposes (domestic, industrial or agriculture etc.) is known as water pollution.
Sources of Water Pollution :

Domestic sewage

Industrial waters

Suspended particles

Wastes from fertilizer

Control of Water Pollution :

Recycling of waste water

Special techniques

Waste-water reclamation

Aerobic and Anaerobic Oxidation :


The oxidation of organic compounds present in sewage in presence of good amount of dissolved or free oxygen
(approx.8.5 ml/l) by aerobic bacteria is called aerobic oxidation.
When dissolved or free oxygen is below a certain value the sewage is called stale anaerobic bacteria bring out
purification producing H2S, NH3, CH4, (NH4)2S etc. This type of oxidation is called anaerobic oxidation.
The optimum value of D.O. for good quality of water is 4-6 ppm (4-6 mg/l). The lower the concentration of D.O., the
more polluted is the water.
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) :
It is defined as the amount of free oxygen required for biological oxidation of the organic matter by aerobic
conditions at 20C for a period of five days. Its unit is mg/l or ppm. An average sewage
has BOD of 100 to 150 mg/l.
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) :
It is a measure of all types of oxidisable impurities (biologically oxidisable and biologically inert organic matter such
as cellulose) present in the sewage. COD values are higher than BOD values.
SOIL OR LAND POLLUTION :
The addition of substances in an indefinite proportion changing the productivity of the soil is known as soil or land
pollution.
Sources of Soil Pollution :

Agricultural pollutants

Domestic refuge

Radioactive wastes

Farm wastes

SHORT NOTES ON TYPES OF DISEASES


List of Diseases caused by Virus, Bacteria, Protozoa and Worm:

DISEASE CAUSED BY VIRUSES:

1. Chicken pox - It is caused by Varicella-zoster virus.


2. Small Pox It is caused by Variola virus.
3. Common Cold -It is caused by Rhinovirus.
4. AIDS (Acquired Immunono Deficiency Syndrome) - It is caused by
Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV).
5. Measles -It is caused by Measles virus.
6. Mumps -It is caused by Mumps virus.
7. Rabies - It is caused by Rabies virus (Rhabdoviridae family).
8. Dengue fever -It is caused by Dengue virus.
9. Viral encephalitis It is an inflammation of the brain. It is caused by
rabies virus, Herpessimplex, polio virus, measles virus, and JC virus.

DISEASE CAUSED BY BACTERIA:

1. Whooping Cough - It is caused by a bacterium called Bordetella


pertussis.
2. Diphtheria - It is caused by Corynebacteriumdiphtheriae.
3. Cholera - It is caused by Vibrio cholerae.
4. Leprosy - It is caused by Mycobacterium leprae.
5. Pneumonia-It is caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae.
6. Tetanus -It is caused by Clostridium tetani.
7. Typhoid - It is caused by Salmonella typhi.
8. Tuberculosis -It is caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis.
9. Plague - It is caused by Yersinia pestis.

DISEASE CAUSED BY PROTOZOANS:

1. Malaria

2.Amoebic
dysentery
3. Sleeping sickness
4. Kala azar

It is spread by Anopheles mosquitoes.


The Plasmodium parasite that causes
malaria is neither a virus nor a bacteria
It is caused by Entamoebahistolytica.
It is caused by Trypanosomabrucei.
It is caused by Leishmaniadonovani.

it is a single

celled parasite that


multiplies in red blood
cells of humans.

DISEASE CAUSED BY WORMS:

1. Tapeworn

2. Filariasis

3. Pinworm

They are intestinal parasites. It


cannot live on its own. It survives
within the intestine of an animal
including human.
It is caused by thread

like filarial nematode worms. Most cases of


filaria are caused by the parasite known as
Wuchereriabancrofti.

It is caused by small, thin, white


roundworm called
Enterobiusvermicularis.

Blood & Circulatory System


Blood & Circulatory System
The main functions of blood are to transport oxygen, carbon dioxide, water, nutrients, hormones and waste around the
body. Blood also fights infection and regulates temperature.

Composition of blood:
1. Plasma constitutes for about 54% of our blood. 92% of it is water.
2. White blood cells and platelets constitute for about 1% of our blood.
3. Red blood cells constitute for about 45% of our blood.
Red blood cells have a biconcave shape and are involved in the transportation of oxygen by haemoglobin
(haem=iron-containing), they are made in the bone marrow,they have no nucleus, they last for approximately 120
days and are then broken down into pigments called bilirubin and biliverdin in the liver.(N.B. oxyhaemoglobin
=oxygen rich haemoglobin, deoxyhaemoglobin=low oxygen haemoglobin)

White blood cells are divided into 2 types: monocytes are involved in recognising anything that is foreign and
ingesting the foreign particle by phagocytosis whereas lymphocytes are involved in the production of antibodies
which inactivate and immobilise pathogens. White blood cells have nuclei and are also made in the bone marrow.
Platelets are small fragments without nuclei and last just 7 days. They are essential in clotting blood.
Blood groups consist of A, B, AB and O groups. People in the AB blood group are known as universal recipients
because they can receive blood from any group. People in the O group are known as universal donors because they
can give blood to anybody, although the most common blood group they can only receive blood from their own
group.

Deep vein thrombosis(DVT) are swollen areas caused by unwanted clotting in veins due to a lack of movement on
long journeys.(flight socks may prevent DVT)
Circulatory System

Open circulatory systems allow the blood flow out of the vessels before returning to the heart via ostia. (no veins
involved)E.g. insects

Closed circulatory systems dont allow the blood to leave the blood vessels E.g. humans advantages include faster
and controlled delivery of oxygen and nutrients which allow for longer periods of activity.
Arteries are blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart in powerful pulses. They have thick walls small
lumens and no valves.
Endothelium is the innermost layer of blood vessels that consists of just a single layer of cells.
Veins are blood vessels that carry blood to the heart in an even flow. They have thin walls large lumens and valves.
Capillaries are tiny blood vessels with walls just one cell thick, they carry blood from arterioles to venules through
tissues releasing nutrients and removing wastes.

The human circulatory system consists of two circuits systemic and pulmonary.
The coronary artery carries blood to the heart muscle from the aorta. (coronary vein )
The hepatic artery carries blood to the liver. (hepatic vein)
The renal arteries carry blood to the kidneys. (renal veins)
The mesenteric arteries carry blood to the small and large intestines.
The carotid arteries supply blood to the head. (jugular veins)
The subclavian arteries supply blood to the arms. (subclavian veins)
The iliac arteries carry blood to the legs. (iliac veins)
A portal system is a network of capillaries in one organ or tissue joined to another network of capillaries in another
organ or tissue via a vein or veins.
A pulse is the alternate contraction and relaxation of an artery as blood passes through it.
Blood pressure is the force blood exerts on the walls of blood vessels.
A sphygmomanometer is used for measuring blood pressure(normally 120/80 mmHg)
Atherosclerosis is the hardening of artery walls due to a build-up of fatty deposits.
Smoking causes heart rate and blood pressure to increase. Diet high in saturated fats increase blood pressure and
atherosclerosis. Exercise helps lower blood pressure.

Lymphatic System
The lymphatic system returns extracellular fluid(ECF) or interstitial fluid caused by plasma leaking from capillaries to
the bloodstream.
Lymph is a clear liquid that is collected around cells and is transported by the lymphatic system back to the
bloodstream. o Lymph vessels are narrow, dead ending tubes that transport lymph and are present in every tissue and
organ throughout the body.

Lymph nodes are small spherical-shaped organs of the lymphatic system that contain many white blood cells. o
Functions of the lymphatic system:
1. Filters lymph white blood cells in lymph nodes remove bacteria and viruses.
2. Absorb fat from small intestine lymph vessels throughout the wall of the digestive system absorb lipids.
3. Maturation of certain white blood cells lymphocytes mature and become fully active in the thymus.
4. Fighting infection white blood cells produce antibodies to kill bacteria and viruses.
Most Important Biology Terminology (part-1)
Dear Sa'ians,
Today we are providing the important Short notes on Blood cells discrimination with the help of diagram, so that all
SA'ians having clearly vision about the frequently ask topicBLOOD CELL AND IT'S COMPOSITION. in various
exams.

Blood Components and Functions


Component
Function
Red Blood
They carry the protein hemoglobin, which transports oxygen from the lungs to the rest
Cells or
of the body
Erythrocytes
White Blood
They are primarily responsible for protecting the body from infection.
Cells or
Leukocytes
Platelets or
They help the blood clotting process (or coagulation) by gathering at the site of an
injury.
Thrombocytes
Plasma
It is the liquid component of blood and transports blood cells throughout the body along
with nutrients, waste products, antibodies, clotting proteins, chemical messengers such
as hormones, and proteins that help maintain the body's fluid balance

Types of White Blood Vessels (Leukocytes)


Name
Function
Normal white blood cell which increase with bone marrow damage, parasitic
Basophil
infections, or allergic reactions.
A type of white blood cell that controls mechanism associated with allergies and
Eosinophil
defends the body from infection by parasites and bacteria.
Two types T lymphocytes which help regulate the function of other immune cells and
Lymphocyte
directly attacks infected cells and tumors and B lymphocytes which make antibodies.
A white blood cell that ingests bacteria and foreign particles.
Monocyte
The most common type of white blood cell, which helps the body fight infection.
Neutrophil

Types of Blood Vessels and Functions


Blood Vessel
Function
Artery carry oxygenated blood under high pressure from the heart to other parts of the
Arteries
body.
Veins carry deoxygenated blood from the organs and tissues back to the heart.
Veins
Capillaries connect arteries and veins.
Capillary

Main Blood Vessels and Functions


Type of Blood
Name of Blood
Vessel
Vessel
Aorta

Artery

Vein

Coronary
Artery
Pulmonary
Artery
Superior Vena
Cava
Inferior Vena
Cava
Coronary Vein
Pulmonary
Veins

Most Important Biology Terminology (part-2)


Dear Sa'ians,

Function
Largest and principal artery which circulates oxygenated blood
to all parts of the body through its branches.
A branch of Aorta which supplies oxygenated blood to the heart
tissues.
Only artery which carries deoxygenated blood. It carries blood
from the heart to the lungs for purification.
This vein returns deoxygenated blood from the head, arms and
thorax to the heart.
This vein returns deoxygenated blood from the abdomen and
legs to the heart.
This vein returns deoxygenated blood from the heart muscles to
the heart.
Four pulmonary veins, two from each lung carry oxygenated
blood from lungs to the heart.

Today we are providing the important Short notes on Blood cells discrimination with the help of diagram, so that all
SA'ians having clearly vision about the frequently ask topic BLOOD CELL AND IT'S COMPOSITION. in various
exams.

