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force that is associated with the friction which acts in the opposite direction. As frictional forces are decreased (for
example, by placing oil on the table) the object moves further and further before stopping. This demonstrates
Galileos law of inertia too.
Cycle of Photosynthesis & Respiration
Mouseover picture
for information on RESPIRATION
Hello Readers, here we are posting some study notes on Biology. we hope that the below given post will be helpful
to you all in he upcoming exams..
The process by which plants make food is called"photosynthesis". The word "photosynthesis" is made up of two
words:
"photo" = light
Plants take in carbon dioxide from the air and water from the soil; put them together (in the presence of light energy
and chlorophyll) to produce sugar (glucose) and oxygen.
Chlorophyll is the green pigment found in plants. Both chlorophyll and light energy need to be present for
photosynthesis to take place, but they are not used up in the process.
Thus, the process of photosynthesis can be represented as follows:
chlorophyll
sugar (glucose) + oxygen
carbon dioxide + water
light energy
This cycle of photosynthesis and respiration maintains the balance of carbon dioxide and oxygen on earth.
Outer and inner membranes: protective coverings that keep chloroplast structures enclosed.
Stroma: dense fluid within the chloroplast. Site of conversion of carbon dioxide to sugar.
Thylakoid: flattened sac-like membrane structures. Site of conversion of light energy to chemical energy.
Grana: dense layered stacks of thylakoid sacs. Sites of conversion of light energy to chemical energy.
Photosynthesis
Respiration
Metals have high tensile strength, i.e. they can hold heavy loads without breaking.
Metals have high densities i.e. they are heavy in nature. Sodium and potassium metals are exceptions as they have
low densities and float on water.
4. Corrosion is the process of slowly eating away of metal due to attack of atmospheric gases and water on the surface
of metal. The most common example of corrosion is the rusting of iron.
Rusting: Rusting is the corrosion of iron on exposure to atmosphere
Non-metals are quite abundant in nature. They are main constituent of atmosphere.
Oxygen, nitrogen and noble gases are present in the air.
Non-metals are also present in large amounts in oceans.
Hydrogen and oxygen are present as water and chlorine is present as chlorides in the oceans.
Oxygen, silicon, phosphorus and sulphur are present in the earth's crust.
6. Physical Properties of Non-metals:
Non-metals are either solids or gases at room temperature. Bromine is the only liquid non-metal at room
temperature.
Non-metals are soft. Phosphorus is so soft that can be cut with a knife. Diamond, an allotrope of carbon, is the
hardest known substance.
Non-metals have low tensile strength, i.e. they are not strong and break easily.
Non-metals are non-lustrous and have a dull appearance. Graphite, an allotrope of carbon and iodine have shining
lustrous surfaces.
Non-metals are non-malleable and non-ductile. They cannot be hammered into sheets or drawn into wires. These are
brittle solids. When non-metals like sulphur, are hammered or stretched, they break into pieces.
Non-metals are non-conductors or bad conductors of heat and electricity. Gas carbon and graphite are good
conductors of heat and electricity.
Non-metals are non-sonorous i.e. do not make a ringing sound when struck.
Non-metals usually have low densities
Shots Notes on Pollutant
Dear Readers,
As you all know that pollutants really have an affect on our atmosphere, we need to go through them seriously
- "What they are" and "What are their types". Lets study them properly in detail as this topic has its
importance in coming SSC CHSL 2015 and also for SSC CGL.
POLLUTANT :
A pollutant is substance or energy introduced into the environment that has undesired effects, or adversly affects the
usefulness of a resource. The pollutants may be inorganic, biological or radiological in nature.
4.Non-Biodegradable Pollutants :
(Eg : Mercuric salt, Lead,compounds, Pesticides.etc.)
AIR POLLUTION :
Major Air Pollutants :
Smoke, dust
Ammonia
Chlorinated hydrocarbons
Mercaptans
Zn and Cd
Freon
Photochemical pollutants : The nitrogen dioxide by absorbing sunlight in blue and U. V. region decomposes into
nitric oxide and atomic oxygen followed by a series of other reactions producing
O3, formaldehyde, acrolein and peroxy acylnitrates.
SMOG : It is a mixture of smoke and fog in suspended droplet form.
It is two types :
(a) London smog or classical smog : It is coal smoke plus fog.
(b) Photochemical smog or Los Angeles smog : The oxidised hydrocarbons and ozone in presence of humidity cause
photochemical smog.
ACID RAIN :
The oxides of C, N and S present in the atmosphere, dissolve in water and produce acids which lowers the pH of
water below 5.5.The acids are toxic to vegetation, react with marble and damage buildings.
GREEN HOUSE EFFECT :
The retention of heat by the earth and atmosphere from the sun and its prevention to escape into the outer space is
known as Green House Effect. Global warming refers to an increase in average global temperature.
(i) Global warming would result in rise in sea level due to increased rate of melting of glaciers and floods.
(ii) Increase in infectious diseases like Malaria, Dengue etc.
OZONE LAYER AND ITS DEPLETION :
The ozone layer, existing between 20 to 35 km above the earths surface, shield the earth from the harmful U. V.
radiations from the sun. The U. V. radiations cause skin cancer, cataract of eye, and
are harmful to vegetation. Depletion of ozone is caused by oxides of nitrogen The presence of chlorofluorocarbons
also increase the decomposition of O3 .
WATER POLLUTION :
The contamination of water by foreign substances which would constitute a health hazard and make it harmful for all
purposes (domestic, industrial or agriculture etc.) is known as water pollution.
Sources of Water Pollution :
Domestic sewage
Industrial waters
Suspended particles
Special techniques
Waste-water reclamation
Agricultural pollutants
Domestic refuge
Radioactive wastes
Farm wastes
1. Malaria
2.Amoebic
dysentery
3. Sleeping sickness
4. Kala azar
it is a single
1. Tapeworn
2. Filariasis
3. Pinworm
Composition of blood:
1. Plasma constitutes for about 54% of our blood. 92% of it is water.
2. White blood cells and platelets constitute for about 1% of our blood.
3. Red blood cells constitute for about 45% of our blood.
Red blood cells have a biconcave shape and are involved in the transportation of oxygen by haemoglobin
(haem=iron-containing), they are made in the bone marrow,they have no nucleus, they last for approximately 120
days and are then broken down into pigments called bilirubin and biliverdin in the liver.(N.B. oxyhaemoglobin
=oxygen rich haemoglobin, deoxyhaemoglobin=low oxygen haemoglobin)
White blood cells are divided into 2 types: monocytes are involved in recognising anything that is foreign and
ingesting the foreign particle by phagocytosis whereas lymphocytes are involved in the production of antibodies
which inactivate and immobilise pathogens. White blood cells have nuclei and are also made in the bone marrow.
Platelets are small fragments without nuclei and last just 7 days. They are essential in clotting blood.
Blood groups consist of A, B, AB and O groups. People in the AB blood group are known as universal recipients
because they can receive blood from any group. People in the O group are known as universal donors because they
can give blood to anybody, although the most common blood group they can only receive blood from their own
group.
