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1789:Francesbourgeoisrevolution
Upuntil1789FrancewasanAbsolutiststateruledbyakingwhoclaimedthathistotal
powertorulehadbeengrantedhimbygod.Allthetoppostsinthearmy,the
government,thecivilservice,thechurchandthejudiciarywerereservedforthe
membersofahereditarynobility.Thepopulationwasinfactdividedintothree"orders"
or"estates":theclergy,thenobilityandtherestover95percentofcourseknown
simplyastheThirdEstate.
RelicsofFeudalism
Thevastmajorityofthepopulationsome22or23millionoutofatotalpopulationof
25millionwerepeasantswhoworkedandlivedontheland.Veryfewwereserfs
actuallytiedtothelandoramaster.Ithasinfactbeenestimatedthatbetween30and
40percentofthelandinpre1789Francebelongedtopeasants.Butallpeasants,
whetherlandowners,tenantsorsharecroppers,hadtopayfeudalduesinmoneyandin
kindtothelordofthemanoraswellastithes,payableinkind,tothechurch.Theywere
obligedtousethelordsmill,breadovenandwinepressratherthanhavetheirownand
toallowhimtohuntfreelyontheirland.Andtheyweretriedandjudgedinacourt
presidedoverbyhimorhisappointeeforminoroffencesandalldisputeswithhimor
amongthemselvesconcerninglandmatters.
Thesewereallsurvivalsfromfeudalism,thoughitwouldbeinaccuratetodescribe
Frenchsocietyontheeveoftherevolutionasfeudalism.Capitalismhadlongbeen
developingthereandinfactmanyofthelordshipsofthemanorhadbeenboughtbyrich
nonnoblesfromthetownsasaninvestmentfortheincomethisprocuredthem.
Norwasthenobilityanylongerreallyfeudal.Bythistimetheyhadbecometransformed
intoanexclusivegroupwhich,byvirtueoftheirnoblestatus,enjoyedvarioustax
exemptionsandaprivilegedaccesstothetoppostsinthestate,afactthatwas
particularlyresentedbyrichpeopleofnonnobleoriginthebourgeoisiewhowereto
providetheleadershipoftheFrenchRevolution.
ThistheupperechelonsoftheThirdEstate,ornonnoblerichpeopleistheeasiest
definitionthatcanbegivenofthebourgeoisie.Someweremerchants,others
manufacturers,stillothersprofessionalpeople,inparticularlawyersofvarioussorts.
Belowthem,inthetowns,werethesortofpeoplewhoinPariswereknownasthe
sansculottes,literally""thosewithoutbreeches",orpeoplewhoworetrousersrather
thanthekneebreechesandstockingsthenwornbytherichandthosewhoapedthem.
Thesewerethesmallshopkeepersandprovidersofvariousservices,themasterartisans
andtheirjourneymenwhoonedayhopedtobecomemastersthemselves.Thosewho
werecondemnedtoalifetimeofdependenceonsellingtheirlabourpowerforawageto
amanufacturingemployerwererelativelyfewandwereconcentratedincertain
industriesandtowns.Oneestimateputstheirnumberataslowas600,000.
ObstaclestoCapitalistDevelopment
Pre1789Franceisbestdescribedasacountryinwhichcapitalismhadbeendeveloping
withinaframeworkofpoliticalandsocialinstitutionsinheritedfromfeudalism,which
hadbecomeanobstacletoitsfurtherdevelopment.Thequestionthatthenarosewas:
howweretheseobstaclestoberemoved?Byreformfromaboveorbyrevolutionfrom
below?Someofthekingsadvisersandadministratorswereawareofwhatwasrequired.
Theconsciouseconomicaimsoftherevolution(seeinset)hadinfactbeenworkedout
byagroupofFrenchRationalistPhilosopherswhocalledthemselvesconomistesor
physiocrates.Theyheldthattherewerenaturallawsgoverningtheproductionand
distributionofwealthjustastherewereotherlawsofnatureandthatgovernments
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distributionofwealthjustastherewereotherlawsofnatureandthatgovernments
shouldlettheseeconomiclawsoperatespontaneously.Hencetheirsloganlaissezfaire
whichstronglyinfluencedthesimilarideaputforwardbyAdamSmithinhisWealthof
Nationsthatappearedin1776.Anumberofroyalofficials,includingministers,hadbeen
Physiocrats,buthadcomeupagainstallsortsofresistanceintryingtocarryoutreform
fromabove.