Blood Group Relation between Parents and Child

Mothers's
Blood
Group

A
B
AB
O

A
A or O
A, B, AB, O
A, B or AB
A or O

Father's Blood Group


B
A, B, AB, O
B or O
A, B or AB
B or O
Child's Blood Group

AB
A, Bor AB
A, B or AB
A, B or AB
A or B

O
A or O
B or O
A or B
O

Disorder relating to blood

Main
disorder

Specific
Irondeficiency
Anaemia
Vitamindeficiency
Anaemia

Brief details
Results from deficiency of iron usually due to blood loss or poor
nutrition.
Results from low levels of Vitamin B12 or folic acid due to poor
nutrition.

Anaemia

Aplastic
Anaemia
Hemolytic
Anaemia
Sickle Cell
Anaemia

Bleeding
Disorders

von
Willebrand
Disease
Haemophilia

Leukemia

Lymphoma
Blood
Cancers

Myeloma

Occurs when the body stops making enough red blood cells. This may be
due to viral infections, exposure to toxic chemicals, drugs, and
autoimmune diseases.
Occurs when abnormal breakdown of red blood cells takes place.
It is a hereditary blood disorder, in which red blood cells taking a rigid,
sickle shape. This decreases the cells' flexibility and may result in
lifethreatening complications.
It is the most common hereditary coagulation abnormality that results
when the blood lacks von Willebrand factor, a protein that helps the
blood to clot.
It is a rare, usually inherited, bleeding disorder characterised by body's
inability to control blood clotting or coagulation. It results from a genetic
defect in Xchromosome.
Characterised by rapid production of abnormal white blood cells which
cannot fight infection and also impair the ability of the bone marrow to
produce red blood cells and platelets.
Lymphoma is a type of blood cancer that occurs when lymphocytes, the
white blood cells that form a part of the immune system, divide faster
than normal cells or live longer than they are supposed to.
This type of cancer targets the plasma cells which produce antibodies,
thus weaken the immune system of the body.

Some Important Facts About Human Eye


Dear Sa'ians,
Today we are providing the important Short notes on FACTS ABOUT HUMAN EYE with the help of diagram, so
that all SA'ians having clearly vision about the frequently ask topic .HUMAN EYE in various exams.

Least distance of distinct vision is 25 cm.


Defects of human eye and the remedies :

Myopia or short sightedness : A person suffering from myopia can see the near objects clearly while far objects are
not clear.

Causes :
Elongation of eye ball along the axis.
Shortening of focal length of eye lens.
Over stretching of ciliary muscles beyond the elastic limit.
Remedy : Diverging lens is used.

Hyperopia or hypermetropia or longsightedness : A person suffering from hypermetropia can see the distant
objects clearly but not the near objects.
Causes:
Shortening of eye ball along the axis.
Increase in the focal length of eye lens.
Stiffening of ciliary muscles.
Remedy : A converging lens is used.

Presbyopia : This defect is generally found in elderly person. Due to stiffening of ciliary muscles, eye looses much of
its accommodating power. As a result distant as well as nearby objects can not be seen.
Remedy:two separate lens or a bifocal lens is used.

Astigmatism : This defect arises due to difference in the radius of curvature of cornea in the different planes. As a
result rays from an object in one plane are brought to focus by eye in another plane.
Remedy: cylindrical lens is used.

Some Important Points About HUMAN EYE:


dispersion-The phenomenon by which, a ray of light splits into its constituent colours, when passed through a
transparent medium, is known as dispersion.
The sun gives out white light. It is the largest source of polychromatic light.
Myopia is caused due to the
1) Shortening of the eyeball
2) Increase in focal length of the eye-lens.
The ability of the eye lens to change its focal length to focus the images of all the objects, distant or nearby on the
retina is known as the power of accommodation.
The eye lens changes its focal length by changing its thickness with the help of its ciliary muscles.
The power of a lens is defined as the reciprocal of its focal length in metres.
Important Inventions and their Inventors, in the field of Physics and Chemistry
Dear Readers,

As we know that General Awareness section is very important in terms of SSC and Railways Exam. And in
this particular section, Static G.K. plays a critical role in deciding the marks of candidates in such exams.
Thus,it is important to revise Static G.K. daily so as to provide a little edge over other candidates appearing for
these exams.
Today we are publishing Topic "Important Inventions and their Inventors" which is part of Static G.K. and
usually 1-2 questions come from this portion.
1. Archimedes

- Archimedean law, lever and specific gravity..

2. Bacquarrel

- Radio-activity of uranium.

3. J.L.Baird

- Television.

4. Benjamin Franklin

- Lightning conductor.

5. H.J.Bhabha

- Research in cosmic rays and quantum theory.

6. Binet

- Intelligence tests.

7. J.C. Bose

- Crescograph.

8. S.N. Bose

- Discovery of nuclear particles Boson.

9. Bohr

- Electron Theory, Atomic structure.

10.Bunsen

- Spectroscope.

11.Bushwell

- Submarine.

12.Carothers

- Nylon Plastics.

13.Cavendish

- Discovery of hydrogen, rare gases

14.Charles Darwin

- Theory of Evolution; Origin of Species.

15.Curie Madame

- Radium.

Study Notes : Branches of Biology for SSC CGL 2016, SSC CHSL, SSC CPO and Railways.
Dear Readers,
Today we are providing you a important Study Notes which is based on Branches Of Biology. This is
important for your Upcoming Exams like Railways, SSC CHSl, SSC CPO and SSC CGL 2016.
Botany: It deals with the study of plants.
Zoology: It deals with the study of animals.
Microbiology: It deals with the study of micro-organisms.
Taxonomy: It deals with the identification nomenclature and classification of the living organisms.
Morphology: It deals with the study of external structure and form of living organisms.
Anatomy: It deals with the study of the gross internal structure of living organisms with naked eyes.
Histology: It deals with the study of the minute structures of the tissue with the help of microscopes.
Cytology: It deals with the study of form and detailed structure of individual cells.
Physiology: It deals with functioning of the organisms E.g. Digestion, excretion, growth etc.
Embryology: It deals with the study of changes or events leading to fertilization and development of embryo.
Ecology: It deals with the study of changes or events on environment that influences the living organisms.
Evolution: It deals with the study of modern form of organisms from primitive and simpler forms.
Genetics: It deals with the study of heredity and variation in living organisms.
Paleontology: It deals with the study of life at it exists in the past, based on the fossil remains of prehistoric
organisms.
Anthropology: It deals with the study of origin, development, cultural and social condition and customs of
present and past races of mankind.
Exobiology: It deals with the study of possibility of life in outer space.
Applied Biology: It deals with the study of living organisms concerning welfare and betterment of mankind.
Limnology: It deals with the study of fresh water and their inhabitants.
Cryobiology: It deals with the study of effects of life at very low temperature.

Phylogeny: It deals with the evolution of an organism.


Ontogeny: It deals with the study of organisms course of development starting from the embryo.
Molecular Biology: It deals with the study of nature and arrangement of molecules and their interactions that
control and bring about various activities of protoplasm E.g. structure and functions of DNA and RNA.
Karyology: It deals with the study of Nucleus.

Study Notes : All about the Atmosphere


About 99% of total mass of atmosphere is within the height of 32 km from earth surface, rest above merges with
outer space
Atmospheric Air Colourless, Tasteless, Odourless, Compressible, Mobile & Expandable
Atmospheric air mainly consists of Nitrogen 78.03 %
Oxygen

20.99 %

Argon

.94 %

CO2

.03 %

.01 %

Rest are Neon, Helium, Ozone, Xenon & Krypton in very minute percentage

Nitrogen

Major cause of atmospheric pressure, Force of wind & reflection of light

Regulates combustion & avoids quick burning

Dilutes oxygen and prevents rapid burning at the earths surface

Nitrogen cannot be used directly from the air.

The Nitrogen Cycle is natures way of supplying the needed nitrogen for living things

Get fixed to soil & generates protein in plants (Major source of food)

CO2.

Heaviest gas in atmosphere, essential for growth of vegetation

Transparent to incoming solar radiations but opaque to terrestrial radiations radiated from earth surface
which keeps air near the ground warmer

Responsible for global warming, as alarming increase in level of CO2 in past few years due to burning of
fossil fuels

Water Vapour

Form in atmosphere due to evaporation from surface water bodies

heat

Absorbs part of insolation from the sun & reduces its amount reaching the earth Preserves earths radiated

Hence, acts as a blanket, allowing the earth to neither become too hot or too cold

Amount of water vapour decrease with altitude

Amount of water vapour decreases from equator to poles

Dust Particles

Derived by strong winds from different sources on earth surface

Acts as hydroscopic nuclei around which water vapour condense & form clouds

Intercept & reflect sun rays giving orange colour at sunrise, red colour at sunset & blue colour of clear sky

Molecules (Dust particles) in air scatter blue light (shorter wavelength) more than red light (longer
wavelength) in every direction, hence sky looks blue

At sunrise & sunset, sky appears orange & red because blue light has already been scattered out by
molecules in the air, out of sight & longer wavelength light reaches out to us

Dense Haze & smog (smoke + fog) are also caused due to presence of dust particles in the air

Structure of Atmosphere.

On the basis of chemical composition atmosphere can be divided into 2 parts viz.

Homosphere Upto 90 km (Uniformity in chemical composition)


Troposphere

Stratosphere
Mesosphere

Heterosphere Above 90 Km (non-uniformity in chemical composition)


Ionsphere
Exosphere
Each sublayer mentioned in these 2 layers is further divided by a shallow transitional zone ending with term Pause

Troposphere

Average height is 16 Km 10 km at Poles &upto 18 km at Equator.

Greatest at Equator due to upward transportation of heat by strong conventional currents.

That is why height of troposphere at a given latitude is greater in summer Temperature decreases with
height, roughly at 1*C for every 165 meters Normal Lapse Rate.

Lowest, Densest & contains 75 % of earths atmosphere with 90% of water vapours & dust particles.

All major atmospheric processes take place in this layer.