Deep vein thrombosis(DVT) are swollen areas caused by unwanted clotting in veins due to a lack of movement on
long journeys.(flight socks may prevent DVT)
Circulatory System
Open circulatory systems allow the blood flow out of the vessels before returning to the heart via ostia. (no veins
involved)E.g. insects
Closed circulatory systems dont allow the blood to leave the blood vessels E.g. humans advantages include faster
and controlled delivery of oxygen and nutrients which allow for longer periods of activity.
Arteries are blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart in powerful pulses. They have thick walls small
lumens and no valves.
Endothelium is the innermost layer of blood vessels that consists of just a single layer of cells.
Veins are blood vessels that carry blood to the heart in an even flow. They have thin walls large lumens and valves.
Capillaries are tiny blood vessels with walls just one cell thick, they carry blood from arterioles to venules through
tissues releasing nutrients and removing wastes.
The human circulatory system consists of two circuits systemic and pulmonary.
The coronary artery carries blood to the heart muscle from the aorta. (coronary vein )
The hepatic artery carries blood to the liver. (hepatic vein)
The renal arteries carry blood to the kidneys. (renal veins)
The mesenteric arteries carry blood to the small and large intestines.
The carotid arteries supply blood to the head. (jugular veins)
The subclavian arteries supply blood to the arms. (subclavian veins)
The iliac arteries carry blood to the legs. (iliac veins)
A portal system is a network of capillaries in one organ or tissue joined to another network of capillaries in another
organ or tissue via a vein or veins.
A pulse is the alternate contraction and relaxation of an artery as blood passes through it.
Blood pressure is the force blood exerts on the walls of blood vessels.
A sphygmomanometer is used for measuring blood pressure(normally 120/80 mmHg)
Atherosclerosis is the hardening of artery walls due to a build-up of fatty deposits.
Smoking causes heart rate and blood pressure to increase. Diet high in saturated fats increase blood pressure and
atherosclerosis. Exercise helps lower blood pressure.
Lymphatic System
The lymphatic system returns extracellular fluid(ECF) or interstitial fluid caused by plasma leaking from capillaries to
the bloodstream.
Lymph is a clear liquid that is collected around cells and is transported by the lymphatic system back to the
bloodstream. o Lymph vessels are narrow, dead ending tubes that transport lymph and are present in every tissue and
organ throughout the body.
Lymph nodes are small spherical-shaped organs of the lymphatic system that contain many white blood cells. o
Functions of the lymphatic system:
1. Filters lymph white blood cells in lymph nodes remove bacteria and viruses.
2. Absorb fat from small intestine lymph vessels throughout the wall of the digestive system absorb lipids.
3. Maturation of certain white blood cells lymphocytes mature and become fully active in the thymus.
4. Fighting infection white blood cells produce antibodies to kill bacteria and viruses.
Most Important Biology Terminology (part-1)
Dear Sa'ians,
Today we are providing the important Short notes on Blood cells discrimination with the help of diagram, so that all
SA'ians having clearly vision about the frequently ask topicBLOOD CELL AND IT'S COMPOSITION. in various
exams.
Artery
Vein
Coronary
Artery
Pulmonary
Artery
Superior Vena
Cava
Inferior Vena
Cava
Coronary Vein
Pulmonary
Veins
Function
Largest and principal artery which circulates oxygenated blood
to all parts of the body through its branches.
A branch of Aorta which supplies oxygenated blood to the heart
tissues.
Only artery which carries deoxygenated blood. It carries blood
from the heart to the lungs for purification.
This vein returns deoxygenated blood from the head, arms and
thorax to the heart.
This vein returns deoxygenated blood from the abdomen and
legs to the heart.
This vein returns deoxygenated blood from the heart muscles to
the heart.
Four pulmonary veins, two from each lung carry oxygenated
blood from lungs to the heart.
Today we are providing the important Short notes on Blood cells discrimination with the help of diagram, so that all
SA'ians having clearly vision about the frequently ask topic BLOOD CELL AND IT'S COMPOSITION. in various
exams.
Mothers's
Blood
Group
A
B
AB
O
A
A or O
A, B, AB, O
A, B or AB
A or O
AB
A, Bor AB
A, B or AB
A, B or AB
A or B
O
A or O
B or O
A or B
O
Main
disorder
Specific
Irondeficiency
Anaemia
Vitamindeficiency
Anaemia
Brief details
Results from deficiency of iron usually due to blood loss or poor
nutrition.
Results from low levels of Vitamin B12 or folic acid due to poor
nutrition.
Anaemia
Aplastic
Anaemia
Hemolytic
Anaemia
Sickle Cell
Anaemia
Bleeding
Disorders
von
Willebrand
Disease
Haemophilia
Leukemia
Lymphoma
Blood
Cancers
Myeloma
Occurs when the body stops making enough red blood cells. This may be
due to viral infections, exposure to toxic chemicals, drugs, and
autoimmune diseases.
Occurs when abnormal breakdown of red blood cells takes place.
It is a hereditary blood disorder, in which red blood cells taking a rigid,
sickle shape. This decreases the cells' flexibility and may result in
lifethreatening complications.
It is the most common hereditary coagulation abnormality that results
when the blood lacks von Willebrand factor, a protein that helps the
blood to clot.
It is a rare, usually inherited, bleeding disorder characterised by body's
inability to control blood clotting or coagulation. It results from a genetic
defect in Xchromosome.
Characterised by rapid production of abnormal white blood cells which
cannot fight infection and also impair the ability of the bone marrow to
produce red blood cells and platelets.
Lymphoma is a type of blood cancer that occurs when lymphocytes, the
white blood cells that form a part of the immune system, divide faster
than normal cells or live longer than they are supposed to.
This type of cancer targets the plasma cells which produce antibodies,
thus weaken the immune system of the body.
Myopia or short sightedness : A person suffering from myopia can see the near objects clearly while far objects are
not clear.
Causes :
Elongation of eye ball along the axis.
Shortening of focal length of eye lens.
Over stretching of ciliary muscles beyond the elastic limit.
Remedy : Diverging lens is used.
Hyperopia or hypermetropia or longsightedness : A person suffering from hypermetropia can see the distant
objects clearly but not the near objects.
Causes:
Shortening of eye ball along the axis.
Increase in the focal length of eye lens.
Stiffening of ciliary muscles.
Remedy : A converging lens is used.
Presbyopia : This defect is generally found in elderly person. Due to stiffening of ciliary muscles, eye looses much of
its accommodating power. As a result distant as well as nearby objects can not be seen.
Remedy:two separate lens or a bifocal lens is used.
Astigmatism : This defect arises due to difference in the radius of curvature of cornea in the different planes. As a
result rays from an object in one plane are brought to focus by eye in another plane.
Remedy: cylindrical lens is used.
As we know that General Awareness section is very important in terms of SSC and Railways Exam. And in
this particular section, Static G.K. plays a critical role in deciding the marks of candidates in such exams.
Thus,it is important to revise Static G.K. daily so as to provide a little edge over other candidates appearing for
these exams.
Today we are publishing Topic "Important Inventions and their Inventors" which is part of Static G.K. and
usually 1-2 questions come from this portion.
1. Archimedes
2. Bacquarrel
- Radio-activity of uranium.
3. J.L.Baird
- Television.
4. Benjamin Franklin
- Lightning conductor.
5. H.J.Bhabha
6. Binet
- Intelligence tests.
7. J.C. Bose
- Crescograph.