______________________________________________________________________
Aimsofthe1789Revolution
POLITICAL:Toestablishequalitybetweenallpropertyownersbyabolishingthe
privilegesenjoyedbyasectiononlyofthem,thenobility.Toestablishaconstitutional
governmentresponsibletoanassemblyofpropertyownerselectedonarestricted,
propertyfranchise.
ECONOMIC:Toabolishinternalcustomsdutiesandestablishanationalmarket.To
abolishguildandgovernmentrestrictionsonentryintoparticulartradesandbusinesses
andestablishfreedomofenterpriseandlaissezfaire.Toendfeudalduesandtithes
leviedonagriculturalpropertyrent,interestandprofittobetheonlylegitimateforms
ofnonworkincome.

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Largelyasaresultofitsfailuretoreformitself,bythe1780stheroyalgovernmenthad
gotintosuchfinancialdifficultiesthatbankruptcythreatened.Toraisemoretaxesitwas
obligedtocallameetingofafeudalinstitutionthathadlastmetin1614,theStates
Generalinwhichrepresentativesofthethreeestatesintowhichsocietywaslegally
dividedmettodiscussthekingsdemandforfurthertaxes.InAugust1788the
governmentannouncedthecallingofameetingofthisStatesGeneralforMay1789.In
theinterveningperiodthemembersofthevariousestatesweretomeetalloverFrance
todrawupalistoftheirgrievancesanddemandstosubmittotheking.Therich
membersoftheThirdEstateofthetownsusedtheopportunitynotjusttocomplain
aboutthetaxexemptionsaccordedtotheclergyandthenoblesandtocallforafairer
sharingoftheburdenoftaxationamongtherich,nobleaswellasnonnoble.Theyalso
demandedaConstitutionthatwouldallowtherepresentativesoftheThirdEstateto
dominatetheStatesGeneralandturnitintoanassemblyrepresentingthewhole
"nation".Thisaimwasopenlyexpressedinanimmenselyinfluentialpamphletthat
appearedin1789calledWhatistheThirdEstate?,writtenbyAbbSieys.Sieys
answeredthequestionbyarguingthattheThirdEstatewaseverythingit,anditalone,
constitutedthenation,thenobilitybeingnothingbutuselessandprivilegedparasites:
"Thenobility...istrulyanationapart,butabogusonewhich,lackingorganstokeepit
alive,clingstoarealnationlikethosevegetableparasiteswhichcanliveonlyonthesap
oftheplantsthattheyimpoverishandblight.TheChurch,thelaw,thearmyandthe
bureaucracyarefourclassesofpublicagentsnecessaryeverywhere.Whyarethey
accusedofaristocratisminFrance?Becausethecasteofnobleshasusurpedallthebest
posts,andtakesthemasitshereditaryproperty.Thusitexploitsthem,notinthespirit
ofthelawsofsociety,buttoitsownprofit."
Thusspokethebourgeoisiewhenithadarevolutiontocarryout.
ThesessionoftheStatesGeneralwasopenedbytheKing,LouisXVI,inMay1789.The
representativesoftheThirdEstatesoonshowedthemselvestobeinamilitantmood,in
JuneturningtheStatesGeneral,asplanned,intoaNationalAssemblyandlaterintoa
ConstituentAssembly,orabodychargedwithdrawingupaconstitutionforFrance.
TheBourgeoisRevolution
ThiswasntquitewhatLouisXVIandsomeofhisadvisershadintendedandtheybegan
tothinkintermsofdissolvingtheAssembly.Thekingdismissedhisreformingchief
ministerandtroopsweresenttosurroundParis.Popularreactionwasnotlongin
coming.Thebourgeoisieformedthemselvesintoanarmed"NationalGuard"while,on
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coming.Thebourgeoisieformedthemselvesintoanarmed"NationalGuard"while,on
14July,thesansculottecrowdsstormedtheBastille.PowerinParispassedintothe
handsofthearmed,revolutionarybourgeoisie.
