AB Heatec engineering

THE INSTITUTE OF MARINE ENGINEERS
The Memorial Building, 76 Mark Lane, London, EC3R.7JN
Paper to be reed at 1Z30, on Tuesday, 22 November, 1977
MARINE APPLICATION OF THERMAL FLUID HEATING
A. P. W. Slaughter - Wanson Company Ltd.

SYNOPSIS
During the last ten years or more an outwardly unnoticeable change has
been taking place on board a variety of ships, in that the traditional
method of heating cargo, engine room services and accommodation by
steam, has been replaced by a thermal fluid which remains in the liquid
phase throughout the entire heating system.
From the earliest installations, on Port Oilers, Thames and Rhine barges,
and small product carriers of some 200 to 1000 tonne deadweight, to the
latest chemical carriers, freezer trawlers and Antarctic survey vessels,
thermal fluid heating has found the most diverse applications on more
than 200 ships. Uses vary from simply maintaining the temperature of
heavy fuel oil cargoes to the provision of complete shipboard heating
services, including main engine fuel, lubricating oil and cooling water
preheating, cargo pump and line tracing, water calorifiers and air heater
batteries for domestic services, unfired steam generation, tank washing
exchangers, absorption chillers and exhaust gas heat recovery
exchangers.
Ship owners and operators have been able to appreciate the advantage of
installing a single phase, "non-pressurised" system which offers high
efficiency, reduced maintenance and an end to scaling, corrosion,
chemical treatment and freezing problems.
The purpose of this paper is to put forward the argument for thermal fluid
heating, outlining the advantage s over other heating media and to
discuss system design, heat loss and heat transfer calculations, thermal
fluid heater designs and installation and running costs.

HISTORICAL
Since 1967 major developments in the utilisation of thermal fluid heating
for cargo and shipboard services have taken place. Prior to 1967 thermal
fluids had been used mainly in the chemical and process industries where
high temperatures were required (but without the high pressures
associated with steam or hot water systems) and also on tank farms
where the storage of heavy fuel oils, bitumen and similar viscous
materials demanded a heating system that remained in the liquid phase.
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It therefore seemed a logical step to install the same type of heating
system on small river barges and port oilers, carrying these viscous
products to power stations and ocean going vessels, to maintain and in
some cases even raise the temperature of the cargo to pumpable
conditions.
Thus, as owners, builders and operators began to realise the simplicity
and advantages offered by this 'new' method of heating, the solution to an
enormous variety of problems associated with other heating media could
be found and the potential developed to encompass virtually all possible
shipboard heating requirements. Progression from barges, to larger
coastal tankers and ocean going vessels meant that the thermal fluid
heating equipment had to obtain approval from classification societies
such as Lloyds, Det Norske Veritas, Bureau Veritas and the American
Bureau of Shipping. This approval was obtained and later extended to
cover unmanned machinery space, essential services and exhaust gas
heat recovery units.
Until the early seventies most vessels utilising thermal fluid as the heating
medium used the system mainly for direct cargo heating via coils,
together with cargo pump and pipe tracing; the cargo in most cases being
heavy fuel oil, crude oil or bitumen.
In 1972 Manchester Liners' ordered two "all thermal fluid" containerships
from Appledore Shipbuilders, these vessels being designed for the Great
Lakes duty where very cold ambient conditions prevail during winter
months. The long standing premise that "Heating means Steam" was at
last broken and the danger of freezing eliminated. Thermal fluid was for
these ships the obvious answer to all shipboard services' heat
requirements. This in turn led the way to installations on a wide range of
vessels where ambient operating temperatures favoured the use of
thermal fluid heating.
Two trawlers, one Danish, the other owned by
J Marr and Son of Hull, began service, the thermal fluid heater in the
former being used, via a heat exchanger, for boiling shrimps. In the latter,
which started operation in the early part of 1976, the thermal fluid heater
was installed to heat an unfired steam generator serving a cod liver oil
boiler, a sea-water heat exchanger for deck washing and, of particular
interest, a brine heater serving an absorption chiller for the freezing plant.
Both of these vessels are working in
northern waters.
Recently completed Antarctic survey vessels use thermal fluids as the
prime heating source, the largest having an installed capacity of 3520 kW,