Tropopause

Shallow transitional zone (Unstable zone) b/w Troposphere & Stratosphere (Approx. 1.5 Km)
Temperature stops falling in this layer 80*C over equator & 45*C over poles

Stratosphere

This layer rises upto 50 km (Thicker at Poles than at Equator)

Temperature remains constant in its lower portion upto 20 Km & then gradually increases to 0*C till its
upper limit i.e.
Tropopause

Increases mainly due to the presence of ozone gas, which absorbs suns UV rays

Practically no clouds, convection currents, Thundering or lighting, water vapours or dust particles hence
airplane fly in this region

Few clouds called Mother of Pearls / Narcreas can be seen over Antarctica

Its lower portion (15 35 Km) constitutes Ozone layer which prevents us from harmful UV rays

Amount of Ozone gas is found at Stratopause i.e. uppermost limit of Stratosphere

Mesosphere

Upto 80 ~ 90 Km, Temp. Decreases gradually with height until 100 *C at 80 km

Displays wispy clouds at high altitudes due to reflected sunlight from meteoric dust particles

Most weather balloons are placed in this region

Most meteors burn up in this layer; Upper limit Mesopause

All about the Atmosphere Part-2


Ionosphere / Thermosphere
Extends up to 400 km, contains electrically charged particles (ions) with max. conc. at 250 Km
starts rising with increase in height because of ionization by solar radiations
Zone of Earths Satellites
Auroras Are formed when Earths magnetic field traps solar winds in atmosphere, resulting in collision
b/w solar wind & atmospheric charged molecules (ions)
Aurora Borealis Northern light in northern hemisphere (Arctic circle)
Aurora Australis Southern light in southern hemisphere (Antarctic Circle)
All radio waves are reflected in this layer (Radio transmission)
D layer Reflects signal of low frequency & absorbs of medium & high frequency
E layer (Kennedy Heaveside layer) Reflects medium & high frequency radio waves to earth
F layer (Appleton layer) Useful for long distance radio transmissions reflects medium & high
frequency radio waves to earth
G layer Highest layer.
Depletion of Ozone Layer
Major cause CFCs (mainly from Refrigerator, AC, Spray Cans, Plastic Packaging, Cleaning Fluids,
Insulation materials)
UV breaks CFCs & release Chlorine atom which reacts with Ozone & convert it into simple oxygen
molecule, which is unstable to absorb UV rays
Space probes are also responsible for depletion of Ozone layer, as every time a rocket is fired into space, 70
150 tons of Chlorine is injected into atmosphere
Another cause for ozone layer depletion is oxides of Nitrogen, esp. Nitric oxide, released from supersonic
aircrafts, automotive exhaust, in form of nitrates in fertilizers etc.
Already a major Ozone hole is formed over Antarctica with risk countries New Zealand, Australia, South
Africa, Chile, and Argentina etc.
Auroras
Solar flares from Sun (leaving black spots on sun) entering Ionosphere forms Auroras in N & S poles.
The auroras appear as sheets of illuminated curtains with streaks or as bright arcs in the sky.
These lines or arcs are in the form and directions of the magnetic lines of force of the earth; indicating the
involvement of moving charge particles under the influence of concentrated magnetic field of the earth.
When they reach the earth, they get concentrated near the poles because of the strong axial magnetic fields
there.
In other regions of the earth, the magnetic field is weaker and so the aurora does not form although the
emission of the solar wind particles takes place uniformly.
There is an 11-year solar cycle (on average) that controls the tempo of the aurora. The most recent peak in
the cycle occurred in 2000-2001. The next peak is predicted in 2013 2014.
Solar Tsunami
When solar flares are at peak
Can disrupts ions in Ionosphere affecting radio waves, GPS
Can burn the satellites
Can causes skin cancer in human being
Increase the frequency of El Nino Warming of the Oceans
Can burn transformers

Study Notes : About Minerals


What are minerals?

Minerals are inorganic substances or chemical elements that forms one of the important nutrient groups needed by
human body for proper growth and development of the body.
On the basis of requirement of minerals by human body Minerals are classified into two groups Major mineral (or
Macro-minerals) and Trace minerals
(Micro-minerals)

What is difference between Micro minerals and macro minerals?


Major minerals or Macro-minerals are minerals which human body needs in large quantity.
There are mainly seven Macro-minerals these are calcium, phosphorus, sulphur, potassium, chloride, sodiumand
magnesium.
Trace minerals or micro-minerals are minerals which human body needs in small quantity.
There are ten trace minerals and these are are: iron, fluorine, zinc, copper, manganese, iodine, cobalt, selenium,
chromium, and molybdenum.
Important points for minerals
About Macro minerals
Calcium is the bodys most abundant mineral in human body and makes up approximately 2% of a persons total
body weight in bones and teeth.
Phosphorus is the bodys second most abundant mineral
Potassium is the third most abundant mineral in the body
Sulphur is the fourth most abundant body mineral.
Sodium and chloride are the fifth most abundant minerals in the body
Magnesium is the sixth most abundant mineral in the body and last of the major minerals.
About micro-minerals
Iron is the most abundant trace mineral, in human body
Zinc is the second most abundant trace mineral, in human body.
List of Minerals needed in our food for proper growth and development of the body

Minerals

Major dietary
sources of
Minerals

Major functions
of minerals
in the body

Symptoms of
deficiency

Calcium(Ca)

Dairy products, dark


green vegetables,
legumes

Bone and
tooth formation,
blood clotting
nerve and
muscles function

Retarded growth,
possibly loss
of bone mass

Phosphorus(P)

Dairy products,
meats, grains

Bone and tooth formation


acid-base balance, nucleotide
synthesis

Weakness, loss of
minerals from
bone
,calcium loss

Sulphur(S)

Proteins
from many sources

Components of certain amino acids

Symptoms of
protein deficiency

Potassium(K)

Acid-base balance,
Meats, dairy products, many
water balance,
fruits and vegetable ,grains
nerve function

Muscular weakness,
paralysis,
nausea, heart failure

Chlorine(Cl)

Table salt

Acid base balance,


formation
of gastric juices,
nerve function,
osmotic balance

Sodium(Na)

Table salt

Acid-base balance,
water balance,
nerve function

Muscle cramps, reduced


appetite

Magnesium(Mg)

Whole grains, green leafy


vegetables

Co-factor,ATP bioenergetics

Nervous
system disturbances

Muscle cramps, reduced


appetite

Iron(Fe)

Meats, eggs, legumes,


whole grains, green leafy
vegetables

Components ofhaemoglobin
and of electron carriers in energy
metabolism;enzyme cofactor

Fluorine(F)

Maintenance of
Drinking water, tea, seafood tooth (and probably bone)
structure

Iron-deficiency anaemia,
weakness
,impaired immunity
High
frequency of tooth decay
Growth failure,
scaly skininflammation,
reproductive failure
impairedimmunity

Zinc(Zn)

Meats, seafoods, grains

Components of certain digestive


enzymes and other proteins

Copper(Cu)

Seafood, nuts, legumes,


organ meats

Enzyme cofactor in iron metabolism,


melanin synthesis, electron transport

Anaemia, bone and


cardiovascular changes

Manganese (Mn)

Nuts, grains,
vegetables, fruits, tea

Enzyme co-factor

Abnormal bone and


cartilage

Iodine(I)

Seafood, dairy products


,iodized salt

Components of thyroid hormones

Goitre(enlarged thyroid)

Cobalt(Co)

Meats and
dairy products

Components of vitamin B12

None ,except
asB12 deficiency

Selenium(Se)

Seafood, meats, whole


grains

Enzyme co-factor;
antioxidant functioningin
closeassociationwith vitamin E

Muscle pain, possibly


heart muscle deterioration

Chromium(Cr)

Brewers
yeast,liver,seafood,
meats,some vegetables

Involved in
glucose and energy metabolism

Impaired glucose
metabolism

Molybdenum(Mo)

Legumes,rains,some
vegetables

Enzyme cofactor

Disorder in excretion of
nitrogen containing
compounds

Study Notes : Biology

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PLANTS AND ANIMAL CELL

Animal Cell

Plant Cell

Cell wall:

Absent

Present (formed of
cellulose)

Shape:

Round (irregular shape)

Rectangular (fixed shape)

Vacuole:

One or more small vacuoles (much


smaller than plant cells).

One, large central vacuole


taking up 90% of cell
volume.

Centrioles:

Present in all animal cells

Only present in lower


plant forms.

Chloroplast:

Animal cells don't have chloroplasts

Plant cells have


chloroplasts because they
make their own food

Cytoplasm:

Present

Present

Endoplasmic
Reticulum
(Smooth and
Rough):

Present

Present

Ribosomes:

Present

Present

Mitochondria:

Present

Present

Plastids:

Absent

Present

Golgi
Apparatus:

Present

Present

Plasma
Membrane:

only cell membrane

cell wall and a cell


membrane

Microtubules/
Microfilaments:

Present

Present

Flagella:

May be found in some cells

May be found in some


cells

Lysosomes:

Lysosomes occur in cytoplasm.

Lysosomes usually not


evident.

Nucleus:

Present

Present

Cilia:

Present

It is very rare

Chemicals in everyday day Part-1

Chemicals in Foods
All those chemical which are added to food to improve its keeping qualities, appearance, taste, and odour are called
the food additives.
1. Food Colours
2. Flavours and Sweeteners
3. Preservative
4. Nutritional Supplements.

ARTEFICAL SWEETNING AGENTS:Sucrose and Fructose used as normal sugar add to our calorie intake and promote tooth decay to avoid this we use
artificial sweeteners
a. Saccharin:It is most popular artificialsweetener. It is insoluble in water. It is 550 times sweeter than sugar. It is not
biodegradable and does not have any calorific value of food.
b. Aspartame:It is methyl ester of dipeptide derived from phenylalanine and aspartic acid. It is 100 times sweeter than sugar. It
decomposes at baking or cooking temperature thus it can be only used in cold foods and soft drinks.
c. Alitame:It is more stable than as partake. It is nearly 2000 times sweet as sugar. It is difficult to control the sweetness of food
which they are added.
PRESERVATIVES:Chemical substances which are used to protect food against Bacteria, Yeasts and Moulds are called preservatives.
Examples:1. Sodium Benzoate:The most commonly used preservative sodium benzoate. It is used in soft drinks and acidic foods.
Sodium and Calcium propionates are used in breads and cakes as mould inhibitor.
2. Sodium Metabisalphite:Sodium or potassium metabisulphite is used for preserving James, Squashes, Pickles etc. other important
preservatives are Sorbic acid, Epoxides, Sirca, Nitrogen, Hydroxy benzoate esters etc.
ANTIOXIDENTS:Chemical which are used to prevent the oxidation of fats in processed foods such as potato chips are called.
Antioxidants:Ascorbic acid (Vitamin C) and tocopherols (Vitamin E) are used as Antioxidants.
CLEANSING AGENTS:Soaps and Detergents:Chemical substances which concentrates at the surface of the solution or interfaces, farms surface Films, reduced
surface tension of solution helps in removing dirt and dust by emulsifying grease are called surfactants. They are
soaps and detergents.
Soaps:-

They are sodium or potassium salts of higher fatty acids such as lquric acid [C11H23COOH], steric acid
[C17H35COOH] etc.
Soaps are formed by heating fat or oil with aqueous sodium hydroxide solution. This reaction is called saponification
reaction.
Only sodium and potassium soaps are soluble in water and are used for thecleansing purpose.