July14hastraditionallybeenregardedasthedatethattheFrenchRevolution,asthe
seizureofpowerbythebourgeoisie,tookplace.Another,perhapsbetter,casecanbe
madeoutfor6Octoberofthesameyear.Thiswasthedatewhen,followingamarchof
women,accompaniedbymembersoftheNationalGuard,fromParistotheroyalpalace
atVersaillestodemandbread,thekingwasforcedtorecognisethepowerandlegitimacy
oftheNationalAssemblybyaccompanyingitbacktoParis.Theoldroyaladministration
thencollapsedthroughoutFranceandpoweratregionalandlocallevelalsopassedinto
thehandsofthebourgeoisie.
InOctobertheConstituentAssemblyabolishedallinternalcustomsduties.Infactall
indirecttaxeswereabolished.Thispresentedthenewregimewithafinancialproblem
howtoraisemoneytofinanceitsactivities?thatwassolvedbytheconfiscationand
saleoftheestatesbelongingtothechurch.Mostchurchlandsfellintothehands,notof
thepeasantswhohadbeenworkingthem,butofrichbourgeoisfromthetowns.The
churchwasnotinfactopposedtothismeasureas,inreturn,theclergyweretobe
maintainedbythestateascivilservants.ButtheConstituentAssemblywentontoinsist,
notonlythatthepriestsshouldswearlikeallothercivilservantsanoathofallegianceto
theconstitution,butalsothatbishopsshouldbeelectedinthesamewaythatmayors
andjudgesweregoingtobe.ThisprovedtoomuchforthePopewho,inMay1791,put
ananathemaontheFrenchRevolutionwhichstillinfluencestheattitudeofCatholic
historianstotherevolutiontothisday.Butitsimportanceatthetimewasthatitmeant
thatthebulkoftheCatholicChurchwentovertothecounterrevolution.
RepresentativeGovernmentforPropertyOwners
TheConstitutionwasfinallypromulgatedin1791.ItprovidedforFrancetobea
constitutionalmonarchy,withthekingasthehereditaryheadoftheexecutivehavingthe
samesortofpowersasthePresidentoftheUSA.Althoughitdidnotremaininforcefor
longitwasamodelconstitutionfortheruleofthebourgeoisie,asthenonnoblesection
ofthepropertyowningclassinsociety.Itspreambleproclaimedinrevolutionaryterms
thecompleteabolitionofthearistocracy:
"Thereisnolongeranynobility,norpeerage,norhereditarydistinction,nordistinctions
betweenorders,norfeudalregime,norhereditaryjustices,noranyorderofknighthood
"
TheConstitutionalsoincorporatedtheDeclarationoftheRightsofManandtheCitizen
thathadbeenadoptedbytheNationalAssemblyinAugust1789.Despitethedeclaration
that"menarebornandremainfreeandequalinrights",theConstitutionwentonto
drawadistinctionbetween"active"and"passive"citizensbasedonpropertyas
measuredbytheamountoftaxpaid.Tobeasimplevoter,thiswassetatarelativelylow
levelbutsome40percentoftheadultmalepopulationfoundthemselveswithoutthe
righttovote(asdidallwomen).Butthiswasnottheonlypropertyqualification.The
membersofthelegislativeassemblywerenotelecteddirectlybythevoterstheselatter
votedfor"electors"whointurnelectedthedeputies.Therewasahigherqualificationto
bechosenasanelectorandanevenhigheronetobeallowedtositintheassembly.
Theabolitionofthedistinctionbetweennobleandnonnoblepropertyownersand
provisionforaconstitutionalgovernmentresponsibletoanassemblyofpropertyowners
electedonarestrictedfranchisewasinfacttheopenlydeclaredaimoftheFrench
Revolutionfromthestart.ItwasproclaimedintheConstitutionof1791andemerged
againin1795tosurviveuntilNapoleonseizedpowerin1799.Between1792and1794,
however,therevolution,undertheimpactofbothanexternalwarandaninternalcivil
war,wastotakeamoreradicalturnbutonewhichturnedouttobenomorethana
detour.