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including domestic hot water and warm air and radiant heating for crews
quarters and helicopter hangers.
A logical application has also been found on chemical tankers operating in
both cold and warm waters, where two quite different methods have been
used for cargo heating. The first utilises a thermal fluid heater as the
prime heat source, raising steam via an unfired generator, the steam then
being passed through coils in the cargo tanks. This method prevents
contaminated water returning to the fired heater and avoids consequential
and serious damage to the prime mover.
The second method uses thermal fluid direct to the heating coils, on the
basis that the majority of chemical cargoes are compatible with the
heating medium and the head exerted by the fluid in the expansion tank
prevents the ingress of cargo in the event of a faulty coil. The author has
recently studied the heating of concentrated acids and alkalis where steam
leakage from heating coils is particularly hazardous, as it can give rise to
exothermic reaction. Mineral oil thermal fluids on the other hand have no
such effect.
Development of shipboard thermal fluid heating, although pioneered in the
United Kingdom, has taken place simultaneously in Denmark, Finland,
France, Holland, Norway and Sweden. The author has carried out design
studies on vessels in the range 200 to 100 000 tonnes deadweight and at
the present time actual installed capacities vary from as little as 82 kW
and up to 12,300 kW.

ADVANTAGES
A thermal fluid heating system is simple in concept and easily understood.
A heater raises the fluid temperature in much the same way as a water
heater, with distribution to heat users by means of a single stage
centrifugal pump.
The difference in a liquid phase thermal fluid system is in the fluid itself.
The fluid always remains as a liquid, in what is essentially a nonpressurised system, the only pressure required being that to overcome
frictional losses in the heater, pipe work, fittings and users.
System pressure, excluding the effect of heater pressure loss, is usually
between one and three bar and is not affected by operating temperature,
which may be as high as 300 C. Thus from a single heat source it is
possible to provide all heating requirements on board ship via heat
exchangers and simple flow and return pipe work.
Should two or more operating temperatures be necessary, as for example
in a bitumen carrier requiring say 280 C for the cargo but not more than
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180 C for main engine fuel oil heating, secondary pumps may be installed
to 'dilute' high temperature fluid from the ring main. In a fluid filled
system where the vapour pressure of the fluid is at well under
atmospheric pressure, the header/expansion tank and deaerator vessel,
being positioned close to the pump suction, are not required to be
designed as pressure vessels. In fact the expansion tank is vented to
atmosphere with the fluid contained being only a little above ambient
temperature.
As the expansion tank is mounted above the highest point in the heating
system it provides a positive pressure to the system, thus preventing the
ingress of the cargo or other heated liquid in the event of a coil or heat
exchanger failure.
If a boiler, or any part of a steam system is shut down or isolated a
vacuum is induced as cooling takes place and any cracks in the heating
coil, no matter how small, can cause serious contamination of the boiler
water.
A well publicised example of this in recent years occurred aboard a
prestige passenger liner and resulted in fuel oil contamination of a main
boiler, causing extensive shutdown for costly repairs.
Some chemicals react violently when coming into contact with water
whereas most are compatible with heat transfer fluids and remain safe in
the event of a leakage.
Thermal fluids are non-corrosive and indeed, offer a degree of protection,
which is in sharp contrast to water with its inherent problems of oxygen
corrosion and scale formation, even when treatment and chemical dosing
plant have been installed to maintain correct water quality.
A thermal fluid system, being of the closed type, means there is little fluid
loss. The initial cost of a fill may seem high at first sight, but when
compared with the expense of water treatment and storage over a
number of years, water is invariably the dearer.
If live steam is required for certain processes such as tank cleaning or deicing it may be generated indirectly via an exchanger, permitting a quality
of water to suit the process and not the boiler. Should all of the water be
evacuated from
the generator for any reason there is no danger of overheating as the
tubes are not subjected to the high temperatures associated with a fired
boiler.