1. Toilet Soaps:Toilet Soaps are prepared by using better grades of fats and oils and core is taken to remove excess alkali.
2. Landry Soaps:Used for washing clothes, contains fillers like sodium rosin ate, sodium silicate, borax and sodium carbonate. Other
kinds of soaps are shaving soaps, floating soaps, transparent soaps etc.
ADVANTAGE AND DISADVANTAGE OF SOAPS:1. Soap is good cleanising agent is 100% biodegradable, it does not create any pollution but it have disadvantage also:
a. Soaps cannot be get used in hard water since calcium and magnesium ions present in hard water produces curdy
white PPt with calcium and magnesium salt of fatty acids.
b. Soaps cannot be used in acidic solution. Since acids precipitate the insoluble free fatty acids.
Study Notes :Clouds and its types

What is Clouds?
A visible aggregation of minute water droplets or ice particles in the air above the ground levels i.e. at the certain
elevation is called as the cloud.
There are two major cloud group based on their forms
1.Strati form Cloud group
These are the clouds present in the form of layers
2.Cumuli form Cloud group
It consist of globular clouds in the form of cotton balls
The world meteorological organization gave the international cloud atlas consisting of 10 main cloud families. These
families are listed according to their heights into 3 groups.
High
Middle

Low

1.High Clouds
All high clouds are called as cirro clouds and they are present at elevation of 5 to 13 kms.
These clouds are composed of ice crystals and produce phenomenon called halo and does not give
rainfall/precipitations they are of three types

a.Cirrus
These are detached clouds in the form of white delicate filaments or narrow binds.
Sometimes they are in the form of white patches.
b.Cirro Cumulus
These are the clouds looks like small flakes or globules consisting of white patchy layers of clouds without shading.
When these patches are uniformly arranged, it forms a mackerel sky
c. Cirro status
These are the transparent whitish clouds in the form of a fibrous veil with smooth appearance.

2.Middle Clouds
All middle clouds are called as the alto clouds.They are present in the height ranging from 2 to 7 Kms. They of three
types
a.Alto Cumulus
Its a white or grey patchy layer of cloud having dark shading on their under surfaces.
Sometimes they are found in wavy or parallel bonds where they are referred as sheep or wool packed clouds.
Often they are composed of super cooled liquid droplets. They may or may not give rainfall
b.Alto stratus
They are greyish or bluish cloud layers having fibrous appearance covering most part of the sky.
The sun is vaguely revealed in the form of spot.
But the ground shadows are not cast.
They give out fine drizzle of snow
c.Nimbo stratus
It is a grey cloud layer often very dark, thick enough to blot the sun.
The rain or snow falling from this cloud does not reach the ground and called as virga.

3. Low Clouds
These are the clouds present below 2 kms of elevation and there are 4 types of cloud families are present in this
a. Strato cumulus
It is a low cloud layer which is dull grey in colour consisting of large lumpy masses with brighter intersects
b. Stratus
This is a grey cloud layer.
The sun is visible and its outline is clearly distinguishable.
They are also present in the form of raged patches.
C. Cumulus
These are dense detached clouds with sharp outline developing vertically in the forms of mount or tower like
cauliflower.
The sunlit part is brighter and the base is dark.
They represent transition to the cumulo nimbus clouds and are present only during day time
D.Cumulo nimbus
These are heavy & dense cloud forms having an anvil head.
These are towering clouds from the ground level to intermediate heights.
They are associated with heavy rainfall, thunders, lighting.
Study Notes: Biology

DNA

RNA

Stands for:

Deoxyribo Nucleic Acid

Ribo Nucleic Acid

Definition:

A nucleic acid that contains the


genetic instructions used in the
development and functioning of all
modern living organisms (scientists
believe that RNA may have been the
main genetic material in primitive life
forms).

A single-stranded chain
of alternating phosphate and ribose
units with the bases Adenine,
Guanine, Cytosine, and Uracil
bonded to the ribose.

Function:

Medium of long-term storage and


transmission of genetic information

Transfer the genetic code needed for


the creation of proteins from the
nucleus to the ribosome.

Unique Features:

The helix geometry of DNA is of BForm. DNA is protected in the


nucleus, as it is tightly packed. DNA
can be damaged by exposure to
ultra-violet rays.

The helix geometry of RNA is of AForm. RNA strands are continually


made, broken down and reused.RNA
is more resistant to damage by
Ultra-violet rays.

RNA molecules are involved


in protein synthesis and sometimes in
the transmission of genetic
information.

DNA

RNA

Predominant
Structure:

Double- stranded molecule with a


long chain of nucleotides

A single-stranded molecule in most


of its biological roles and has a
shorter chain of nucleotides

Bases & Sugars:

Deoxyribose sugar; phosphate


backbone; Four bases: adenine,
guanine, cytosine and thymine

Ribose sugar; phosphate backbone.


Four bases: adenine, guanine,
cytosine, and uracil

Pairing of Bases:

A-T(Adenine-Thymine), GC(Guanine-Cytosine)

A-U(Adenine-Uracil), G-C(GuanineCytosine)

Stability:

Deoxyribose sugar in DNA is less


reactive because of C-H
bonds. Stable in alkaline conditions.
DNA has smallergrooves, which
makes it harder for enzymes to
"attack" DNA.

Ribose sugar is more reactive because


of C-OH (hydroxyl) bonds.Not stable
in alkaline conditions. RNA has
larger grooves, which makes it easier
to be attacked by enzymes.

Propagation:

DNA is self-replicating.

RNA is synthesized from DNA


when needed.

Eukaryotic Cell

Prokaryotic Cell

Nucleus:

Present

Absent

Number of
chromosomes:

More than one

One--but not true chromosome:


Plasmids

Cell Type:

Usually multicellular

Usually unicellular (some


cyanobacteria may be multicellular)

True Membrane
bound Nucleus:

Present

Absent

Example:

Animals and Plants

Bacteria and Archaea

Genetic
Recombination:

Meiosis and fusion of gametes

Partial, undirectional transfers DNA

Eukaryotic Cell

Prokaryotic Cell

Lysosomes and
peroxisomes:

Present

Absent

Microtubules:

Present

Absent or rare

Endoplasmic
reticulum:

Present

Absent

Mitochondria:

Present

Absent

Cytoskeleton:

Present

May be absent

DNA wrapping on
proteins.:

Eukaryotes wrap their DNA around


proteins called histones.

Multiple proteins act together to fold


and condense prokaryotic DNA.
Folded DNA is then organized into a
variety of conformations that are
supercoiled and wound around
tetramers of the HU protein.

Ribosomes:

larger

smaller

Golgi apparatus:

Present

Absent

Chloroplasts:

Present (in plants)

Absent; chlorophyll scattered in the


cytoplasm

Flagella:

Microscopic in size; membrane


bound; usually arranged as nine
doublets surrounding two singlets

Submicroscopic in size, composed of


only one fiber

Permeability of
Nuclear
Membrane:

Selective

not present

Plasma membrane
with steroid:

Yes

Usually no

Cell wall:

Only in plant cells and fungi


(chemically simpler)

Usually chemically complexed

Cell size:

10-100um

1-10um

The questions asked on 9th April Evening shift(4:00 - 5:30 PM)RRB Exam
Current captain of womens hockey team? Ritu Rani
2015 Nobel Prize for lieturate
SONAR full form: Sound Navigation And Ranging
Which is first unmanned satellite launched by ISRO??
CERN related
Make in India emoji related: Twitter
Minimum age of pm: 25 years
Nitrogen %in atmosphere: 78%
First Indian go into space: Rakesh Sharma
Source of Narmada river: Amarkantak
World aids day: 1st Dec
Which is not a fundamental right: Right to Die for Country
US Open women's double winner 2015 : Sania Mirza and Martina Hingis
Indira Gandhi Tulip Garden Situated at : Srinagar
,Kanha National Park situated at : Madhya Pradesh
Capital of Andhra Pradesh : Amravathi
State with Lowest Population Density : Sikkim
Snooker Champion 2015 :
Summer Olympic 2016 Venue : Rio
Hindi Diwas On : 15th Sept
Country winning most Oscar in Foreign Film Category :
Highest Unit Of Data Storage ( Kb, MB,GB,TB,PB,YB) : YB
Self Help Group in A.P. Started by which Internet giant : Google
First state to connect all the Panchayat's via internet : Kerala
Bhagat Singh killed John Saunder's to avenge : To take the revenge of Death of Lala Lajpath Rai
Milky way is a ? : Galaxy
Who is known to be First Computer Programmer :ADA

Study Of Map is termed as : Cartography


Study Of spiders is called :
Dada Saheb Falke award is related to : Cinema
Which is not an input device(Mouse , Keyboard, Scanner, Moniter): Moniter
Which is a vector quantity(Distance , Speed, Velocity): Velocity
Unit of Pressure: Newton per meter square
RL WL is : Remote Location WaitList
Which metal is obtained from AMALGAM: Mercury
Ajay Jairam is related to which sports? Suttle
Which of the following is not inert gas? Hydrogen
The capital of India was shifted form which place to Delhi ? Kolkata
List of Human Diseases caused by Bacteria, Virus, Fungi, and Protozoa : Study Notes

Diseases caused by Bacteria


Cholera- Vibrio cholera
Anthrax- Bacillus Anthraces
Diphtheria - Corynebacterium diphtheria
Leprosy - Mycobacterium leprae
Botulism - Clostridium botulinum
Syphilis - Treponema pallidum
Tetanus - Clostridium tetani
Trachoma - Chlamydia trachomatis
Tuberculosis - Mycobacterium tuberculosis
Typhoid fever - Salmonella typhi.
Whooping cough-Bordetella pertussis

Diseases caused by Virus


AIDS-Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)
Influenza - Influenza virus
Mumps- Mumps Virus
Polio -Polio Virus
Chicken Pox -Varicella zoster virus
Measles-Measles Virus
Dengue fever -Dengue Virus
Chikungunya -Chikungunya virus.
Rabies -Rabies virus

SARS - SARS coronavirus


Diseases caused by Fungi
Athlete's foot - caused by the mold known as Epidermophytonfloccosum
Diseases caused by Protozoa
Malaria - Plasmodium vivax
Amoebic dysentery - Entamoebahistolytica
Diseases caused by flatworms and roundworms
Filariasis - parasitic disease infection with roundworms of theFilarioidea type
Hookworm disease- Ancylostomaduodenale
Roundworm disease- Ascarislumbricoides
Blood fluke disease- Schistossomamansoni
Important Information about Human Body

1.Biggest Organ : Skin


2.Heart Beat :72 times in a minute
3.Master Gland : Pituitary
4.Number of Bone : 206 bones
5.Number of Muscles : 640 (approximately)
6.Number of chromosomes: 46 or 23 pairs
7.Normal Blood Pressure : 80 to 120
8.Teeth: 32
9.Volume of Blood: About 7 litres in normal body or about 7% of the total body
weight.
10.Largest; Part of human Brain: Cerebrum
11.Regeneration capacity of the lowest in the brain
12.The rigid part of the body of the tooth enamel
13.Parotid gland is the largest salivary gland
14.The normal body temperature is 98 .4 * Fahrenheit (37 * C)

15.The average amount of haemoglobin: 12- 15


16.The smallest White Blood Cell lymphocyte
17.The biggest White Blood Cell Monocyte
18.120 day life span of RBCs
19.The capillary tube method is for :Blood clotting
20.Omnibus blood group AB
21. Universal Donor blood group O
22.Normal blood pressure is 120/80 Hga
Study Notes on Biology For SSC CPO and CGL 2016

Various Diseases and Affected parts of body

Arthritis: Joints
Asthma: Bronchial Muscles
Cataract: Eyes
Diabetes: Pancreas
Diphtheria : Throat
Eczema : Skin
Glaucoma : Eyes
Goiter : Thyroid Gland
Jaundice : Liver
Leukemia : Blood
Malaria : Spleen