TheJacobinDictatorship
WarwasdeclaredonAustria,whichhadtakenthesideoftheoverthrownaristocracy,in
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WarwasdeclaredonAustria,whichhadtakenthesideoftheoverthrownaristocracy,in
April1792andinJulyPrussiadeclaredwaronFrance,leadingtotheinvasionofthe
countrybyAustrianandPrussiantroops.TheKing,however,continuedtomaintain
contactswithAustriaandPrussia.AstheinvadingarmiesadvancedonParispopular
discontentovertheeconomicandpoliticalsituationbrokeout,leadingtothestorming
oftheroyalpalaceandoverthrowofthekingon10August1792.Francewasnotdeclared
aRepublicuntilSeptember,afterthedefeatoftheinvadingarmiesatValmyontheroad
toParis,butthisdatemarkedtheeffectiveendofthemonarchy.InDecemberLouisXVI
wasputontrialfortreason,foundguiltyandexecutedinJanuary1793.Thus,asin
Englandin1649,akingclaimingtorulebydivinerightfoundoutthehardwaythatthis
wasnotso.
AnewConstitutionwasdrawnupputtingpowerintothehandsofanationalassembly
electedonthebasisofuniversalmanhoodsuffrage.Thisdemocraticaspect,however,
remainedadeadletterasthenewassemblyallowedoneofitssubcommittees,the
CommitteeofPublicSafety,toassumefullpowerstoorganiseandmobilisethewar
effort.AfteranotheruprisinginParisattheendofMaypowerpassedintothehandsof
theJacobins,themostmilitantsectionoftherevolutionarybourgeoisiewhosebest
knownleaderwasMaximilienRobespierre.
Oneofthefirstthingsthatwasdoneunderthenewregimewastosettletheland
question.Alawthatof17July1793decreedtheabolitionofallfeudaldueswithout
compensation.Theprincipleoftheabolitionoffeudaldueshadbeenproclaimedaslong
agoasAugust1789,buthadprovidedforthistobedonebythepeasantsbuyingthese
rightsfromthelordsofthemanor.Naturallythepeasantswerenotsatisfiedandpeasant
unrest,intheformofrefusaltopayandtheburningofchateauxandfeudaltitledeeds,
continued.TheCommitteeonFeudalismofthevariousnationalassemblieswasinan
embarrassingpositionbecausethebeneficiariesoffeudalrightswerenotallnoblesbut
includedmanyrichmembersoftheThirdEstate.
ItwasnevertheintentionofthosewhocarriedouttheFrenchRevolutiontoabolishthe
privateownershipoflandortobreakupthebigestatesoftherichanddividethem
amongthepeasants.Thatwouldhavebeenaflagrantviolationofthe"rightsofproperty"
whichtherevolutionproclaimedand,underalawpassedon18March1793,advocating
itwasinfactmadeanoffencepunishablebydeath.Asfarasthelandquestionwas
concerned,theaimwastoabolishtheburdenoffeudalduesonagriculturalproperty.
Thismeantthatgroundrentwasconsideredtobeaperfectlylegitimateformofincome
andtheCommitteeonFeudalismtriedtopassoffmanyfeudalduesasbeingaformof
groundrent.Thepeasants,however,wouldhavenoneofthisand,throughkeepingup
thepressure,eventuallyobtainedtheabolitionoffeudalduesinarevolutionaryway:by
theirpureandsimpleabolitionwithoutcompensationandthepublicburningofthetitle
deedswhichhadgrantedthem.TheanarchistKropotkininhisbookonTheGreat
FrenchRevolutionregardedthisastherevolutionsmainachievement.
TheruleoftheJacobinsisgenerallyrememberedfortheTerror,thoughinfactitsmain
actionwastheprosecutionofthewarandthesuccessfulrepulsionoftheinvading
armies.ThetwowereconnectedsincetheJacobingovernmenthadtodealwithcounter
revolutionariesathomeworkinginleaguewiththeinvadingpowers.TheTerrorsoon
developed,however,intoasuppressionofalloppositiononthegroundsoftheneedfor
absoluteunityto"savethenation".