8. S.N. Bose
9. Bohr
10.Bunsen
- Spectroscope.
11.Bushwell
- Submarine.
12.Carothers
- Nylon Plastics.
13.Cavendish
14.Charles Darwin
15.Curie Madame
- Radium.
Study Notes : Branches of Biology for SSC CGL 2016, SSC CHSL, SSC CPO and Railways.
Dear Readers,
Today we are providing you a important Study Notes which is based on Branches Of Biology. This is
important for your Upcoming Exams like Railways, SSC CHSl, SSC CPO and SSC CGL 2016.
Botany: It deals with the study of plants.
Zoology: It deals with the study of animals.
Microbiology: It deals with the study of micro-organisms.
Taxonomy: It deals with the identification nomenclature and classification of the living organisms.
Morphology: It deals with the study of external structure and form of living organisms.
Anatomy: It deals with the study of the gross internal structure of living organisms with naked eyes.
Histology: It deals with the study of the minute structures of the tissue with the help of microscopes.
Cytology: It deals with the study of form and detailed structure of individual cells.
Physiology: It deals with functioning of the organisms E.g. Digestion, excretion, growth etc.
Embryology: It deals with the study of changes or events leading to fertilization and development of embryo.
Ecology: It deals with the study of changes or events on environment that influences the living organisms.
Evolution: It deals with the study of modern form of organisms from primitive and simpler forms.
Genetics: It deals with the study of heredity and variation in living organisms.
Paleontology: It deals with the study of life at it exists in the past, based on the fossil remains of prehistoric
organisms.
Anthropology: It deals with the study of origin, development, cultural and social condition and customs of
present and past races of mankind.
Exobiology: It deals with the study of possibility of life in outer space.
Applied Biology: It deals with the study of living organisms concerning welfare and betterment of mankind.
Limnology: It deals with the study of fresh water and their inhabitants.
Cryobiology: It deals with the study of effects of life at very low temperature.
20.99 %
Argon
.94 %
CO2
.03 %
.01 %
Rest are Neon, Helium, Ozone, Xenon & Krypton in very minute percentage
Nitrogen
The Nitrogen Cycle is natures way of supplying the needed nitrogen for living things
Get fixed to soil & generates protein in plants (Major source of food)
CO2.
Transparent to incoming solar radiations but opaque to terrestrial radiations radiated from earth surface
which keeps air near the ground warmer
Responsible for global warming, as alarming increase in level of CO2 in past few years due to burning of
fossil fuels
Water Vapour
heat
Absorbs part of insolation from the sun & reduces its amount reaching the earth Preserves earths radiated
Hence, acts as a blanket, allowing the earth to neither become too hot or too cold
Dust Particles
Acts as hydroscopic nuclei around which water vapour condense & form clouds
Intercept & reflect sun rays giving orange colour at sunrise, red colour at sunset & blue colour of clear sky
Molecules (Dust particles) in air scatter blue light (shorter wavelength) more than red light (longer
wavelength) in every direction, hence sky looks blue
At sunrise & sunset, sky appears orange & red because blue light has already been scattered out by
molecules in the air, out of sight & longer wavelength light reaches out to us
Dense Haze & smog (smoke + fog) are also caused due to presence of dust particles in the air
Structure of Atmosphere.
On the basis of chemical composition atmosphere can be divided into 2 parts viz.
Stratosphere
Mesosphere
Troposphere
That is why height of troposphere at a given latitude is greater in summer Temperature decreases with
height, roughly at 1*C for every 165 meters Normal Lapse Rate.
Lowest, Densest & contains 75 % of earths atmosphere with 90% of water vapours & dust particles.
Tropopause
Shallow transitional zone (Unstable zone) b/w Troposphere & Stratosphere (Approx. 1.5 Km)
Temperature stops falling in this layer 80*C over equator & 45*C over poles
Stratosphere
Temperature remains constant in its lower portion upto 20 Km & then gradually increases to 0*C till its
upper limit i.e.
Tropopause
Increases mainly due to the presence of ozone gas, which absorbs suns UV rays
Practically no clouds, convection currents, Thundering or lighting, water vapours or dust particles hence
airplane fly in this region
Few clouds called Mother of Pearls / Narcreas can be seen over Antarctica
Its lower portion (15 35 Km) constitutes Ozone layer which prevents us from harmful UV rays
Mesosphere
Displays wispy clouds at high altitudes due to reflected sunlight from meteoric dust particles
Minerals are inorganic substances or chemical elements that forms one of the important nutrient groups needed by
human body for proper growth and development of the body.
On the basis of requirement of minerals by human body Minerals are classified into two groups Major mineral (or
Macro-minerals) and Trace minerals
(Micro-minerals)
Minerals
Major dietary
sources of
Minerals
Major functions
of minerals
in the body
Symptoms of
deficiency
Calcium(Ca)
Bone and
tooth formation,
blood clotting
nerve and
muscles function
Retarded growth,
possibly loss
of bone mass
Phosphorus(P)
Dairy products,
meats, grains
Weakness, loss of
minerals from
bone
,calcium loss
Sulphur(S)
Proteins
from many sources
Symptoms of
protein deficiency
Potassium(K)
Acid-base balance,
Meats, dairy products, many
water balance,
fruits and vegetable ,grains
nerve function
Muscular weakness,
paralysis,
nausea, heart failure
Chlorine(Cl)
Table salt
Sodium(Na)
Table salt
Acid-base balance,
water balance,
nerve function
Magnesium(Mg)
Co-factor,ATP bioenergetics
Nervous
system disturbances
Iron(Fe)
Components ofhaemoglobin
and of electron carriers in energy
metabolism;enzyme cofactor
Fluorine(F)
Maintenance of
Drinking water, tea, seafood tooth (and probably bone)
structure
Iron-deficiency anaemia,
weakness
,impaired immunity
High
frequency of tooth decay
Growth failure,
scaly skininflammation,
reproductive failure
impairedimmunity
Zinc(Zn)
Copper(Cu)
Manganese (Mn)
Nuts, grains,
vegetables, fruits, tea
Enzyme co-factor
Iodine(I)
Goitre(enlarged thyroid)
Cobalt(Co)
Meats and
dairy products
None ,except
asB12 deficiency
Selenium(Se)
Enzyme co-factor;
antioxidant functioningin
closeassociationwith vitamin E
Chromium(Cr)
Brewers
yeast,liver,seafood,
meats,some vegetables
Involved in
glucose and energy metabolism
Impaired glucose
metabolism
Molybdenum(Mo)
Legumes,rains,some
vegetables
Enzyme cofactor
Disorder in excretion of
nitrogen containing
compounds
Animal Cell
Plant Cell
Cell wall:
Absent
Present (formed of
cellulose)
Shape:
Vacuole:
Centrioles:
Chloroplast:
Cytoplasm:
Present
Present
Endoplasmic
Reticulum
(Smooth and
Rough):
Present
Present
Ribosomes:
Present
Present
Mitochondria:
Present
Present
Plastids:
Absent
Present
Golgi
Apparatus:
Present
Present
Plasma
Membrane:
Microtubules/
Microfilaments:
Present
Present
Flagella:
Lysosomes:
Nucleus:
Present
Present
Cilia:
Present
It is very rare
Chemicals in Foods
All those chemical which are added to food to improve its keeping qualities, appearance, taste, and odour are called
the food additives.