Meningitis : Brain and Spinal Cord


Entities : Ears
Paralysis : Nerves
Pneumonia : Lungs
Polio : Legs
Pyorrhea : Teeth and Gums
Rheumatism : Joints
Sinusitis : Inflammation of sinus linings
Tonsillitis : Tonsils
Trachoma : Eyes
Tuberculosis : Lungs
Typhoid : Intestines

Study Notes On Role of Carbon & Nitrogen Cycles in the Environment


Carbon Cycle:
Carbon is the basic building block of the carbohydrates, fats, proteins, nucleic acids such as DNA and RNA, and other
organic compounds necessary for life. Most land plants get their carbon by absorbing carbon dioxide gas, which
makes up about 0.04% of the gaseous atmosphere, through pores in their leaves, Phytoplankton, the microscopic
plants that float in aquatic ecosystems, get their carbon from atmospheric carbon dioxide that has dissolved in water.
These producer plants then carry out photosynthesis, which converts the carbon in carbon dioxide to carbon in
complex organic compounds such as glucose:
Carbon dioxide + water + solar energy -> glucose + oxygen
Then the cells in oxygen-consuming plants, animals, and decomposers carry out aerobic cellular respiration, which
breaks down glucose and other complex organic compounds and converts the carbon back to carbon dioxide for reuse
by producers:
Glucose + oxygen -> carbon dioxide + water + energy

This linkage between photosynthesis and aerobic respiration circulates carbon in the ecosphere and is a major part of
the carbon cycle. This part of the gaseous cycle is shown in greatly simplified in carbon cycle. And some of the ways

plants, animals, and decomposers in the biosphere depend on one another for survival. Oxygen and hydrogen, the
other elements in glucose and other carbohydrates, cycle almost in step with carbon.
Carbon cycles rapidly between the atmosphere and hydrosphere and living organisms it shows that some of the earth's
carbon is tied up for long periods in fossil fuels-coal, petroleum, natural gas, peat, oil shale, tar sand, and ligniteformed over millions of years in the lithosphere. The carbon in these mineral deposits remains locked up until it is
released to the atmosphere as carbon dioxide when fossil fuels are extracted and burned.
Nitrogen Cycle:
Organisms require nitrogen in various chemical forms to make proteins and genetically important nucleic acids such
as DNA. Klost green plants need nitrogen in the form of nitrate ions (NO,-) and ammonium ions (NH4 +). The
nitrogen gas (NJ that makes up about 78% of the volume of the earth's atmosphere is useless to such plants, people,
and most other organisms. Fortunately, nitrogen gas is converted into water-soluble ionic compounds containing
nitrate ions and ammonium ions, which are taken up by plant roots as part of the nitrogen cycle.

The conversion of atmospheric nitrogen gas into other chemical forms useful to plants is called nitrogen Fixation. It is
carried out mostly by blue-green algae and certain kinds of bacteria in soil and water and by rhizobium bacteria living
in small swellings called nodules on the roots of alfalfa, clover, peas, beans, and other legume plants. Also playing a
role in nitrogen fixation, lightning converts nitrogen gas and oxygen gas in the atmosphere to nitric oxide and
nitrogen dioxide gas. These gases react with water vapor in the atmosphere and are converted to nitrate ions that
return to the earth as nitric acid dissolved in precipitation and as particles of nitrate salts.
Plants convert inorganic nitrate ions and ammonium ions obtained from soil water into proteins, DNA, and other
large, nitrogen-containing organic compounds they require. Animals get most of their nitrogen-containing nutrients
by eating plants or other animals that have eaten plants.
Study Notes on BLOOD RBC, WBC, PLATELETS for SSC
Blood is a fluid connective tissue. It quantity is 6.8 litres in man and 500 ml less in the woman. It constitutes 6-8% of
body weight and has a pH of 7.4.
Three types of Blood Cells:
1) Red Blood Cells (RBC)
2) White Blood cells (WBC)
3) Platelets
Red Blood Corpuscles (RBC):
They are also called erythrocytes, disc shaped, and nonucleus. It contains a pigment which is called Haemoglobin,
which gives blood its red color and transports oxygen and carbon dioxide
Red blood cells are manufactured in Bone marrow
The Life of Red Blood Cells is 120 days. Number of RBCs is 4.5 5 million/ cubic mm of blood

White Blood Corpuscles (WBC):


Also called leukocytes, they are rounded with a nucleus and far less numerous than RBCs (8,000 per cubic mm of
blood)
Manufactured in Red Bone marrow
Act as the soldiers of Bodys defence system

Platelets:
Also called thrombocytes and are about 2,50,000 per cubic mm of blood
Manufactured in red Bone marrow
It helps the blood to clot
Blood Groupings
Father of Blood Grouping : Karl Landsteiner
He discovered A, B and O blood groups
Decastello and Sturle discovered AB blood groups
Blood Group

Can donate to

Can receive from

A,AB

A,O

B,AB

B,O

AB

AB

A,B,AB,O

A, B, AB, O

RH factor
It is a blood antigen found in RBC
A person can be Rh+ or Rh- depending upon the presence of Rh factor in RBC
Rh+ can receive blood from both Rh+ and Rh- but Rh- can receive blood only from Rh- only
Blood transfusion techniques was developed by James Blundell.

Study Notes on Environment Pollution

Air Pollutants

Primary Pollutants: Persist in the form in which they are added to the environment for ex. DDT, Plastic
Secondary Pollutants: Formed by interaction among primary pollutants viz. PAN by interaction of NOx &
Hydrocarbons
Biodegradable Pollutants: Waste products which are degraded by microbial action for ex. Sewage

Non-Biodegradable Pollutants: Not decomposed by microbial action for ex. Plastic, Glass, DDT, Radioactive
substances
Quantitative Pollutants: Occur in nature & become pollutant when their concentration reaches beyond a threshold
level for ex. CO2, NOx
Qualitative Pollutants: Do not occur in nature & are man-made for ex. fungicides, herbicides, DDT

Major Air Pollutants

1. CO

By incomplete combustion of carbon based fuels, Automobile exhaust, Cigarette smoke


Combines with hemoglobin to form carboxyhaemoglobin, which is highly stable & reduces oxygen carrying capacity
of blood
Slow our reflexes & make us confused & sleepy

2. CO2
Major greenhouse gas formed by respiration, burning of fuels, decomposition of lime, volcanic eruption

3. CFCs

Released mainly from air conditioning systems & refrigeration

Detrimental to Ozone layer present in the stratosphere as CFC + UV >> Cl (Chlorine radicals which causes
breakdown of Ozone)

4. Lead

Present in petrol, diesel, lead batteries, paints, hair dye products etc. (Affects children in particular)

Damages nervous system & cause digestive problems & in some cases causes cancer

5. O3


Formed when NOx particle from vehicle exhaust & volatile Hydrocarbons interact with each other in
presence of sunlight
6. SPM

SPMs in air, when breathed in causes lung damage & respiratory problems

7. SO2

Produced from burning coal (60 %), mainly in thermal power plants + Petroleum products + in production of
paper & smelting of metals .

Major contributor to smog causing lung diseases

8. CH4

Mainly CH4 burns in fossil fuels + produced by burning of vegetation / rotting

9. Acid Rain

10. NOx

Ph< 5.6 (Rain with oxides of sulphur & nitrogen (SO2 & NO2)) HNO3 + H2SO4

NO3- Acts as a fertilizer to the soil

Automobile exhaust produces NO2 which damages plant leaves & retard rate of photosynthesis + also
causes red haze & lung irritation
11. Classical Smog

Occurs in cool humid climate .

Chemically reducing hence called reducing smog

Smoke + fog + SO2

12. Photochemical Smog

Occurs in warm, dry & sunny climate

Result from the action of sunlight on unsaturated HC & NOx produced by factories & automobile

Chemically oxidising hence called oxidising smog Ozone + Acrolein + Formaldehyde + Peroxyacetyl
Nitrate (PAN) are produced which cause serious health problems, severe plant damage, cracking of rubber &
corrosion Catalytic Converter Prevent release of NO & HC to environment.
13. GHGs

CO2, CH4, CFC, N2O, SF6, HFCs, PFCs, CCl4, CH3CCl3, Water Vapour, O3

14. Formaldehyde

Mainly from carpets, particle boards & insulation foam Causes irritation & allergies

15. Radon

A gas naturally emitted by soil .Due to poor ventilation it is confined inside house & causes lung cancer
Monday, 6 June 2016
Study Notes on Weather and Climate (part 1)

Weather

It refers to the sum total of the atmospheric conditions in terms of temperature, pressure, wind, moisture etc of a given

place and time.

It refers to the sum total of the atmospheric conditions in terms of temperature, pressure, wind, moisture etc
of a given place and time.

It is very dynamic as it may change several times even in a day.

It changes each day because the air in our atmosphere is always moving, distributing energy from the Sun.

In most places in the world, the types of weather events also vary throughout the year as season's change.

Climate
It is the average weather condition or atmospheric condition of a region over a considerable period of time.

The regional climate is the average weather in a


place over more than thirty years.
It depends on many factors :

1.the amount of sunlight it receives


2.its height above sea level,
3.the shape of the land, and
4.how close it is to oceans.
Since the equator receives more sunlight than the poles, climate varies depending on distance from the equator.

However, Global climate is a description of the climate of a planet as a whole, with all the regional differences
averaged.

Global climate depends on :

1. the amount of energy received by the Sun and

2. the amount of energy that is trapped in the system.


These amounts are different for different planets. Scientists who study
Earth's climate and climate change study the factors that affect the climate of the whole planet. While the weather can
change in just a few hours, climate changes over longer time-frames.

Study notes on Exocrine glands

EXOCRINE GLAND:

Exocrine glands are glands whose secretions pass into a system of ducts that lead ultimately to the
exterior of the body. So the inner surface of the glands and the ducts that drain them are topologically
continuous with the exterior of the body (the skin). Endocrine glands, in contrast, place their
secretions into the internal environment - the blood.
Examples of exocrine glands are:
Salivary glands that secrete saliva into the mouth bile-producing glands of the liver prostate gland the
portion of the pancreas that secretes pancreatic fluid into the duodenum. (The pancreas is also an
endocrine gland - its islets of Langerhans secrete several hormones into the blood.) gastric glands
and sweat glands
TYPES:
Gastric Glands

They are located in different regions of the stomach.


Salivary Glands
It produce saliva.
Saliva formed of several things including amylase, a digestive enzyme that breaks down starch into
maltose and glucose.
Sweat Glands

It produces sweat. It produce and secrete substances onto an epithelial surface by way of a duct.

There are three different ways in which exocrine glands secrete their products:
Merocrines glands (e.g., salivary glands) secrete their product from intact cells.
Apocrine glands (e.g., mammary glands) accumulate their secretory product at the apical surface of
each cell, which then separates from the remainder to from a secretion in the lumen of the gland. The
cells then repair themselves.