Itwasnotjustroyalists,priestsandotheravowedcounterrevolutionarieswhowere
guillotinedastraitors,butalsoallotherswho,foronereasonoranother,opposedthe
Jacobingovernmentonsomeissue,fromleftwingsansculottegroupsliketheEnragsto
moderatebutstillrevolutionaryrepublicanslikeDanton.Suspiciongrewthat
Robespierrewasworkingtoestablishhisowndictatorship.Therewasprobablysome
truthinthisasRobespierreandhissupportersdidbelieveinthenecessityofa
dictatorshiptopurgethepeopleofaristocraticideasandattitudesandtoleadthemto
theRepublicofsmallscalepropertyownersthattheysawastheidealsociety,andthey
didtoywiththeideaofthedictatorshipofasinglepersontoachievethis.
TheJacobinswereinfacttheBolsheviksoftheFrenchRevolutionjustastheBolsheviks
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TheJacobinswereinfacttheBolsheviksoftheFrenchRevolutionjustastheBolsheviks
weretheJacobinsoftheRussianRevolution.Thisaffinitywasconsciouslyrecognisedby
LeninandTrotskyandistothisdaybytheirfollowers,asthefollowingfromanSWP
publicationshows:
"TheJacobinsweretheonlypossibleleadershipcapableofsuccessfullydefendingthe
revolution.Weshoulddefendthemagainstbothrevisionistsandleftutopiancritics"
(SocialistWorkerReview,May1989)
Asimilarpositionistakenupbythesocalled"Marxist"schoolofhistoriansofthe
FrenchRevolution,includingtheirdoyenAlbertSoboul.Theirbooks,andhisin
particular,remainworthreadingbutinsofarasthey"defend"theJacobinsarenota
propernoranadequateapplicationofthematerialistconceptionofhistory.Appliedto
theFrenchRevolution,thiswouldseektoanalysetheeconomicfactorsthatdetermined
itratherthantodefendorattackthepoliticalroleplayedbysomeorothergroupor
personinthecourseofit.
WhatevermayhavebeenRobespierresreasonsforjustifyingthedictatorshipofthe
JacobinCommitteeofPublicSafety,thebulkofthemembersofthenationalassembly
(andindeedsomemembersoftheCommitteeitself)supporteditasanecessitytowin
thewar,bothexternalandinternal,andwerereadytorelaxitoncethishadbeen
achieved,asithadbeenbythesummerof1794.ThiswasfatalforRobespierrewhowas
overthrownon27July(9Thermidor,accordingtotherevolutionarycalendar)and
guillotinedwithhisimmediatefollowersthenextday.
TheRighttoUnequalPropertyOwnershipReasserted
TheoverthrowofRobespierreandtheJacobinsmarkedtheendoftheradicalisationof
theFrenchRevolutionandareturntoitsoriginalaimofestablishingaconstitutional
governmentbyandforpropertyowners.Theonlydifferencewith1791wasthatthiswas
nowtobeachievedwithintheframeworkofaRepublicratherthanofaconstitutional
monarchy.TheRepublicanConstitutionof1795reintroducedthepropertyqualifications
forbeingan"active"citizen,an"elector"andadeputy.
TheJacobinstoohadbeendefendersofthe"sacredrightofproperty".Wherethey
differedfromtheThermidorians(asthosewhooverthrewthemwerecalled)wasthat
theywerenotpreparedtodefendtheexistingdegreeofinequalityofproperty
ownership.ForthempropertyoughttobebasedonworkandtheiridealwasaFrancein
whicheveryFrenchmanwouldownhisownfarmorworkshopandbeabletomaintain
himselfandhisfamilyoutoftheresultsofhisownworkwithouthavingtogooutand
workforwagesforsomeoneelse.Thisideal,whichcanonlybedescribed(usingtheterm
correctlyforonce)as"pettybourgeois",wasanimpossibleoneinthecontextofthe
capitalistsocietythathadbeendevelopinginFrance,aswasneatlyrevealedbyan
exchangethattookplaceinthenationalassemblyinSeptember1794,atatimewhenthe
Jacobinswerestillinpower.AfteraJacobindeputyhadexpoundedtheidealofevery
Frenchmanowninghisownplotoflandandworkingforhimself,anotherdeputygotup
tospeakon,accordingtotheMinutes,"thematerialimpossibilityoftransformingall
Frenchmenintolandholdersandontheunfortunateconsequenceswhichinanyevent
thistransformationwouldbring".Thedeputyexplained:"Because,onthishypothesis,
everybodybeingobligedtocultivatehisownfieldorvineyardinordertolive,commerce,
craftsandindustrywouldsoonbeannihilated".Inotherwords,anonowningsectionof
thepopulationwasneededtosupplypeopletoworkforwagesincapitalistcommerce
andindustry.