1. Food Colours
2. Flavours and Sweeteners
3. Preservative
4. Nutritional Supplements.
ARTEFICAL SWEETNING AGENTS:Sucrose and Fructose used as normal sugar add to our calorie intake and promote tooth decay to avoid this we use
artificial sweeteners
a. Saccharin:It is most popular artificialsweetener. It is insoluble in water. It is 550 times sweeter than sugar. It is not
biodegradable and does not have any calorific value of food.
b. Aspartame:It is methyl ester of dipeptide derived from phenylalanine and aspartic acid. It is 100 times sweeter than sugar. It
decomposes at baking or cooking temperature thus it can be only used in cold foods and soft drinks.
c. Alitame:It is more stable than as partake. It is nearly 2000 times sweet as sugar. It is difficult to control the sweetness of food
which they are added.
PRESERVATIVES:Chemical substances which are used to protect food against Bacteria, Yeasts and Moulds are called preservatives.
Examples:1. Sodium Benzoate:The most commonly used preservative sodium benzoate. It is used in soft drinks and acidic foods.
Sodium and Calcium propionates are used in breads and cakes as mould inhibitor.
2. Sodium Metabisalphite:Sodium or potassium metabisulphite is used for preserving James, Squashes, Pickles etc. other important
preservatives are Sorbic acid, Epoxides, Sirca, Nitrogen, Hydroxy benzoate esters etc.
ANTIOXIDENTS:Chemical which are used to prevent the oxidation of fats in processed foods such as potato chips are called.
Antioxidants:Ascorbic acid (Vitamin C) and tocopherols (Vitamin E) are used as Antioxidants.
CLEANSING AGENTS:Soaps and Detergents:Chemical substances which concentrates at the surface of the solution or interfaces, farms surface Films, reduced
surface tension of solution helps in removing dirt and dust by emulsifying grease are called surfactants. They are
soaps and detergents.
Soaps:-
They are sodium or potassium salts of higher fatty acids such as lquric acid [C11H23COOH], steric acid
[C17H35COOH] etc.
Soaps are formed by heating fat or oil with aqueous sodium hydroxide solution. This reaction is called saponification
reaction.
Only sodium and potassium soaps are soluble in water and are used for thecleansing purpose.
1. Toilet Soaps:Toilet Soaps are prepared by using better grades of fats and oils and core is taken to remove excess alkali.
2. Landry Soaps:Used for washing clothes, contains fillers like sodium rosin ate, sodium silicate, borax and sodium carbonate. Other
kinds of soaps are shaving soaps, floating soaps, transparent soaps etc.
ADVANTAGE AND DISADVANTAGE OF SOAPS:1. Soap is good cleanising agent is 100% biodegradable, it does not create any pollution but it have disadvantage also:
a. Soaps cannot be get used in hard water since calcium and magnesium ions present in hard water produces curdy
white PPt with calcium and magnesium salt of fatty acids.
b. Soaps cannot be used in acidic solution. Since acids precipitate the insoluble free fatty acids.
Study Notes :Clouds and its types
What is Clouds?
A visible aggregation of minute water droplets or ice particles in the air above the ground levels i.e. at the certain
elevation is called as the cloud.
There are two major cloud group based on their forms
1.Strati form Cloud group
These are the clouds present in the form of layers
2.Cumuli form Cloud group
It consist of globular clouds in the form of cotton balls
The world meteorological organization gave the international cloud atlas consisting of 10 main cloud families. These
families are listed according to their heights into 3 groups.
High
Middle
Low
1.High Clouds
All high clouds are called as cirro clouds and they are present at elevation of 5 to 13 kms.
These clouds are composed of ice crystals and produce phenomenon called halo and does not give
rainfall/precipitations they are of three types
a.Cirrus
These are detached clouds in the form of white delicate filaments or narrow binds.
Sometimes they are in the form of white patches.
b.Cirro Cumulus
These are the clouds looks like small flakes or globules consisting of white patchy layers of clouds without shading.
When these patches are uniformly arranged, it forms a mackerel sky
c. Cirro status
These are the transparent whitish clouds in the form of a fibrous veil with smooth appearance.
2.Middle Clouds
All middle clouds are called as the alto clouds.They are present in the height ranging from 2 to 7 Kms. They of three
types
a.Alto Cumulus
Its a white or grey patchy layer of cloud having dark shading on their under surfaces.
Sometimes they are found in wavy or parallel bonds where they are referred as sheep or wool packed clouds.
Often they are composed of super cooled liquid droplets. They may or may not give rainfall
b.Alto stratus
They are greyish or bluish cloud layers having fibrous appearance covering most part of the sky.
The sun is vaguely revealed in the form of spot.
But the ground shadows are not cast.
They give out fine drizzle of snow
c.Nimbo stratus
It is a grey cloud layer often very dark, thick enough to blot the sun.
The rain or snow falling from this cloud does not reach the ground and called as virga.
3. Low Clouds
These are the clouds present below 2 kms of elevation and there are 4 types of cloud families are present in this
a. Strato cumulus
It is a low cloud layer which is dull grey in colour consisting of large lumpy masses with brighter intersects
b. Stratus
This is a grey cloud layer.
The sun is visible and its outline is clearly distinguishable.
They are also present in the form of raged patches.
C. Cumulus
These are dense detached clouds with sharp outline developing vertically in the forms of mount or tower like
cauliflower.
The sunlit part is brighter and the base is dark.
They represent transition to the cumulo nimbus clouds and are present only during day time
D.Cumulo nimbus
These are heavy & dense cloud forms having an anvil head.
These are towering clouds from the ground level to intermediate heights.
They are associated with heavy rainfall, thunders, lighting.
Study Notes: Biology
DNA
RNA
Stands for:
Definition:
A single-stranded chain
of alternating phosphate and ribose
units with the bases Adenine,
Guanine, Cytosine, and Uracil
bonded to the ribose.
Function:
Unique Features:
DNA
RNA
Predominant
Structure:
Pairing of Bases:
A-T(Adenine-Thymine), GC(Guanine-Cytosine)
A-U(Adenine-Uracil), G-C(GuanineCytosine)
Stability:
Propagation:
DNA is self-replicating.
Eukaryotic Cell
Prokaryotic Cell
Nucleus:
Present
Absent
Number of
chromosomes:
Cell Type:
Usually multicellular
True Membrane
bound Nucleus:
Present
Absent
Example:
Genetic
Recombination:
Eukaryotic Cell
Prokaryotic Cell
Lysosomes and
peroxisomes:
Present
Absent
Microtubules:
Present
Absent or rare
Endoplasmic
reticulum:
Present
Absent
Mitochondria:
Present
Absent
Cytoskeleton:
Present
May be absent
DNA wrapping on
proteins.:
Ribosomes:
larger
smaller
Golgi apparatus:
Present
Absent
Chloroplasts:
Flagella:
Permeability of
Nuclear
Membrane:
Selective
not present
Plasma membrane
with steroid:
Yes
Usually no
Cell wall:
Cell size:
10-100um
1-10um
The questions asked on 9th April Evening shift(4:00 - 5:30 PM)RRB Exam
Current captain of womens hockey team? Ritu Rani
2015 Nobel Prize for lieturate
SONAR full form: Sound Navigation And Ranging
Which is first unmanned satellite launched by ISRO??