Holocrine glands (e.g., sebaceous or oil glands) are those in which entire cells and their secretions
accumulate as the gland's secretory product. Discharged cells are replaced by new ones.
Study Notes on Humidity

Moisture, or water vapour, is an extremely important constituent of the atmosphere. Water vapour
present in the air is known as Humidity. The nature and amount of precipitation, the amount of loss of
heat through radiation from the earth's surface, latent heat of atmosphere etc depend on the amount
of water vapour present in the atmosphere.Humidity capacity that is content of water vapour in the
air is directly positively related with temperature i.e. higher the temperature higher the humidity
capacity. Oceanic and coastal areas record higher humidity capacity. It decreases from equator to
pole.
Humidity of a place can be expressed in three ways

Absolute Humidity: The measure of water vapour content of the atmosphere which may be expressed
as the actual quantity of water vapour present in a given volume of air is called Absolute Humidity.
The absolute humidity is measured in terms of grain per cubic metre air. If the absolute humidity of
air at a given place is 10 gm/cu m. it means that 10 grams of water vapour are present in a cubic metre
of air. Absolute humidity of the air changes from place to place and from time to time. The ability of
air to hold water vapour depends entirely on its temperature. Warm air can hold more moisture than
the cold air.

Specific Humidity: Another way to express humidity as the weight of water vapour per unit weight of
air or the proportion of the mass of water vapour to the total mass of air is called the specific
humidity. Specific humidity is not affected by changes in pressure of temperature.

Relative Humidity: A more useful measure of humidity of the atmosphere is called the relative
humidity. This is a ratio expressed as a percentage between the actual quantity of water vapour
present in the air at a given temperature and the maximum quantity of water vapour that the

atmosphere can hold at that temperature. Relative humidity determines the amount and rate of
evaporation and hence it is an important climatic factor. With the same quantity of water vapour,
relative humidity will decrease with increase of temperature and vice versa.
Study Notes on Condensation

Condensation:
Condensation is the transformation of gaseous form of water into solid form i.e. ice and liquid form i.e.
water.
Mechanism of Condensation

The mechanism of condensation depends


upon the amount of relative humidity present in the air. When the air achieves 100 per cent relative
humidity, it is called as saturated air (no more water vapour can added to it). The temperature at
which air becomes saturated is known as dew point and condensation starts only at this point. If the
temperature at dew point is above freezing point condensation occurs in the form of fog, rainfall, etc.
On the other hand if the dew point is below freezing point condensation occurs in the form of snow,
frost, etc.
How saturation of air is achieved

Method 1: When the absolute humidity at a given temperature is raised equal to the humidity
retaining capacity of the air.

Method 2: When the temperature of the air is reduced to such an extent that the humidity capacity
becomes equal to its absolute humidity.

Concept of Adiabatic change of temperature

If the change in temperature of air takes place by the ascent and descent of air and no addition or
subtraction of heat occurs then this process is known as adiabatic change of temperature. When the
air is warmer than the surrounding air-mass, it ascends. Due to upward movement of air, volume
increases and the temperature decreases. As the dew point is achieved, condensation process starts and
leads to formation of clouds, fog and ultimately leads to precipitation.Thus instability of air
causes different weather phenomenon. In the process explained above there is no addition orOn the
other hand if the dew point is not achieved, the air becomes colder than surrounding air. Thus the air
descends and becomes cooler. This leads to stability of air and weather phenomenon get hampered

Study Notes on Motion


Motion :A body is said to be in motion if it changes its position with respect to its surroundings as time goes on.
A body is said to be at rest if it does not change its
position with time, with respect to its surroundings.

TYPES OF MOTION
(i) When a particle or a body moves along a straight path, its motion is Rectilinear or translatory motion.
(ii) When a particle or a body moves in a circular path, its motion is circular motion. When a body spins about its own
axis, it is said to be in rotational motion.
(iii) When a body moves to and fro or back and forth repeatedly about a fixed point in a definite interval of time, it is
said to be in vibrational or oscillatory motion
SPEED
The time rate of change of position of an object in any direction i.e. the rate of change of distance of an object with
respect to time is known as speed.
VELOCITY
The rate of change of displacement of an object with respect to time is known as velocity.

ACCELERATION
The rate of change of velocity with respect to time is called acceleration. When a body completes equal displacement
in equal interval of time, its velocity is constant and hence, it does not have an acceleration. When a body shows equal
change in velocity in equal interval of time its velocity is not constant but it has a constant acceleration

EQUATIONS OF MOTION

POSITION (DISPLACEMENT)-TIME GRAPHS


(i) For a body moving with a uniform velocity:
This graph comes as a straight line because in a uniform velocity the particle completes equal displacement in an
equal interval of time.

(ii) For the motion of a body thrown vertically upwards :

When the body moves up, its velocity continuously decreases due to gravity and finally becomes zero at the
maximum height. Then, the body falls with an increasing velocity.The slope of the position time graph is equal to the
uniform velocity.

Must Do Series on Metals and Ores


Dear Readers.
We are providing "Must Do series" for the competitive exam on different topics and subjects. Students can go
through these topics , as it will help students to understand the concepts easily and remember it for longer
period of time.

Metal

Ore

Aluminium

Bauxite

Beryllium

Beryl

Chromium

Chromite

Zinc

Sphalerite

Uranium

Uraninite

Tin

Cassiterite

Tungsten

Wolframite ,Scheelite

Silver

Argentite

Nickel

Pentlandite

Lead

Galena

Manganese

Pyrolusite

Mercury

Cinnabar

Iron

Magnetite

Cobalt

Cobaltite

Copper

Bornite , Chalcocite

Study notes on "Human Heart"


HUMAN HEART

The human heart is an organ that pumps blood throughout the body via the circulatory system, supplying oxygen and
nutrients to the tissues and removing carbon dioxide and other wastes.

The human heart has four chambers:

The right atrium and right ventricle together make up the "right heart,"

the left atrium and left ventricle make up the "left heart."

A wall of muscle called the septum separates the two sides of the heart.

Valves prevent backflow, keeping the blood flowing in one direction through the heart.

A double-walled sac called the pericardium encases the heart, which serves to protect the heart and anchor it inside
the chest.
Between the outer layer, the parietal pericardium, and the inner layer, the serous pericardium, runs pericardial
fluid, which lubricates the heart during contractions and movements of the lungs and diaphragm.

The heart's outer wall consists of three layers:-

The outermost wall layer, or epicardium, is the inner wall of the pericardium.

The middle layer, or myocardium, contains the muscle that contracts.

The inner layer, or endocardium, is the lining that contacts the blood.
The sinoatrial node produces the electrical pulses that drive heart contractions.
HUMAN HEART FUNCTION

The heart circulates blood through two pathways:


1.
The pulmonary circuit
2.
The systemic circuit
In the pulmonary circuit, deoxygenated blood leaves the right ventricle of the heart via the pulmonary artery and
travels to the lungs, then returns as oxygenated blood to the left atrium of the heart via the pulmonary vein.
In the systemic circuit, oxygenated blood leaves the body via the left ventricle to the aorta, and from there enters the
arteries and capillaries where it supplies the body's tissues with oxygen. Deoxygenated blood returns via veins to
the vena cava, re-entering the heart's right atrium.

The cardiovascular system circulates blood from the heart to the lungs and around the body via blood vessels.

Blockage of any artery can cause a heart attack, or damage to the muscle of the heart. A heart attack is distinct from
cardiac arrest, which is a sudden loss of heart function that usually occurs as a result of electrical disturbances of the
heart rhythm.

The heart contains electrical "pacemaker" cells, which cause it to contract producing a heartbeat.

A healthy heart contraction happens in five stages.


1st stage: (early diastole), the heart is relaxed.
2nd stage:Then the atrium contracts (atrial systole) to push blood into the ventricle.
3rd stage: The ventricles start contracting without changing volume.
4th stage: Then the ventricles continue contracting while empty.
5th stage: Finally, the ventricles stop contracting and relax.
Then the cycle repeats.
Study Notes On Human Brain
HUMAN BRAIN

The brain is the most complex part of the human body. This three-pound organ is the seat of intelligence,
interpreter of the senses, initiator of body movement, and controller of behavior.

The brain can be divided into three basic units:


1.
2.
3.

The forebrain,
The midbrain, and
The hindbrain

The Forebrain -------------- The Midbrain ---------------- The Hindbrain

The forebrain is the largest and most highly developed part of the human brain.

The hindbrain controls the bodys vital functions such as respiration and heart rate.

The cerebrum sits at the topmost part of the brain and is the source of intellectual activities. It holds your
memories, allows you to plan, enables you to imagine and think. It allows you to recognize friends, read books,
and play games.

When one side of the brain is damaged, the opposite side of the body is affected.

The Inner Brain

The hypothalamus, about the size of a pearl, directs a multitude of important functions. It wakes you up in the
morning, and gets the adrenaline flowing during a test or job interview.

Near the hypothalamus lies the thalamus, a major clearinghouse for information going to and from the spinal
cord and the cerebrum.
NEURON
Neurons are the core components of the brain and spinal cord of the central nervous system (CNS).
Functions of the three parts of a neuron:

Axon: It conducts messages away from the cell body.


Dendrite: It receives information from axon of another cell and conducts the messages towards the cell body.
Cell body: It contains nucleus, mitochondria, and other organelles. It is mainly concerned with the maintenance
and growth.
Study Notes On Human Eye
HUMAN EYE
The human eye is like a camera. Its lens system forms an image on a light-sensitive screen called the retina.

The eyeball is approximately spherical in shape with a diameter of about 2.3 cm.
The eye lens forms an inverted real image of the object on the retina.

RETINA -> The retina is a delicate membrane having


enormous number of light-sensitive cells.
CORNEA -> Light enters the eye through a thin membrane called the cornea.It is the eyes outermost layer. It
is the clear, domeshaped surface that covers the front of the eye. It plays an important role in focusing your
vision.
PUPIL -> The pupil is a hole located in the centre of the iris of the eye that allows light to strike the retina. It
appears black because light rays entering the pupil are either absorbed by the tissues inside the eye directly, or
absorbed after diffuse reflections within the eye. The pupil regulates and controls the amount of light entering
the eye.
IRIS -> It is a dark muscular diaphragm that controls the size of the pupil and thus the amount of light
reaching the retina.

CILIARY MUSCLE -> The ciliary muscle is a ring of


smooth muscle in the eye's middle layer that controls accommodation for viewing objects at varying distances
and regulates the flow of aqueous humour into Schlemm's canal. It changes the shape of the lens within the
eye, not the size of the pupil.

