Guidelines for Scholarly Research Writing

APA Style 6th Edition - Updated version

Fernando A. DAlessio
The following guidelines should be considered in the submission of all types of
manuscripts, from essays to theses. Some common errors in scholarly writing will be
noted throughout this document.
General Format
1. From its inception a manuscript should be carefully prepared, with a focus on
format structure and the page numbering. Pages should be numbered in the
upper right hand of each page. When indicated, manuscripts should start with a
cover page. Adequately indent and align the manuscript with the correct margins
in a uniform fashion. The text should be left-aligned.
2. Word processing programs are recommended. The type and letter size of the
manuscript must be uniform. Use Times New Roman 12 - point font. For Tables
and Figures, smaller font sizes (no less than size 9 - point font) may be used
provided the document is readable and the smaller font size improves the
comprehensive format.
3. Use adequate spacing. Double space the entire manuscript to improve readability
and simplify editing. More spaces cannot be added for any reason. It is
permissible to use single or one-half inch spaces in certain circumstances,
including block quotes, content within tables and the References section.
References should have single or one-half inch space within each reference but
double spaces between references. These exceptions shall be indicated by the
scholar.

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4. Before submitting a manuscript proofread the composition, sentence structure,
use of accents, commas, and spelling. The composition and grammar are key
aspects of the quality of the manuscript. Therefore, it is important to review
these elements using the tools provided by the word processing software,
especially, if they are manuscripts requested by CENTRUM. For theses,
dissertations, journals, case studies, and other publishable documentation; it is
necessary to hire a professional editor and grammar reviewer. Concise, focused,
well structured and methodologically coherent manuscripts are examples of
good quality while constant spelling errors are evidence of manuscripts
submitted without appropriate prior review.
5. The titles of Chapters, Table of Contents, List of Tables and Figures,
Appendices, and References shall be boldface typed, in uppercase and lowercase
letters (Level 1). Paragraph titles shall be written according to the format
specifications established in the heading structures (See section 13).
6. Do not create unnecessary mini-paragraphs. A paragraph shall have no less than
three consecutive key points with the first line indented. For better quality
product, it is advisable to do non-stop writing than writing like for a telegram.
7. Serial organization (seriation) helps the reader to understand the organization of
key points in sections, paragraphs, and sentences. Paragraphs separated in a
series should be identified by Roman Numerals followed by a period but are not
enclosed in or followed by parentheses; the first word is capitalized, and the
sentence ends with a period. If you wish to avoid an implied meaning of time or
importance in your series, items can be identified instead by bullets instead of
numbers. Within a paragraph or sentence, elements are identified by lowercase
letters enclosed in parentheses. In this case, use commas to separate the

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elements; and the semicolon to separate elements in a series that already contain
commas.
8. All pages in the manuscript should be numbered. Number the introductory pages
with lowercase Roman numbers (when applicable). Page 1 shall be the first page
of the manuscript.
The Table of Contents shall adequately indicate all page numbers including the
beginning of the manuscript (when applicable).
The List of Tables and Figures shall come after the Table of Contents (when
applicable).
Correctly number paragraphs and subparagraphs (when applicable).
9. Use Appendices, not Exhibits. If your manuscript has only one appendix, label it
Appendix; if your manuscript has more than one appendix, label each one with a
capital letter (Appendix A, Appendix B, Appendix C, etc.). Appendices should
be included when necessary to complement the main text and should appear in
the order they are mentioned in the text. Appendices should be concise and
usually only one or two pages in length. They should be cited within the text to
direct the reader and should be adequately developed.
Begin each appendix on a separate page. Each appendix must have a title. Center
the word Appendix at the top of the page. Center the title of the appendix, and
use boldface uppercase and lowercase letters. Begin the text of the appendix
justified left, followed by indented paragraphs. If the Appendix has Tables and
Figures, include the letter of the Appendix when numbering the Tables and
Figures (e.g. begin with Table A1, Figure A1).
Lists and descriptions not directly relevant to the text should be included in an
Appendix and shall not appear in the manuscript.

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10. Do not use colloquial expressions, jargon, euphemisms, slogans, etc., as they are
not examples of proper academic language. Avoid wordiness and excessive use
of rhetorical questions.
11. Use periods for decimal quantities and commas for thousands. For millions, use
the apostrophe (').
12. The methodology and theoretical framework, if applicable, must be consistent
and relate logically to the development of the manuscript.
13. Headings should only be used when required, and are subject to certain
restrictions. Headings help to formally structure the research document. The
APA Manual guides decisions on how many levels of headings are to be used
depending on the type of document. The style recommended by APA consists of
five possible formatting arrangements.
Level

Format

Centered, Boldface, Uppercase and Lowercase Heading

Justified Left, Boldface, Uppercase and Lowercase Heading

Indented, boldface, lowercase paragraph heading

ending with a period.
Indented, boldface, italicized, lowercase
paragraph heading ending with a period.
Indented, italicized, lowercase paragraph
heading ending with a period.