CERN related
Make in India emoji related: Twitter
Minimum age of pm: 25 years
Nitrogen %in atmosphere: 78%
First Indian go into space: Rakesh Sharma
Source of Narmada river: Amarkantak
World aids day: 1st Dec
Which is not a fundamental right: Right to Die for Country
US Open women's double winner 2015 : Sania Mirza and Martina Hingis
Indira Gandhi Tulip Garden Situated at : Srinagar
,Kanha National Park situated at : Madhya Pradesh
Capital of Andhra Pradesh : Amravathi
State with Lowest Population Density : Sikkim
Snooker Champion 2015 :
Summer Olympic 2016 Venue : Rio
Hindi Diwas On : 15th Sept
Country winning most Oscar in Foreign Film Category :
Highest Unit Of Data Storage ( Kb, MB,GB,TB,PB,YB) : YB
Self Help Group in A.P. Started by which Internet giant : Google
First state to connect all the Panchayat's via internet : Kerala
Bhagat Singh killed John Saunder's to avenge : To take the revenge of Death of Lala Lajpath Rai
Milky way is a ? : Galaxy
Who is known to be First Computer Programmer :ADA
Arthritis: Joints
Asthma: Bronchial Muscles
Cataract: Eyes
Diabetes: Pancreas
Diphtheria : Throat
Eczema : Skin
Glaucoma : Eyes
Goiter : Thyroid Gland
Jaundice : Liver
Leukemia : Blood
Malaria : Spleen
This linkage between photosynthesis and aerobic respiration circulates carbon in the ecosphere and is a major part of
the carbon cycle. This part of the gaseous cycle is shown in greatly simplified in carbon cycle. And some of the ways
plants, animals, and decomposers in the biosphere depend on one another for survival. Oxygen and hydrogen, the
other elements in glucose and other carbohydrates, cycle almost in step with carbon.
Carbon cycles rapidly between the atmosphere and hydrosphere and living organisms it shows that some of the earth's
carbon is tied up for long periods in fossil fuels-coal, petroleum, natural gas, peat, oil shale, tar sand, and ligniteformed over millions of years in the lithosphere. The carbon in these mineral deposits remains locked up until it is
released to the atmosphere as carbon dioxide when fossil fuels are extracted and burned.
Nitrogen Cycle:
Organisms require nitrogen in various chemical forms to make proteins and genetically important nucleic acids such
as DNA. Klost green plants need nitrogen in the form of nitrate ions (NO,-) and ammonium ions (NH4 +). The
nitrogen gas (NJ that makes up about 78% of the volume of the earth's atmosphere is useless to such plants, people,
and most other organisms. Fortunately, nitrogen gas is converted into water-soluble ionic compounds containing
nitrate ions and ammonium ions, which are taken up by plant roots as part of the nitrogen cycle.
The conversion of atmospheric nitrogen gas into other chemical forms useful to plants is called nitrogen Fixation. It is
carried out mostly by blue-green algae and certain kinds of bacteria in soil and water and by rhizobium bacteria living
in small swellings called nodules on the roots of alfalfa, clover, peas, beans, and other legume plants. Also playing a
role in nitrogen fixation, lightning converts nitrogen gas and oxygen gas in the atmosphere to nitric oxide and
nitrogen dioxide gas. These gases react with water vapor in the atmosphere and are converted to nitrate ions that
return to the earth as nitric acid dissolved in precipitation and as particles of nitrate salts.
Plants convert inorganic nitrate ions and ammonium ions obtained from soil water into proteins, DNA, and other
large, nitrogen-containing organic compounds they require. Animals get most of their nitrogen-containing nutrients
by eating plants or other animals that have eaten plants.
Study Notes on BLOOD RBC, WBC, PLATELETS for SSC
Blood is a fluid connective tissue. It quantity is 6.8 litres in man and 500 ml less in the woman. It constitutes 6-8% of
body weight and has a pH of 7.4.
Three types of Blood Cells:
1) Red Blood Cells (RBC)
2) White Blood cells (WBC)
3) Platelets
Red Blood Corpuscles (RBC):
They are also called erythrocytes, disc shaped, and nonucleus. It contains a pigment which is called Haemoglobin,
which gives blood its red color and transports oxygen and carbon dioxide
Red blood cells are manufactured in Bone marrow
The Life of Red Blood Cells is 120 days. Number of RBCs is 4.5 5 million/ cubic mm of blood
Platelets:
Also called thrombocytes and are about 2,50,000 per cubic mm of blood
Manufactured in red Bone marrow
It helps the blood to clot
Blood Groupings
Father of Blood Grouping : Karl Landsteiner
He discovered A, B and O blood groups
Decastello and Sturle discovered AB blood groups
Blood Group
Can donate to
A,AB
A,O
B,AB
B,O
AB
AB
A,B,AB,O
A, B, AB, O
RH factor
It is a blood antigen found in RBC
A person can be Rh+ or Rh- depending upon the presence of Rh factor in RBC
Rh+ can receive blood from both Rh+ and Rh- but Rh- can receive blood only from Rh- only
Blood transfusion techniques was developed by James Blundell.
Air Pollutants
Primary Pollutants: Persist in the form in which they are added to the environment for ex. DDT, Plastic
Secondary Pollutants: Formed by interaction among primary pollutants viz. PAN by interaction of NOx &
Hydrocarbons
Biodegradable Pollutants: Waste products which are degraded by microbial action for ex. Sewage
Non-Biodegradable Pollutants: Not decomposed by microbial action for ex. Plastic, Glass, DDT, Radioactive
substances
Quantitative Pollutants: Occur in nature & become pollutant when their concentration reaches beyond a threshold
level for ex. CO2, NOx
Qualitative Pollutants: Do not occur in nature & are man-made for ex. fungicides, herbicides, DDT
1. CO
2. CO2
Major greenhouse gas formed by respiration, burning of fuels, decomposition of lime, volcanic eruption
3. CFCs
Detrimental to Ozone layer present in the stratosphere as CFC + UV >> Cl (Chlorine radicals which causes
breakdown of Ozone)
4. Lead
Present in petrol, diesel, lead batteries, paints, hair dye products etc. (Affects children in particular)
Damages nervous system & cause digestive problems & in some cases causes cancer
5. O3
Formed when NOx particle from vehicle exhaust & volatile Hydrocarbons interact with each other in
presence of sunlight
6. SPM
SPMs in air, when breathed in causes lung damage & respiratory problems
7. SO2
Produced from burning coal (60 %), mainly in thermal power plants + Petroleum products + in production of
paper & smelting of metals .
8. CH4
9. Acid Rain
10. NOx
Ph< 5.6 (Rain with oxides of sulphur & nitrogen (SO2 & NO2)) HNO3 + H2SO4
Automobile exhaust produces NO2 which damages plant leaves & retard rate of photosynthesis + also
causes red haze & lung irritation
11. Classical Smog
Result from the action of sunlight on unsaturated HC & NOx produced by factories & automobile
Chemically oxidising hence called oxidising smog Ozone + Acrolein + Formaldehyde + Peroxyacetyl
Nitrate (PAN) are produced which cause serious health problems, severe plant damage, cracking of rubber &
corrosion Catalytic Converter Prevent release of NO & HC to environment.