ButaBourgeoisRepublicbasedoninequalityandaPettyBourgeoisRepublicbasedon
equalpropertyownershipwerenottheonlytwoidealsthrownupinthecourseofthe
FrenchRevolution.In1795and1796withBabeufandtheConspiracyoftheEquals
anotheridealwasputforward:commonownershipandtheabolitionofallproperty,
buyingandsellingandmoney.Theconspiracyneverreallyhadmuchchanceofsuccess
asitwasinfiltratedfromthestartbygovernmentspiesandprobablymostofthose
involvedinitfavouredtheJacobinidealofaRepublicofsmallpropertyowners(aswell
astheJacobinpolicyofadictatorship,whichBabeuffavouredtoo)ratherthancommon
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astheJacobinpolicyofadictatorship,whichBabeuffavouredtoo)ratherthancommon
ownershipandtheabolitionofallproperty,buttheConspiracyhasleftuswitha
magnificentdocument,writtenbySylvainMarchal,whichwereproduceinthisissue.
PoliticalFailure,SocialSuccess
ThosewhooverthrewtheJacobinsthepartisansofanunashamedBourgeoisRepublic
basedoninequalityofpropertyownershipwereunabletoestablishastableregime,
mainlybecausemostpropertyownersturnedouttofavourarestorationofthe
monarchyand,intheend,alargenumberofbourgeoisrevolutionaries,includingthe
AbbSieyswhohadplayedsuchaprominentpropagandisticroleinpreparingthe
seizureofpowerbythebourgeoisiein1789,acceptedthemilitarydictatorshipof
GeneralNapoleonBonaparteastheonlywayofensuringastablegovernmentand
preventingaroyalistcomeback.TheseizureofpowerbyNapoleonin1799,andhis
subsequentselfproclamationasEmperorin1804,meantthatfromapoliticalpointof
viewtheFrenchRevolutionwasafailure:itdidnotsucceedinestablishinga
"representativegovernment"alongthelinesofwhathadbeenachievedinAmericaand
whichhadbeenitsoriginaldeclaredaim.Itdid,however,succeedinradically
transformingthesocialstructureofFranceinthatalltheremnantsoffeudalism
(divisionofsocietyintoorders,feudalrightsowedtolordsofthemanor)andall
aristocraticprivilege(taxexemptions,exclusiveaccessfornoblestothetopjobsinthe
government,civilservice,armyandchurch)weresweptawaywithouttrace,neverto
return.
Thiswasarealsocialrevolutionwhichemancipatedthepeasantsfromfeudalexactions
andwhichfreedindustryfromtheshacklesoftheguildsystemandcreatedanational
marketforitsgoodsbyremovingallinternalcustomspostsandestablishingauniform
systemofweightsandmeasures.Anditopenedcareersinthegovernment,armyand
civilservantstonewmen,ofnonnobleorigin.
TheachievementoftheFrenchRevolutionwastoabolisharistocraticprivilegebutit
maintained,andconsolidated,plutocraticprivilege.Aftertherevolutionitwaswealthas
suchandnolongernoblestatusthatconstitutedprivilege.Inshort,itestablisheda
capitaliststateinwhichtheonlydistinctionbetweenpeoplewasthepurelyeconomic
classdistinctionbetweenthosewhoownedpropertyandthosewhodidnot.Itpavedthe
wayforthelastclassstruggleinhistory,whichcanonlybeendedbythevictoryofthe
propertylessclassandtheestablishmentofaclassless,socialistsocietybasedonthe
commonownershipofthemeansofproduction,asenvisagedbeforetheirtimeby
Babeuf,Marchal,BuonarottiandothersinvolvedintheConspiracyoftheEqualsof
17956.
No.1019July1989

up

Labour'sHeadbangingExercise

ThemebyDr.Radut.

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