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The intermediate use of thermal fluids for steam generation means far
less exacting demands on feed water treatment plant compared with a
fired boiler. And even if neglected the result will only be loss of output and
possibly some minor corrosion.
Fired boilers become expensive when temperatures above 200 C (17 bar)
are required, as do steam fittings and heat exchange equipment.
Thermal fluid heaters can have a combustion efficiency equal to most
modern package steam boilers, low radiation losses and be compact,
simple and robust. Routine maintenance is normally restricted to the
burner and fluid circulating pump.
Heat losses in a thermal fluid system are restricted to the heat contained
in flue gases and radiation losses from the pipe work and heaters. Overall
system efficiency is far greater than an equivalent steam installation, with
its blow down, flash steam and condensate losses, accounting sometimes
for as much as 25 % greater fuel usage. In order to improve the efficiency
of steam plant, additional equipment must be installed and this results in
increased capital cost greater complexity, increased maintenance and the
loss of valuable floor space. A thermal fluid system uses simple flow and
return piping with remarkably few ancillaries. The necessity for steam
traps, which require maintenance, is eliminated, as is a further source of
heat loss and the resultant increased fuel costs.
Freezing conditions, particularly encountered in the northern fishing
grounds for example, make the use of a steam boiler as the prime heating
source on board chip extremely risky, whereas thermal fluids have been
developed to be pumpable at temperatures of -30C and below. The
danger of freezing is therefore virtually eliminated.
At the higher end of the temperature range it is sometimes necessary to
carry bitumen at 220 C, a mammoth task for a steam boiler having to
work with an operating pressure of 27 bar for a temperature of only 230
C. This, on the other hand, comes easily into the operating range of
thermal fluids. In this instance a thermal fluid temperature of around 260
C would be chosen; there being
no attendant pressure restrictions.
Although in a steam system heat is transferred at a constant temperature
(a thermal fluid in the liquid phase giving a temperature drop across the
heat exchange surface) and the internal coefficient of transfer is higher, it
is the external coefficient, when heating viscous fluids, that controls the
overall heat transfer rate. Therefore by taking advantage of the higher
temperatures available, a reduction in heating surface may even result
giving worthwhile savings in capital costs.
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As mentioned earlier, if one or more users require lower temperatures (for
instance where film temperatures must be reduced in order to prevent
degradation of the heated fluid) a secondary circulating system may be
installed while other users take advantage of the higher temperature
primary system.
In a steam system, pipe work and heat, exchange equipment are
susceptible to internal corrosion and scaling; this can result in either
costly down-time for repairs or loss of .efficiency, a' problem which does
not arise in thermal fluid heating systems.
And of considerable importance, thermal fluid heaters are designed for
automatic unattended operation, thus reducing manpower demands. This
is discussed further under the next heading.

RUNNING AND MANPOWER COSTS

When investing in any type. of heating system, three important
requirements should be taken into consideration; reliability, efficiency and
manning costs.
Thermal fluid heaters and associated system ancillaries have proved to be
very reliable in operation, a fact which has been confirmed by the many
satisfied owners and operators with whom the author has been in contact
over a number of years. General opinion is, that having once experienced
thermal fluid heating an owner will, whenever possible, avoid returning to
a fired steam boiler. This is due in no small part to the inherent simplicity
and low maintenance costs.
Well designed thermal fluid heaters with carefully matched burners should
give a combustion efficiency of at least 85% based on the nett calorific
value of the fuel used (approximately 79% on gross calorific value). Other
losses are made up of radiation losses from the heater accounting for
about 0.3%, and the pipe work, heat exchangers and ancillaries
accounting for another 3%. The resultant overall system efficiency, on
average is therefore about 75.7%. In an equivalent steam system an
overall efficiency of 55% to 65% is considered by some as a practical
figure; the difference being of no little import when considering todays
high fuel costs.
Taking as an example a heat requirement of 1,172 kW (4 million Btu/h),
the fuel consumption, burning gas oil (35/45 sec. RN1), will be 185.3 l/h
at. 60% and 148.3 l/h at 75% efficiency. With a fuel cost of 6.8 p/l, the
difference will be 2.516. per hour, or, assuming 16 hours a day and 300
days a year operation, over 12,000 per annum. Running cost savings
using thermal fluid heating will in fact be a little less due to the higher
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electrical consumption in the thermal fluid system. In the above example,
the electrical power requirement would be about 11kW.
Manning costs are obviously very important to any owner/operator and
this has, in a number of cases, been the prime reason for the selection of
thermal fluid heating. In several of his ships, one owner
found that a reduction in crew members of six to five was possible. This
may not at first sight seem significant but it must be borne in mind that
this represented a saving of 17% in labour costs alone.
In conclusion it must be stated that the overall fuel, manpower and
maintenance costs will depend largely on the initial selection of equipment
and correct system design. As thermal fluid heating may be a new
experience to many, even in 1977,in order to achieve the desired result
experts in this field should be consulted for advice and technical
assistance.