4
5

Regardless of the number of levels of subheading within a section, the structure

follows the same top down progression. Each section starts with the highest
level, even if one section may have fewer levels of subheadings than another
section.
14. The analysis shall have conclusions. The analysis shall be focused on the topic
or key issue.

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15. Each chapter in the manuscript shall comprise at least four pages.
Avoid small subtitles and small paragraphs generated in the manuscript. Each
paragraph should be consistent and formed by at least be formed by three
sentences. Do not use more spaces between paragraphs. As specified in Section
3, there should not be any variation in line spacing. Each chapter should have a
conclusion, i.e., a brief summary of its content.
16. Many academic works including, including essays, do not have Introductions or
Abstracts. However, both these elements should be included in theses and
publishable articles.
17. Do not write in first person, either in singular or in plural. Avoid using boldface,
except in titles and subtitles. Do use colons, commas, or semi colons
excessively. Never highlight.
Sources and References
18. Sources must be fully cited. Citing sources helps the reader identify information
quickly and search for it in order to deepen their knowledge. Every cited source
in the text must be credited at the end of the manuscript in the References
section. Sources may be adapted from books, magazines, yearbooks, reports,
Web pages, etc. Sources may be directly quoted or paraphrased, but must always
credit the author.
The References section must contain the full and correct citation of every
reference differentiating them by manuscript type (book, articles, specialized
journals, Web pages, telephone conversation, etc.). APA Manual dispositions
must be followed (See Appendix A with examples).
Failing to fully cite sources when using direct and/or paraphrased information
from another author is considered plagiarism and it is the worst academic

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offense possible. Even when using quotes from electronic sources, class notes,
conversation notes, and others, sources shall be properly credited.
19. The use of non-academic sources such as open Web pages is not advisable. It is
better to search for information in academic data bases such as EBSCO,
ProQuest, JSTOR, etc. Be sure to write correctly the names and surnames of the
cited authors.
20. Direct quotations can be taken from other sources but specifying the correct
credit. The Sources shall be cited even if paraphrasing. In both cases, there are
formats to cite those Sources (APA Manual 6th Edition).
21. Use correct footnotes, when applicable. APA distinguishes between content
footnotes and copyright numbered footnotes. Content footnotes supplement or
amplify substantive information in the text. Because they can be distracting to
readers, such footnotes should be included only if they strengthen the discussion.
However, they should not include complicated, irrelevant, or nonessential
information.
Copyright permission footnotes acknowledge the source of lengthy quotations,
scale and test items, and Figures and Tables that have been reprinted or adapted.
For citations generally use numbered footnotes. For Tables, the source material
is provided in a table note; and for Figures, the source is credited at the end of
the caption.
22. Sources are important to guarantee that the information presented is real and
reliable, that there are no charges of plagiarism; and, that the reader will have a
chance to find more details about that information.
Do not use the nonsense phrase Source: Personal Elaboration, Personal Source,
or related citations. Personal Sources are nonsense because they presuppose the

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author (s) have made them. Simply drawing a Figure, or creating a Table does
not mean personal elaboration. Personal elaboration can only be used when
presenting something that is the authors real product. For example, a new model
developed by the author could be considered personal elaboration.
23. When referencing what an author previously said, the citation shall be presented
in past tense. Example, Porter (1980) indicated ... Do not use Porter (1980)
indicates. This example is the same as writing in 1980 Porter indicated.
24. The list of sources used should be titled. Neither References nor Bibliography
nor Bibliographic References is correct. The section References shall include all
citations and sources in the manuscript. This section comes before the
Appendices. The references shall be correctly cited (See the APA Manual 6th
Edition).
For electronic information, include the DOI (digital object identifier) if it has
been assigned to the document. If a DOI is indicated, additional information will
not be necessary to identify or locate the content. If the manuscript does not have
a DOI, the Web page address where the manuscript was retrieved should be
included.
The manuscript should apply rather than propose theory, except where a
theoretical framework is needed. Models should be specific rather than generic
and their sources or adaptation must be cited. The last section of every
manuscript, before the Appendices (if they exist) is the References section. In
this section all the sources used in the manuscript must be cited
comprehensively. References not cited in the manuscript should not appear in
the Reference section. This section is always mandatory.