13. GHGs
CO2, CH4, CFC, N2O, SF6, HFCs, PFCs, CCl4, CH3CCl3, Water Vapour, O3
14. Formaldehyde
Mainly from carpets, particle boards & insulation foam Causes irritation & allergies
15. Radon
A gas naturally emitted by soil .Due to poor ventilation it is confined inside house & causes lung cancer
Monday, 6 June 2016
Study Notes on Weather and Climate (part 1)
Weather
It refers to the sum total of the atmospheric conditions in terms of temperature, pressure, wind, moisture etc of a given
It refers to the sum total of the atmospheric conditions in terms of temperature, pressure, wind, moisture etc
of a given place and time.
It changes each day because the air in our atmosphere is always moving, distributing energy from the Sun.
In most places in the world, the types of weather events also vary throughout the year as season's change.
Climate
It is the average weather condition or atmospheric condition of a region over a considerable period of time.
However, Global climate is a description of the climate of a planet as a whole, with all the regional differences
averaged.
EXOCRINE GLAND:
Exocrine glands are glands whose secretions pass into a system of ducts that lead ultimately to the
exterior of the body. So the inner surface of the glands and the ducts that drain them are topologically
continuous with the exterior of the body (the skin). Endocrine glands, in contrast, place their
secretions into the internal environment - the blood.
Examples of exocrine glands are:
Salivary glands that secrete saliva into the mouth bile-producing glands of the liver prostate gland the
portion of the pancreas that secretes pancreatic fluid into the duodenum. (The pancreas is also an
endocrine gland - its islets of Langerhans secrete several hormones into the blood.) gastric glands
and sweat glands
TYPES:
Gastric Glands
It produces sweat. It produce and secrete substances onto an epithelial surface by way of a duct.
There are three different ways in which exocrine glands secrete their products:
Merocrines glands (e.g., salivary glands) secrete their product from intact cells.
Apocrine glands (e.g., mammary glands) accumulate their secretory product at the apical surface of
each cell, which then separates from the remainder to from a secretion in the lumen of the gland. The
cells then repair themselves.
Holocrine glands (e.g., sebaceous or oil glands) are those in which entire cells and their secretions
accumulate as the gland's secretory product. Discharged cells are replaced by new ones.
Study Notes on Humidity
Moisture, or water vapour, is an extremely important constituent of the atmosphere. Water vapour
present in the air is known as Humidity. The nature and amount of precipitation, the amount of loss of
heat through radiation from the earth's surface, latent heat of atmosphere etc depend on the amount
of water vapour present in the atmosphere.Humidity capacity that is content of water vapour in the
air is directly positively related with temperature i.e. higher the temperature higher the humidity
capacity. Oceanic and coastal areas record higher humidity capacity. It decreases from equator to
pole.
Humidity of a place can be expressed in three ways
Absolute Humidity: The measure of water vapour content of the atmosphere which may be expressed
as the actual quantity of water vapour present in a given volume of air is called Absolute Humidity.
The absolute humidity is measured in terms of grain per cubic metre air. If the absolute humidity of
air at a given place is 10 gm/cu m. it means that 10 grams of water vapour are present in a cubic metre
of air. Absolute humidity of the air changes from place to place and from time to time. The ability of
air to hold water vapour depends entirely on its temperature. Warm air can hold more moisture than
the cold air.
Specific Humidity: Another way to express humidity as the weight of water vapour per unit weight of
air or the proportion of the mass of water vapour to the total mass of air is called the specific
humidity. Specific humidity is not affected by changes in pressure of temperature.
Relative Humidity: A more useful measure of humidity of the atmosphere is called the relative
humidity. This is a ratio expressed as a percentage between the actual quantity of water vapour
present in the air at a given temperature and the maximum quantity of water vapour that the
atmosphere can hold at that temperature. Relative humidity determines the amount and rate of
evaporation and hence it is an important climatic factor. With the same quantity of water vapour,
relative humidity will decrease with increase of temperature and vice versa.
Study Notes on Condensation
Condensation:
Condensation is the transformation of gaseous form of water into solid form i.e. ice and liquid form i.e.
water.
Mechanism of Condensation
Method 1: When the absolute humidity at a given temperature is raised equal to the humidity
retaining capacity of the air.
Method 2: When the temperature of the air is reduced to such an extent that the humidity capacity
becomes equal to its absolute humidity.
If the change in temperature of air takes place by the ascent and descent of air and no addition or
subtraction of heat occurs then this process is known as adiabatic change of temperature. When the
air is warmer than the surrounding air-mass, it ascends. Due to upward movement of air, volume
increases and the temperature decreases. As the dew point is achieved, condensation process starts and
leads to formation of clouds, fog and ultimately leads to precipitation.Thus instability of air
causes different weather phenomenon. In the process explained above there is no addition orOn the
other hand if the dew point is not achieved, the air becomes colder than surrounding air. Thus the air
descends and becomes cooler. This leads to stability of air and weather phenomenon get hampered
TYPES OF MOTION
(i) When a particle or a body moves along a straight path, its motion is Rectilinear or translatory motion.
(ii) When a particle or a body moves in a circular path, its motion is circular motion. When a body spins about its own
axis, it is said to be in rotational motion.
(iii) When a body moves to and fro or back and forth repeatedly about a fixed point in a definite interval of time, it is
said to be in vibrational or oscillatory motion
SPEED
The time rate of change of position of an object in any direction i.e. the rate of change of distance of an object with
respect to time is known as speed.
VELOCITY
The rate of change of displacement of an object with respect to time is known as velocity.
ACCELERATION
The rate of change of velocity with respect to time is called acceleration. When a body completes equal displacement
in equal interval of time, its velocity is constant and hence, it does not have an acceleration. When a body shows equal
change in velocity in equal interval of time its velocity is not constant but it has a constant acceleration
EQUATIONS OF MOTION
When the body moves up, its velocity continuously decreases due to gravity and finally becomes zero at the
maximum height. Then, the body falls with an increasing velocity.The slope of the position time graph is equal to the
uniform velocity.
Metal
Ore
Aluminium
Bauxite
Beryllium
Beryl
Chromium
Chromite
Zinc
Sphalerite
Uranium
Uraninite
Tin
Cassiterite
Tungsten
Wolframite ,Scheelite
Silver
Argentite
Nickel
Pentlandite
Lead
Galena
Manganese
Pyrolusite
Mercury
Cinnabar
Iron
Magnetite
Cobalt
Cobaltite
Copper
Bornite , Chalcocite
The human heart is an organ that pumps blood throughout the body via the circulatory system, supplying oxygen and
nutrients to the tissues and removing carbon dioxide and other wastes.
The right atrium and right ventricle together make up the "right heart,"
the left atrium and left ventricle make up the "left heart."
A wall of muscle called the septum separates the two sides of the heart.
Valves prevent backflow, keeping the blood flowing in one direction through the heart.
A double-walled sac called the pericardium encases the heart, which serves to protect the heart and anchor it inside
the chest.
Between the outer layer, the parietal pericardium, and the inner layer, the serous pericardium, runs pericardial
fluid, which lubricates the heart during contractions and movements of the lungs and diaphragm.
The outermost wall layer, or epicardium, is the inner wall of the pericardium.