INSTALLATION PRACTICE AND COSTS

In all systems utilising high temperature heat transfer media, care must
be taken in the selection of materials that go to complete the installation.
All pipe work, valves, fittings and heat exchange equipment must be
suitable for the maximum utilisation temperature and pressure.
Operating temperature will, of course, depend on the particular
application, but pressure requirements will normally be 7 bar or, if
secondary pumps are installed, up to 10 bar. This is to allow for a
condition of "no-flow" against a closed valve when a centrifugal pump will
develop its maximum head. Alternatively, when employing secondary
pumps, safety valves may be installed to ensure continuous fluid flow and
thereby diminish the maximum design pressure conditions. The heater is
mounted on any flat noncombustible base, in the accommodation area if
space permits, and connected up to flue gas ducting of the correct cross
sectional area, fuel and electrical supplies. The fluid circulating pump is
generally positioned at the same level, the expansion vessel being
mounted above the highest point in the fluid system with the deaerator
vessel close underneath.
A flow and return main is run to suit, with take off points for the various
users. The use of seamless steel tube to BS.3602 or equivalent is
recommended. Seamed tube is not generally considered suitable unless
manufactured under conditions of strict quality control with X-Ray or
ultrasonic tests, for example DIN 17.175 St 35.8. All pipe joints should be
welded except where valves and heat exchangers are installed, to enable
easy removal if required. Thermal fluids-at high temperatures are very