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25. When citing books and reports, the publisher's location (city and state or, if
outside the United States, city and country) should be indicated. When the books
and reports are from United States, the names of U.S. states and territories are
placed in the reference list. Use the official two - letter U.S. Postal Service
abbreviations. To cite locations outside the United States, spell out the city and
the country names. Use a colon after the location.
Give the name of the publisher in as brief a form as is intelligible. Write out the
names of associations, corporations, and university presses, but omit superfluous
terms, such as Publishers, Co., and Inc., which are not required to identify the
publisher. Examples:
New York, NY: McGrawHill.
Washington, DC: Author.
Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Pretoria, South Africa: Unisa.
London, England: Taylor & Francis.
26. In an essay, headings are usually unnecessary.
27. The use of commas between subject and verb is incorrect. For example: Porter
(1980) affirmed is correct. Porter (1980), affirmed is not.
28. When a document has two authors, both should be cited whenever there is a
reference to them in the text. If the manuscript has three, four, or five authors,
they should be cited the first time they are mentioned in the manuscript. In the
subsequent citations, the last name of the first author is included, followed by
the expression et al., the Latin equivalent of "and others" (not in italics and with
a period after al.) and the year of publication.
Kisangau, Lyaruu, Hosea, and Joseph (2007) [First citation in the text]
Kisangau et al. (2007) [Subsequent first citation in the text]

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If the manuscript does have six or more authors, the last name of the first author
shall be cited followed by et al. as well as the year of publication, in both the
first and subsequent references. Nonetheless, the last names of all the authors
should be provided in the References section.
There are exceptions and other considerations to be taken when citing the
references in the text. This information and other related examples can be
reviewed on the APA Manual, Chapter 6.
29. The first edition of a book has not to be indicated, subsequent editions should be
(2nd ed., 3rd ed., etc.).
Tables and Figures
30. Correctly number all Tables and Figures.
Number Tables and Figures as 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 Never use N. The correct form is
Table 7, not Table No. 7.
Tables should have titles at the top and Figures at the bottom. Sources shall
always be cited below the Tables and Figures, and on the left - hand side.
31. Cite adequately each Table and Figure in the text; cite the complete Source.
Sources of Tables and Figures must be included in the References section as
well. Cite Tables and Figures in the text to closely direct the reader towards
them.
32. There are only Tables and Figures, not graphs, boxes, pictures, diagrams, etc.
It is not appropriate to simply copy and paste Tables and Figures from other
sources. Furthermore, in some cases it will be necessary to ask for copyright
permissions to prevent legal problems.

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33. Avoid unnecessary spacing when introducing Tables or Figures in the
manuscript. Tables should not be divided in two pages. Do not use single
components (widows).
34. Many Tables and Figures that are copied and pasted from another source are
difficult to read. Additionally, copying and pasting is usually not correct or
polite. The Figures and Tables selected can only be reproduced if the correct
source is cited.
35. The use of Tables and Figures reproducing theoretical models is often abused,
especially when copyrighted material is copied and pasted into manuscripts.
36. Tables and Figures appear in a wide variety of formats, sizes, and structures.
Some are clearer and others more confusing or illegible, which may diminish the
quality of the manuscript. If you want to use Tables and/or Figures from another
source, they shall be uniformly reproduced and correspondingly cited in the
manuscript.
37. In Appendix B there are examples of Tables and Figures.
End Note
Spaces, periods, commas, dashes, italics, and other symbols all have a meaning in the
composition and should be properly used. Review carefully the last edition of the APA
Manual (6th Edition). This guide should settle any doubt arising during the writing
process.

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Appendix A
References
Examples of books
Alkhafaji, A. F. (2003). Strategic management. Formulation, implementation, and
control in a dynamic environment. Binghamton, NY: The Haworth Press.
Boone, L. E., & Kurtz, D. L. (1986). Contemporary marketing (5th ed.). New York,
NY: The Dryden Press.
Nonaka, I., & Takeuchi, H. (1995). The knowledge-creating company. How Japanese
companies create the dynamics of innovation. New York, NY: Oxford
University Press.
Examples of chapters from a book
Porter, M. E., & Millar, V. E. (1999). Cmo obtener ventaja competitiva por medio de
la informacin [How to gain competitive advantage through information]. In M.
E. Porter (Ed.). Ser competitivo: Nuevas aportaciones y conclusiones
[Competive Advange: New contributions and conclusions] (pp. 81-104). Bilbao,
Spain: Deusto.
Examples of encyclopedias or dictionaries
Thompson, D. (Ed.). (1999). The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Current English (9th
ed.). London, England: Oxford University Press.
Sadie, S. (Ed.). (1980). The new Grove dictionary of music and musicians (6th ed.).
Vols. 1-20. London, England: Macmillan.
Examples of articles in journals
Agle, B. R., Mitchell, R. K., & Sonnenfeld, J. A. (1999). Who matters to CEOs? An
investigation of stakeholder attributes and salience, corporate values, and CEO
values. Academy of Management Journal, 42(5), 507-525.