The inner layer, or endocardium, is the lining that contacts the blood.
The sinoatrial node produces the electrical pulses that drive heart contractions.
HUMAN HEART FUNCTION
The cardiovascular system circulates blood from the heart to the lungs and around the body via blood vessels.
Blockage of any artery can cause a heart attack, or damage to the muscle of the heart. A heart attack is distinct from
cardiac arrest, which is a sudden loss of heart function that usually occurs as a result of electrical disturbances of the
heart rhythm.
The heart contains electrical "pacemaker" cells, which cause it to contract producing a heartbeat.
The brain is the most complex part of the human body. This three-pound organ is the seat of intelligence,
interpreter of the senses, initiator of body movement, and controller of behavior.
The forebrain,
The midbrain, and
The hindbrain
The forebrain is the largest and most highly developed part of the human brain.
The hindbrain controls the bodys vital functions such as respiration and heart rate.
The cerebrum sits at the topmost part of the brain and is the source of intellectual activities. It holds your
memories, allows you to plan, enables you to imagine and think. It allows you to recognize friends, read books,
and play games.
When one side of the brain is damaged, the opposite side of the body is affected.
The hypothalamus, about the size of a pearl, directs a multitude of important functions. It wakes you up in the
morning, and gets the adrenaline flowing during a test or job interview.
Near the hypothalamus lies the thalamus, a major clearinghouse for information going to and from the spinal
cord and the cerebrum.
NEURON
Neurons are the core components of the brain and spinal cord of the central nervous system (CNS).
Functions of the three parts of a neuron:
The eyeball is approximately spherical in shape with a diameter of about 2.3 cm.
The eye lens forms an inverted real image of the object on the retina.
The light-sensitive cells get activated upon illumination and generate electrical signals. These signals are sent to
the brain via the optic nerves. The brain interprets these signals, and finally, processes the information so that
we perceive objects as
they are.
When the light is very bright, the iris contracts the pupil to allow less light to enter
the eye. However, in dim light the iris expands the pupil to allow more light to enter
the eye. Thus, the pupil opens completely through the relaxation of the iris.
A human being has a horizontal field of view of about 150 with one eye and of about 180 with two eyes.
Study notes on "DEFECTS OF EYES"
DEFECTS:
A person sees near objects clearly while distant objects appear blurred.
In such a defective eye, the image of a distant object is formed in front of the retina and not at the
retina itself.
CAUSES:
This defect arises because the power of the eye is too great due to the decrease in focal length of the crystalline lens.
CORRECTION :
A concave lens of appropriate power or focal length is able to bring the image of the object back on the
retina itself.
HYPERMETROPIA (Farsightedness)
A person sees near objects with blurred vision, while distant objects appear in sharp focus.
CAUSES:
The eyeball becomes too short, so that light rays from the nearby object, say at point N, cannot be brought to
focus on the retina to give a distinct image.
CORRECTION :
This defect can be corrected by using a convex (converging) lens of appropriate focal length. When the object is at
N, the eye exerts its maximum power of accommodation. Eyeglasses with converging lenses supply the additional
focussing power required for forming the image on the retina.
PRESBYOPIA:
Presbyopia, progressive form of farsightedness that affects most people by their early 60s.
lens.
It arises due to the gradual weakening of the ciliary muscles and diminishing flexibility of the crystalline
Simple reading eyeglasses with convex lenses correct most cases of presbyopia. Sometimes, a person may
suffer from both myopia and hypermetropia. Such people often require bi-focal lenses.
BI-FOCAL LENSE-> The upper portion of the bi-focal lens is a concave lens, used for distant vision. The lower part
of the bi-focal lens is a convex lens, used for reading purposes.
ASTIGMATISM
Astigmatism, a defect in the outer curvature on the surface of the eye that causes distorted vision.
CAUSES:
This defect is usually due to the cornea that is not perfectly spherical.
Consequently, it has different curvatures in different directions in vertical and horizontal planes.
This results in objects in one direction being well-focussed, while those in a perpendicular direction not
wellfocussed.
CORRECTION :
This defect can be corrected by using eyeglasses with cylindrical lenses oriented to compensate for the irregularities
in the cornea.
VITAMINS
VITAMIN K (Phylloquinone)
SOURCE
Green leafy vegetables, soya beans. The human body can also produce Vitamin K through germs in the
colon(part of small intestine).
FUNCTION
SYMPTOMS OF EXCESS
Can lead to liver damage
SOURCE
Green leafy vegetables, whole-wheat cereals, nuts, sprouts, egg yolk
FUNCTION
Antioxidation
Enhance immunity
SYMPTOMS OF DEFICIENCY
New born infants: haemolytic anaemia
Adults: weakness
SYMPTOMS OF EXCESS
Fertility Desease
SOURCE
Egg yolk, liver, cod liver oil, fish. Our skins also produces Vitamin D when exposed to sunlight
FUNCTION
Helps body absorb and utilize calcium and phosphorus, so as to maintain bones, teeth and brain
healthy
Children: rickets
Calcified cartilage
High calcium level in the blood causes abnormal heart beat and damage to organs such as kidneys
Vomiting, diarrhea
Sore eyes
Itchy skin
VITAMIN A (Retinol)
SOURCE
Dairy products, cod liver oil,liver, dark green and yellow vegetables and fruits
FUNCTION
Dry skin
Stomach discomfort
Poor growth
Hair loss
Liver injury
Nervousness, irritability
VITAMIN B
VITAMIN B1 (Thymine)
SOURCE
sprouts, yeast
Desease
Beri-beri
VITAMIN B2 (Ryboflabin)
SOURCE
sprout, present in cow's milk(yellowish)
Desease
Cheilosis, ulceration
VITAMIN B6 (Pyridoxine)
FUNCTION
It is responsible for rememeber dreams.
SYMPTOMS OF DEFICIENCY
Anaemia
Muscle cramps
SOURCE
Citrus fruits(orange,grapefruit,lemon),strawberry,black current,kiwi fruit, tomato, green leafy vegetables,
green pepper
FUNCTION
Helps synthesize collagen; promotes the growth and repair of cells, gum, teeth, blood vessels and bones
Enhances immunity
SYMPTOMS OF DEFICIENCY
Scurvy
Gum
Weakness, fatigue
Abdominal pain
Diarrhea
Kidney stone
In smokers and drinkers vitamin C is absent.
Study notes on "BLOOD" (Part 1)
BLOOD
Red cells, white cells and platelets are made in the marrow of bones, especially the vertebrae, ribs, hips, skull
and sternum. These essential blood cells fight infection, carry oxygen and help control bleeding.
Plasma
Red blood cells
White blood cells
Platelets
helps to maintain a proper pH (acid-base) balance in the body, which is critical to cell function.
Haemoglobin enables the cells to pick up and deliver oxygen to all parts of the body, then pick up
carbon dioxide and remove it from tissues.
Its destruction takes place in liver & spleen. Therefore, liver is called grave of RBC.
They can move out of the blood stream and reach tissues to fight infection.
Platelets are the cells that circulate within our blood and bind together when they recognize damaged blood
vessels.
Study of blood = HEMATOLOGY
Study notes on "BLOOD" (part 2)
BLOOD GROUP
DISEASE
Hematoma: A collection of blood inside the body tissues. Internal bleeding often causes a hematoma.