The light-sensitive cells get activated upon illumination and generate electrical signals. These signals are sent to
the brain via the optic nerves. The brain interprets these signals, and finally, processes the information so that
we perceive objects as
they are.
When the light is very bright, the iris contracts the pupil to allow less light to enter
the eye. However, in dim light the iris expands the pupil to allow more light to enter

the eye. Thus, the pupil opens completely through the relaxation of the iris.
A human being has a horizontal field of view of about 150 with one eye and of about 180 with two eyes.
Study notes on "DEFECTS OF EYES"
DEFECTS:

There are four types of defect of the Eye:


1.
Myopia,
2.
Hypermetropia
3.
Presbyopia
4.
Astigmatism
MYOPIA (Nearsightedness)

A person sees near objects clearly while distant objects appear blurred.

In such a defective eye, the image of a distant object is formed in front of the retina and not at the
retina itself.
CAUSES:

This defect arises because the power of the eye is too great due to the decrease in focal length of the crystalline lens.

This may arise due to either

excessive curvature of the cornea, or

elongation of the eyeball.

CORRECTION :

This defect can be corrected by using a concave (diverging) lens.

A concave lens of appropriate power or focal length is able to bring the image of the object back on the
retina itself.

HYPERMETROPIA (Farsightedness)

A person sees near objects with blurred vision, while distant objects appear in sharp focus.

In this case, the image is formed behind the retina.

CAUSES:

This defect arises because either

The focal length of the eyelens is too great, or

The eyeball becomes too short, so that light rays from the nearby object, say at point N, cannot be brought to
focus on the retina to give a distinct image.
CORRECTION :

This defect can be corrected by using a convex (converging) lens of appropriate focal length. When the object is at
N, the eye exerts its maximum power of accommodation. Eyeglasses with converging lenses supply the additional
focussing power required for forming the image on the retina.

PRESBYOPIA:

Presbyopia, progressive form of farsightedness that affects most people by their early 60s.

The power of accommodation of the eye decreases with ageing.

Most people find that the near point gradually recedes.

CAUSES AND CURE:

lens.

It arises due to the gradual weakening of the ciliary muscles and diminishing flexibility of the crystalline

Simple reading eyeglasses with convex lenses correct most cases of presbyopia. Sometimes, a person may
suffer from both myopia and hypermetropia. Such people often require bi-focal lenses.

BI-FOCAL LENSE-> The upper portion of the bi-focal lens is a concave lens, used for distant vision. The lower part
of the bi-focal lens is a convex lens, used for reading purposes.

ASTIGMATISM

Astigmatism, a defect in the outer curvature on the surface of the eye that causes distorted vision.

a person cannot simultaneously focus on both horizontal and vertical lines.

CAUSES:

This defect is usually due to the cornea that is not perfectly spherical.

Consequently, it has different curvatures in different directions in vertical and horizontal planes.

This results in objects in one direction being well-focussed, while those in a perpendicular direction not
wellfocussed.
CORRECTION :

This defect can be corrected by using eyeglasses with cylindrical lenses oriented to compensate for the irregularities
in the cornea.

Study notes on "VITAMINS"

VITAMINS

VITAMIN K (Phylloquinone)

SOURCE
Green leafy vegetables, soya beans. The human body can also produce Vitamin K through germs in the
colon(part of small intestine).

FUNCTION

Helps blood clotting, prevent over bleeding

Maintains health of the liver


SYMPTOMS OF DEFICIENCY
Uncontrol bleeding from wounds due to clotting difficulty

SYMPTOMS OF EXCESS
Can lead to liver damage

VITAMIN E (Tocopherol)=Beauty Vitamin


It is also known as Antisterility Vitamin.

SOURCE
Green leafy vegetables, whole-wheat cereals, nuts, sprouts, egg yolk

FUNCTION

Maintains normal conditions of cells, and healthy skin and tissues

Protects red blood cells

Antioxidation

Enhance immunity
SYMPTOMS OF DEFICIENCY
New born infants: haemolytic anaemia
Adults: weakness
SYMPTOMS OF EXCESS

Low thyroxine level

Fertility Desease

Headache, dizziness, fatigue

Stomach discomfort, poor appetite

VITAMIN D (Calciferol)=(Sunhine Vitamin)

SOURCE
Egg yolk, liver, cod liver oil, fish. Our skins also produces Vitamin D when exposed to sunlight

FUNCTION

Helps body absorb and utilize calcium and phosphorus, so as to maintain bones, teeth and brain
healthy

Maintains normal calcium level in blood


SYMPTOMS OF DEFICIENCY

Children: rickets

Adults: Osteomalacia, Osteoporosis


SYMPTOMS OF EXCESS

Calcified cartilage

High calcium level in the blood causes abnormal heart beat and damage to organs such as kidneys

Vomiting, diarrhea

Sore eyes

Itchy skin

VITAMIN A (Retinol)

SOURCE
Dairy products, cod liver oil,liver, dark green and yellow vegetables and fruits

FUNCTION

Maintains eye health

Promotes growth and development, maintains healthy bones and teeth

Enhances the protection and regeneration of cells and mucous membrane

Maintains healthy respiratory and intestinal tracts

Maintain healthy hair, nails and skin


SYMPTOMS OF DEFICIENCY

Night blindness, dry eyes

Dry skin

Stomach discomfort

Poor growth

Weak bones and teeth


SYMPTOMS OF EXCESS

Dry, scaly, peeling, and itchy skin, rash

Hair loss

Poor appetite, fatigue

Vomiting, stomach discomfort

Liver injury

Headache, bone pain

Nervousness, irritability

VITAMIN B
VITAMIN B1 (Thymine)

SOURCE
sprouts, yeast
Desease
Beri-beri
VITAMIN B2 (Ryboflabin)
SOURCE
sprout, present in cow's milk(yellowish)
Desease
Cheilosis, ulceration
VITAMIN B6 (Pyridoxine)
FUNCTION
It is responsible for rememeber dreams.

SYMPTOMS OF DEFICIENCY

Anaemia

Nervousness, insomnia, depression

Muscle cramps

VITAMIN C (Ascorbic acid)

SOURCE
Citrus fruits(orange,grapefruit,lemon),strawberry,black current,kiwi fruit, tomato, green leafy vegetables,
green pepper
FUNCTION

Helps synthesize collagen; promotes the growth and repair of cells, gum, teeth, blood vessels and bones

Helps healing after operation and injury

Helps calcium and iron absorption

Enhances immunity
SYMPTOMS OF DEFICIENCY

Scurvy

Gum

inflammation and bleeding, fall of teeth

Susceptibility to skin bleeding, burst of capillary vessels

Weakness, fatigue

Bone pain, swollen and aching joints


SYMPTOMS OF EXCESS

Abdominal pain

Diarrhea

Kidney stone
In smokers and drinkers vitamin C is absent.
Study notes on "BLOOD" (Part 1)
BLOOD

Blood is a fluid connective tissue.

The quantity of blood in the humans body is 7% of the total weight.

pH value of blood is 7.4.

There is an average of 5-6 litres of blood in human body.

Female contains half litre of blood less in comparison to male.

Blood cells are produced in BONE MARROW

Red cells, white cells and platelets are made in the marrow of bones, especially the vertebrae, ribs, hips, skull
and sternum. These essential blood cells fight infection, carry oxygen and help control bleeding.

Blood has four components:


1.
2.
3.
4.

Plasma
Red blood cells
White blood cells
Platelets

PLASMA -> Liquid portion of Blood

It contains 92 percent water, constitutes 55 percent of blood volume.


FUNCTION:

maintaining a satisfactory blood pressure

volume to supplying critical proteins for blood clotting and immunity.

medium for exchange of vital minerals such as sodium and potassium

helps to maintain a proper pH (acid-base) balance in the body, which is critical to cell function.

RED BLOOD CELLS -> Carry oxygen

Red blood cells are disc-shaped cells containing haemoglobin,

Haemoglobin enables the cells to pick up and deliver oxygen to all parts of the body, then pick up
carbon dioxide and remove it from tissues.

Its life span is from 20 days to 120 days.

Its destruction takes place in liver & spleen. Therefore, liver is called grave of RBC.

WHITE BLOOD CELLS -> Defend Body (Fighter)

White blood cells, also called leukocytes

White cells are the body's primary defense against infection.

They can move out of the blood stream and reach tissues to fight infection.

They are essential for good health.

Its life span is from 1 to 2 days.

PLATELETS-> Responsible for clotting

Platelets are the cells that circulate within our blood and bind together when they recognize damaged blood
vessels.
Study of blood = HEMATOLOGY
Study notes on "BLOOD" (part 2)
BLOOD GROUP

BLOOD DONER AND RECEIVER

BLOOD TYPES ARE INHERITED

DISEASE
Hematoma: A collection of blood inside the body tissues. Internal bleeding often causes a hematoma.
Leukemia: A form of blood cancer, in which white blood cells multiply abnormally and circulate through the
blood. The excessive large numbers of white cells deposit in the body's tissues, causing damage.
Multiple myeloma: A form of blood cancer of plasma cells similar to leukemia. Anemia, kidney failure and
high blood calcium levels are common in multiple myeloma.
Lymphoma: A form of blood cancer, in which white blood cells multiply abnormally inside lymph nodes and
other tissues. The enlarging tissues, and disruption of blood's functions, can eventually cause organ failure.
Anemia: An abnormally low number of red blood cells in the blood. Fatigue and breathlessness can result,
although anemia often causes no noticeable symptoms.
Hemochromatosis: A disorder causing excessive levels of iron in the blood. The iron deposits in the liver,
pancreas and other organs, causing liver problems and diabetes.
Sickle cell disease: A genetic condition in which red blood cells periodically lose their proper shape (appearing
like sickles, rather than discs). The deformed blood cells deposit in tissues, causing pain and organ damage.
Bacteremia: Bacterial infection of the blood. Blood infections are serious, and often require hospitalization and
continuous antibiotic infusion into the veins.
Malaria: Infection of red blood cells by Plasmodium, a parasite transmitted by mosquitos. Malaria causes
episodic fevers, chills, and potentially organ damage.

Thrombocytopenia: Abnormally low numbers of platelets in the blood. Severe thrombocytopenia may lead to
bleeding.

Leukopenia: Abnormally low numbers of white blood cells in the blood. Leukopenia can result in difficulty
fighting infections.
Must Do Series(SSC CGL) on Different type of Measuring Instruments
Dear Readers.
We are providing "Must Do series" for the competitive exam on different topics and subjects. Students can go
through these topics , as it will help students to understand the concepts easily and remember it for longer
period of time. This topic is very important from all exam point of view as one or two questions are asked
from this topic.

DEVICE

USES

Transformer

A device that is used to either raise or lower


voltages and currents in an electrical circuit

Thermostat

A component which senses the temperature of


a system so that the system's temperature is
maintained near a desired set point.
An instrument measuring the rotation speed of
a shaft or disk, as in a motor or other machine

Tachometer
Seismograph

An instruments used to measure seismic waves


produced by earthquakes

Spherometer

Instrument for measuring curvature of surfaces

Sphygmomanometer

A measuring device indicates the cuff's


pressure

Sextant

An optical instrument used for finding out the


altitude of celestial bodies and their angular
distances
An instrument for measuring a refractive
index.