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Bono, J. E., & Judge, T. A. (2004). Personality and transformational and transactional
leadership: A meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 89(5), 901-910.
Herbst-Damm, K. L., & Kulik, J. A. (2005). Volunteer support, marital status, and the
survival times of terminally ill patients. Health Psychology, 24(2), 225-229. doi:
10.1037/0278-6133.24.2.225
Nord, W. R. (1997). Reinventing the workplace: How business and employees can both
win. Academy of Management Review, 22(1), 283-286.
Powell, W. W. (1987). Hybrid organizational arrangements. California Management
Review, 30(1), 67-87.
Sillick, T. J., & Schutte, N. S. (2006). Emotional intelligence and self-esteem mediate
between perceived early parental love and adult happiness. E-Journal of Applied
Psychology, 2(2), 38-48. Retrieved from
http://ojs.lib.swin.edu.au/index.php/ejap
Watkin, C. (2000). Developing emotional intelligence. International Journal of
Selection and Assessment, 8(2), 89-92.
Examples of articles in magazines
Chamberlin, J., Novotney, A., Packard, E., & Price, M. (2008, May). Enhancing worker
well-being: Occupational health psychologists convene to share their research on
work, stress, and health. Monitor on Psychology, 39(5), 26-29.
Clay, R. (2008, June). Science vs. Ideology: Psychologists fight back about the misuse
of research. Monitor on Psychology, 39(6). Retrieved from
http://www.apa.org/monitor/
Examples of articles in newspapers
Schwartz, J. (1993, September 30). Obesity affects economic, social status. The
Washington Post, pp. B5-B7.

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Online newspaper article
Brody, J. E. (2007, December 11). Mental reserves keep brain agile. The New York
Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2007/12/11/health/11iht11brod.8685746.html?_r=1&pagewanted=all
Examples of Web pages
Durkheim, E. (1893). Division of labor in society. English translation by George
Simpson, 1944. Retrieved from http://www.mdx.ac.uk/www/study/xDur.htm
Pressbox. (2004). BFO Power up Wileys Global Executive Leadership Inventory.
Retrieved from http://www.pressbox.co.uk/Detailed/23688.html
U.S. Census Bureau. (2005). IDB Summary Demographic Data for Peru. Retrieved
from http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/idbsum.html

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Appendix B
Examples of Tables and Figures
Table 1
Summary of Hierarchical Regression Analysis of Variables predicting beliefs of firstborn daughters in Paternalism (N=46)
B

SE B

Daughters education

-5.89

1.93

-.41*

Mothers age

0.67

0.31

.21*

Daughters education

-3.19

1.81

-.22*

Mothers age

0.31

0.28

.14*

Attitudes towards the elderly

1.06

0.28

.54*

Affective feelings

1.53

0.60

.31*

Dogmatism

-0.03

0.10

-.04*

Variable
Step 1

Step 2

Note. R2 = .26 for Step 1; R2 = .25 for Step 2 (p < .05). Adapted from Relationship of Personal-Social
Variables to Belief in Paternalism in Parent Caregiving Situations, V. G. Cicirelli, 1990, Psychology and
Aging, 5, p. 436. Copyright 1990 by the American Psychological Association. *p < .05.

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Table 2
Beta of Aeolian Projects

Beta
leverage

Beta adjusted

Stock Equity

Beta assets

to assets

median 2002 (M E)

Promoters
Plambeck

0.58

0.56

0.91

201

Energiekontor

1.11

1.03

1.22

104

Unweltkontor

0.74

0.65

0.97

90

Aeolian Equipment Producer

NEG Micon

1.25

1.16

1.11

581

Gamesa

0.90

0.65

0.77

1257

Vestas Windsystems

1.40

1.37

1.25

2111

Powered Media

1.18

1.08

1.07

Note. Adapted from Nuevos vientos para el desarrollo sostenible el reto de la energa elica en Espaa,
[New winds for sustainable development, the aeolian energy challenge in Spain] by Boston Consulting
Group, 2003. Retrieved from http://www.aeeolica.es/userfiles/file/aee-publica/01_07_03_boston.pdf

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Figure 1. Bar graph example. Median range of alarm reaction (+EE) to pre-lesion (n =
4), spurious lesion (n = 2) and pos-lesion (n = 2) groups under acoustic test conditions,
and acoustic luminous tests. Adapted from Amygdala Efferents Mediating Electrically
Evoked Startle-Like Responses and Fear Potentiation of Acoustic Startle, by J. S.
Yeomans, and B. A. Pollard, 1993, Neuroscience, 107, p. 606. Copyright 1993 by the
American Psychological Association.

Figure 2. Components of an Aeolian turbine

Adapted from Manuales sobre energa renovable: Elica, [Manuals on renewable
energy: Aeolian] by the FOCER Project on Strengthening the Capacity of Renewable
Energy for Central America, 2002. Retrieved from
http://www.fonamperu.org/general/energia/documentos/eolica.pdf