Leukemia: A form of blood cancer, in which white blood cells multiply abnormally and circulate through the
blood. The excessive large numbers of white cells deposit in the body's tissues, causing damage.
Multiple myeloma: A form of blood cancer of plasma cells similar to leukemia. Anemia, kidney failure and
high blood calcium levels are common in multiple myeloma.
Lymphoma: A form of blood cancer, in which white blood cells multiply abnormally inside lymph nodes and
other tissues. The enlarging tissues, and disruption of blood's functions, can eventually cause organ failure.
Anemia: An abnormally low number of red blood cells in the blood. Fatigue and breathlessness can result,
although anemia often causes no noticeable symptoms.
Hemochromatosis: A disorder causing excessive levels of iron in the blood. The iron deposits in the liver,
pancreas and other organs, causing liver problems and diabetes.
Sickle cell disease: A genetic condition in which red blood cells periodically lose their proper shape (appearing
like sickles, rather than discs). The deformed blood cells deposit in tissues, causing pain and organ damage.
Bacteremia: Bacterial infection of the blood. Blood infections are serious, and often require hospitalization and
continuous antibiotic infusion into the veins.
Malaria: Infection of red blood cells by Plasmodium, a parasite transmitted by mosquitos. Malaria causes
episodic fevers, chills, and potentially organ damage.
Thrombocytopenia: Abnormally low numbers of platelets in the blood. Severe thrombocytopenia may lead to
bleeding.
Leukopenia: Abnormally low numbers of white blood cells in the blood. Leukopenia can result in difficulty
fighting infections.
Must Do Series(SSC CGL) on Different type of Measuring Instruments
Dear Readers.
We are providing "Must Do series" for the competitive exam on different topics and subjects. Students can go
through these topics , as it will help students to understand the concepts easily and remember it for longer
period of time. This topic is very important from all exam point of view as one or two questions are asked
from this topic.
DEVICE
USES
Transformer
Thermostat
Tachometer
Seismograph
Spherometer
Sphygmomanometer
Sextant
Refractometer
Rain gauge
If the body is less dense than the fluid, it will float or, in the case of a balloon, it will rise.
If the body is two thirds as dense as the fluid, then two thirds of its volume will
be submerged displacing in the process a volume of fluid whose weight is equal to the entire weight of the body.
BUOYANCY
The difference between the upward and downward forces acting on the bottom and the top of the cube,
respectively,is called buoyancy.
TYPES OF BUOYANCY
POSITIVE BUOYANCY
NEGATIVE BUOYANCY
NEUTRAL BUOYANCY
POSITIVE BUOYANCY
It occurs when an object is lighter than the fluid it displaces.
The object will float because the buoyant force is greater than the object's weight.
Example -> A swimmer experiences a great amount of buoyant force. Israel's Dead Sea is famous for
attracting floating tourists. Saltwater is more dense than fresh water and provides more buoyant force.
Buoyant and net forces are not the same. An object's volume and density determine its buoyancy.
NEGATIVE BUOYANCY
Negative buoyancy occurs when an object is denser than the fluid it displaces.
The object will sink because its weight is greater than the buoyant force.
Example -> A submarine is designed to operate underwater by storing and releasing water through ballast
tanks. If the command is given to descend, the tanks take in water and increase the vessel's density.
NEUTRAL BUOYANCY
Neutral buoyancy occurs when an object's weight is equal to the fluid it displaces.
Example -> A scuba diver is trained in techniques to regulate buoyancy underwater. Swimming horizontally
and taking deep, long breaths allow the diver to propel forward, not upward. Fish control buoyancy through
an internal swim bladder. Similar to a submarine, the bladder is filled with gas as a means of altering
buoyancy.
A Floating Balloon
Buoyancy determines the ease of a floating balloon. Hydrogen, helium and hot air are the ideal gases for
balloon aviation. Unlike liquids and solids, gas molecules are spread farther apart. This empty space increases
volume and decreases density. Astronomers use unmanned hot air balloons to gather clear pictures of the
cosmos.
Hot air balloons rise into the air because the density of the air (warmer air) inside the balloon is less dense than
the air outside the balloon (cooler air). The balloon and the basket displaces a fluid that is heavier than the
balloon and the basket, so it has a buoyant force acting on the system. Balloons tend to fly better in the
morning, when the surrounding air is cool.
DEVICE
USES
Radiometer
Pyrometer
Photometer
Oscillograph
Odometer
Manometer
Lactometer
Hygrometer
Fathometer
ACIDS
It comes from the Latin word "acidus", which means "sharp" or "sour".
Examples of Acids:
1. Vinegar
3. Citrus Fruits
2. Stomach Acid (HCl)
Strong Acid:
The pH value is below 3.
A strong acid is one which is virtually 100% ionised in solution.
Weak Acid:
An acid that only partially ionizes in an aqueous solution. This means that not every molecule breaks apart.
Weak acids usually have a pH close to 7 (3-6).
BASES
It feels slippery.
Examples of Bases:
1. Sodium hydroxide(NaOH, strong base)
2. Ammonia
Strong Base:
The pH value is above 10.
Weak Base:
A base that only partially ionizes in an aqueous solution. This means that not every molecule breaks apart.
Weak bases usually have a pH close to 7 (8-10).
Common Acids
Acetic acid
: vinegar, acetate
Acetylsalicylic acid
: aspirin
Ascorbic acid
: vitamin C
Carbonic acid
Citric acid
: stomach acid
Nitric acid
: fertilizer, explosives
Sulfuric acid
: car batteries
Common Bases
Aluminum hydroxide
: antacids, deodorants
Ammonium hydroxide
: glass cleaner
Calcium hydroxide
Magnesium hydroxide
: laxatives, antacids
: dish detergent
Sodium hydroxide
Sodium hypochlorite
: bleach
A table of these properties is shown here which distinguishes acids and bases apart from one another by some
of their easily observed chemical and physical properties.
Acid
Base
A base is an aqueous
substance that can accept
hydrogen ions.
Physical characteristics
Depending on the
temperature, acids can occur
in solid, liquid or gaseous
form. Taste sour.
Phenolphthalein
colorless
Strength
depends on concentration of
the hydronium ions
depends on concentration of
the hydroxide ions
Dissociation
Chemical Formula
Definition
Arrhenius Definition:
Litmus test
Examples
BAKING SODA
USES
WASHING SODA
USES
1. It is used in the manufacture of caustic soda, glass, soap powders, borex and
in paper industry.
2. For removing permanent hardness of water.
3. As a cleansing agent for domestic purpose.
USES
BLEACHING POWDER
USES
1. In textile industry for bleaching of cotton and linen.
2. In paper industry for bleaching of wood pulp.
3. In making wool unshrinkable.
4. Used as disinfactant and germicide for sterilization of water.
Physical properties
Chemical properties
USES
In the form of rectified spirit (95% alcohol + 5% water), it is used as anantiseptic for wounds.
It is used in medicines like tincture iodine, cough syrups, tonics etcbecause it is a good solvent.
It depresses the central nervous system which results in mental confusion and drowsiness.
Denatured alcohol : To prevent the misuse of ethanol produced for industrial use, it is made unfit for
drinking by adding poisonous substances like methanol, copper sulphate, etc. it is called denatured alcohol.