Refractometer

Rain gauge

Apparatus for recording of rainfall at a


particular piece

Study notes on "ARCHIMEDES PRINCIPLE"


ARCHIMEDES PRINCIPLE
It states that a body immersed in a fluid is buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the displaced fluid. It
applies to both floating and submerged bodies and to all fluids, i.e., liquids and gases.
It is discovered by ancient Greek mathematician and inventor Archimedes.

In determining whether a given body will float in a given fluid:

If the body is less dense than the fluid, it will float or, in the case of a balloon, it will rise.

If the body is denser than the fluid, it will sink.

If the body is two thirds as dense as the fluid, then two thirds of its volume will
be submerged displacing in the process a volume of fluid whose weight is equal to the entire weight of the body.

BUOYANCY
The difference between the upward and downward forces acting on the bottom and the top of the cube,
respectively,is called buoyancy.

TYPES OF BUOYANCY

POSITIVE BUOYANCY

NEGATIVE BUOYANCY

NEUTRAL BUOYANCY

POSITIVE BUOYANCY
It occurs when an object is lighter than the fluid it displaces.
The object will float because the buoyant force is greater than the object's weight.
Example -> A swimmer experiences a great amount of buoyant force. Israel's Dead Sea is famous for
attracting floating tourists. Saltwater is more dense than fresh water and provides more buoyant force.
Buoyant and net forces are not the same. An object's volume and density determine its buoyancy.

NEGATIVE BUOYANCY
Negative buoyancy occurs when an object is denser than the fluid it displaces.
The object will sink because its weight is greater than the buoyant force.
Example -> A submarine is designed to operate underwater by storing and releasing water through ballast
tanks. If the command is given to descend, the tanks take in water and increase the vessel's density.

NEUTRAL BUOYANCY
Neutral buoyancy occurs when an object's weight is equal to the fluid it displaces.
Example -> A scuba diver is trained in techniques to regulate buoyancy underwater. Swimming horizontally
and taking deep, long breaths allow the diver to propel forward, not upward. Fish control buoyancy through
an internal swim bladder. Similar to a submarine, the bladder is filled with gas as a means of altering
buoyancy.

A Floating Balloon
Buoyancy determines the ease of a floating balloon. Hydrogen, helium and hot air are the ideal gases for
balloon aviation. Unlike liquids and solids, gas molecules are spread farther apart. This empty space increases
volume and decreases density. Astronomers use unmanned hot air balloons to gather clear pictures of the
cosmos.

Hot air balloons rise into the air because the density of the air (warmer air) inside the balloon is less dense than
the air outside the balloon (cooler air). The balloon and the basket displaces a fluid that is heavier than the
balloon and the basket, so it has a buoyant force acting on the system. Balloons tend to fly better in the
morning, when the surrounding air is cool.

Must Do Series(SSC CGL) on Different type of Measuring Instruments


Dear Readers.
We are providing "Must Do series" for the competitive exam on different topics and subjects. Students can go
through these topics , as it will help students to understand the concepts easily and remember it for longer
period of time. This topic is very important from all exam point of view as one or two questions are asked
from this topic.

DEVICE

USES

Radiometer

Instrument for detecting or measuring radiant


energy.

Pyrometer

Instrument for recording high temperatures


from a great distance.

Photometer

Apparatus are used to measure the intensity of


the light produced by an unknown source in
terms of a standard source.
Instrument for recording electrical or
mechanical vibrations.

Oscillograph

Odometer

Instrument by which the distance covered by


wheeled vehicles is recorded.

Manometer

An instrument that uses a column of liquid to


measure pressure.

Lactometer

Apparatus used for measuring the purity of


milk.

Hygrometer

An instrument used for measuring the moisture


content in the atmosphere.

Fathometer

Instrument used for measuring depth of the


ocean.

Study notes on "ACIDS AND BASES"


ACIDS AND BASES

ACIDS

It comes from the Latin word "acidus", which means "sharp" or "sour".

A solution that has an excess of H+ ions.

It loses its acidity when they are combined with alkalies.

Strong Acids are dangerous and can burn your skin.

It changes the colour of LITMUS :


Blue ---> Red

Examples of Acids:

1. Vinegar
3. Citrus Fruits
2. Stomach Acid (HCl)

Strong Acid:
The pH value is below 3.
A strong acid is one which is virtually 100% ionised in solution.

Weak Acid:
An acid that only partially ionizes in an aqueous solution. This means that not every molecule breaks apart.
Weak acids usually have a pH close to 7 (3-6).

BASES

A solution that has an excess of OH- ions.

Another word for base is "alkali".

It feels slippery.

It become less alkaline when they are combined with acids.

It changes the colour of litmus:


Red --- > Blue

Examples of Bases:
1. Sodium hydroxide(NaOH, strong base)

2. Ammonia

Strong Base:
The pH value is above 10.

Weak Base:
A base that only partially ionizes in an aqueous solution. This means that not every molecule breaks apart.
Weak bases usually have a pH close to 7 (8-10).

Common Acids

Acetic acid

: vinegar, acetate

Acetylsalicylic acid

: aspirin

Ascorbic acid

: vitamin C

Carbonic acid

: soft drinks, seltzer water

Citric acid

: citrus fruits, artificial flavorings

Hydrochloric acid (HCl)

: stomach acid

Nitric acid

: fertilizer, explosives

Sulfuric acid

: car batteries

Common Bases

Aluminum hydroxide

: antacids, deodorants

Ammonium hydroxide

: glass cleaner

Calcium hydroxide

: caustic lime, mortar, plaster

Magnesium hydroxide

: laxatives, antacids

Sodium bicarbonate/sodium hydrogen carbonate : baking soda


Sodium carbonate

: dish detergent

Sodium hydroxide

: lye, oven and drain cleaner

Sodium hypochlorite

: bleach

Must Do on Properties of Acids and Bases


Dear Readers,

Properties of Acids and Bases

A table of these properties is shown here which distinguishes acids and bases apart from one another by some
of their easily observed chemical and physical properties.
Acid

Base

An acid is any chemical


compound which when
dissolved in water gives a
solution with a hydrogen ion
activity greater than in pure
water.
An acid is an substance
which donates a proton.

A base is an aqueous
substance that can accept
hydrogen ions.

Physical characteristics

Depending on the
temperature, acids can occur
in solid, liquid or gaseous
form. Taste sour.

Phenolphthalein

colorless

Bases feel slippery because


of the reaction of the base
with the oils of your hand.
Frequently solids except
ammonia which is a gas.
Taste bitter.
pink

Strength

depends on concentration of
the hydronium ions

depends on concentration of
the hydroxide ions

Dissociation

Acids free hydrogen ions


(H+) when mixed with water.

Bases free hydroxide ions


(OH-) when mixed with
water.

Chemical Formula

An acid has a chemical


formula with H at the
beginning of it. There is one
exception to his rule,
CH3COOH = Acetic Acid
(vinegar)
Acids change litmus paper
red.

A base has a chemical


formula with OH at the end
of it

Acetic acid i.e.CH3COOH


and Sulfuric acid

Sodium Hydroxide (NAOH)


and Ammonia (NH3)

Definition
Arrhenius Definition:

Bronstead Lowry Definition:

Litmus test

Examples

Study notes on "SOME COMMONLY USED SALTS " (part 1)

A base is any substance


which accepts a proton.

Bases change litmus paper


blue.

SOME COMMONLY USED SALTS

BAKING SODA

Chemically baking soda is sodium hydrogen carbonate, NaHCO3.

Baking soda is manufactured by Solveys process.

USES

1. Used for cooking of certain foods.


2. For making baking power (a mixture of sodium hydrogen carbonate and tartaric acid). On heating during
baking, baking soda gives off carbon dioxide. It is this carbon dioxide which raises the dough. The sodium
carbonate produced on heating the baking soda gives a bitter taste. Therefore, instead of using the baking soda
alone, baking powder is used. The tartaric acid present in it neutralises the sodium carbonate to avoid its bitter
taste. Cakes and pastries are made flufly and soft by using baking powder.
3. In medicines Being a mild and non-corrosive base, baking soda is used in medicines to neutralise the
excessive acid in the stomach and provide relief. Mixed with solid
edible acids such as citric or tartaric acid, it is used in effervescent drinks to cure
indigestion.
4. In soda acid fire extinguishers.

WASHING SODA

Chemically, washing soda is sodium carbonate decahydrate, Na2CO3.10H2O.

Washing soda is manufacturing by Solveys process.

USES

1. It is used in the manufacture of caustic soda, glass, soap powders, borex and
in paper industry.
2. For removing permanent hardness of water.
3. As a cleansing agent for domestic purpose.

Study notes on "SOME COMMONLY USED SALTS " (part 2)

SOME COMMONLY USED SALTS


PLASTER OF PARIS

plaster of paris, also called POP.

Chemically,it is 2CaSO4.H2O or CaSO4.1/2H2O (calcium sulphate hemi hydrate)

Gypsum, (CaSO4.H2O) is used as the raw material

USES

1. In making casts for manufacture of toys and statues.


2. In hospitals for making plaster casts to hold fractured bones in place while they
set. It is also used for making casts in dentistry.
3. For making the surface of walls and ceiling smooth.
4. For making decorative designs on ceilings, walls and pillars.
5. For making chalk for writing on blackboard.
6. For making fire proof materials.

BLEACHING POWDER

Bleaching is a process of removing colour from a cloth to make it whiter.

Chemically, it is calcium oxychloride,CaOCl2.

It is manufactured by Hasen-Clever Method.

USES
1. In textile industry for bleaching of cotton and linen.
2. In paper industry for bleaching of wood pulp.
3. In making wool unshrinkable.
4. Used as disinfactant and germicide for sterilization of water.

5. For the manufacture of chloroform.


6. Used as an oxidizing agent in chemical industry.
Study notes on "ETHANOL"

ETHANOL (CH3CH2OH or C2H5OH)

Physical properties

It is liquid at room temperature.

It is colourless and has distinct smell and burning taste.

It is soluble in water in all proportions.

Chemical properties

It reacts with sodium to form sodium ethoxide and hydrogen gas.

2CH3CH2OH + 2Na => 2CH3CH2ONa + H2


It reacts with hot concentrated H2SO4 to give ethene.

CH3CH2OH + H2SO4 => CH2=CH2 + H2O

USES

It is used in all alcoholic drinks like wine, beer, etc.

In the form of rectified spirit (95% alcohol + 5% water), it is used as anantiseptic for wounds.

It is used in medicines like tincture iodine, cough syrups, tonics etcbecause it is a good solvent.

In cold countries it is used as antifreeze in automobiles.

Harmful effects of ethanol

Consumption of its small quantity causes drunkenness.

It depresses the central nervous system which results in mental confusion and drowsiness.

It damages liver and kidney.

It decreases the sense of judgment and sense of timing.

It increases crime in the society.

Denatured alcohol : To prevent the misuse of ethanol produced for industrial use, it is made unfit for
drinking by adding poisonous substances like methanol, copper sulphate, etc. it is called denatured alcohol.

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