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searching. Flange joints are made with compressed fibre or metallic
jointing rings
of no more than 2 mm thickness and the thermal fluid supplier or heater
manufacturer should be consulted regarding selection of these materials.
Similar care must be taken in regard to the selection of suitable valves
(especially if fitted with packed glands).
Pipe work must be anchored close to main items of equipment such as the
heater, pump and any heat exchangers and should be supported in such a
way as to allow expansion, which in a system operating at 300C will be
400 mm per 100 m. Expansion bellows or pipe loops cater for the
movement in the usual way. In a small system involving only short pipe
runs and containing many 90 bends it is possible to incorporate inherent
flexibility without the use of loops or bellows.
In order to facilitate draining and venting, pipe work should be installed
with a fall. Vent and drain valves on 300 mm stalks being fitted at all high
and low points. These should be of the deadweight self-closing type to
prevent them being left open. A suitably positioned drain valve may also
be used for filling smaller systems with fluid. A typical installation is shown
in Fig. 1.
The use of aluminium, copper or copper base alloys is to be avoided
wherever possible, but materials such as 'Yorkalbro' have been
successfully utilised at temperatures up to 220C with mineral oil fluids
containing only very small quantities of sulphur or an inhibiter. Copper has
been used successfully at lower temperatures in fluid/air heat exchangers
but is not normally recommended.
Valves are usually manufactured from cast steel, nodular cast iron (having
the same pressure/temperature rating as cast steel, ie. 10 bar at 350C)
or cast iron (up to 190C fluid temperature), being of the wedge gate or
globe type with stuffing boxes or bellows seals.
Heat exchangers will normally be in steel, except when heating sea water
for tank washing. Here a combination of steel and naval brass or steel
with a lining of suitable anti-corrosion material on the sea water side, may
be specified.
During the system construction (as in any other system) care must be
taken to ensure that welding residue, dirt and water are removed in order
to avoid problems at initial start-up. It is important, and indeed a Lloyds'
requirement, to install a strainer with removable basket in the return
main. This is usually fitted just upstream of the deaerator vessel; isolating
valves being installed either side to allow element removal for cleaning.
Following filling and commissioning the element should be removed or, if
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retained, a check must be made periodically by pressure gauge readings
to confirm cleanliness of the element. If at a later date the system is
drained or further users added, the element is replaced until it is ensured
that there are no solids present.
Upon completion of the installation, but prior to insulation, a pneumatic
pressure test should be carried out to check for leakage, using reasonably
dry air at a pressure of 1 bar with soap bubble checks on all welds and
joints. Pressure tests must not be carried out using water, as complete
drainage is seldom possible. Water removal from the thermal fluid is
extremely difficult and can result in very extended commissioning times.
Having ensured a 'tight' system, thermal fluid may be introduced and
slowly raised in temperature to just under 100 C and checked for water
contamination. The presence of water usually results in pump cavitation
and the fluid should therefore be held at close to but just below 100C
until all traces of water have been removed. This is achieved automatically
by venting from the deaerator to the expansion vessel through the special
pipe loop provided (see Fig. 2.) Sometimes local venting of the system at
vent points may also be found necessary. The system is then taken up to
the operating temperature in stages, at the same time a check is made for
leakage and flange bolt tightness. Following this, insulation may be
applied; preformed half sections of suitable material being readily
obtained from suppliers, and finished in cladding to suit. For safety,
inspection and maintenance purposes it is recommended that pumps,
valves and flanges be left not insulated but shielded to prevent accidental
injury to personnel. Certain types of bonded insulating materials should be
avoided because of the possibility of exothermic reaction with any oil
leakage that may occur.(Always check with the manufacturer first.)
The expansion tank must not be insulated as it should be kept cool to
prevent fluid oxidation which starts to occur at 60 C. Likewise the
thermal buffer section (see Fig. 2.) of the deaerator vessel should not be
insulated but, if mounted in a position where personnel contact may
occur', should be suitably shielded.
The actual cost of a thermal fluid heating installation will of course vary
from system to system, but generally, and based on the authors
discussions with a number of shipbuilders, actual costs are comparable
with those of steam systems; in some cases they may be a little leas
expensive.
Thermal fluid heaters are generally more compact than steam boilers.
They may be positioned more or-leas anywhere (in one case in a disused
toilet) and eliminate the usual problems associated with condensate return
pipe work and hot well positioning.
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HEAT LOSS CALCULATION
The development of formulae and methods for the determination of heat
losses from ships tanks has been due, in the main, to the work carried out
by the D.S.R.I., (1)
N.S.R.C. (2) and the British Shipbuilding Research
Association. The author does not propose to go into detail here and
advises those interested to read the reports published by these bodies.
Heat transfer from cargoes to the environment occurs by convection,
conduction and radiation. The highest rate of transfer occurs between a
vertical wall and sea water and the lowest rate from the chips bottom to
the seawater. When carrying bitumen or liquid sulphur the centre tanks
should only be used if the vessel is not of double skin construction. This
can result in a reduction of up to 70 % in losses from side walls. For heavy
fuel oils and other viscous products carried at between 50 C and 65 C
the following heat transfer rates may be taken as a guide :
(a)

Vertical wall

from cargo to seawater

17.5 W/m2 C

(b)

Vertical wall

from cargo to atmosphere

4.7 W/m2 C

(c)

Vertical wall

from cargo to empty tank

4.6 W/m2 C.

(d)

Tank bottom from cargo to seawater

2.75W/m2 C.

(e)

Tank deck from cargo to air to atmosphere

5.4 W/m2 C.

W/m2 C

0.17612 Btu/f t2 F

h.

The foregoing rates include an allowance for the effect on heat loss by
conduction through beams and other structures, which has a considerable
effect on losses from the tank bottom, where convection currents are zero
in the stationary oil layer formed under the heating coils.
For any heating application heat loss equals heat gain. It is important to
remember that too low a heat input results in a viscous stationary layer of
oil on the tank walls, which although acting as insulation, remains at a
temperature close to that of the seawater and makes complete evacuation
in possible. The actual tank wall temperature depends on the ratio of the
inside and outside heat transfer coefficients. Temperature difference is
taken as that between the bulk cargo and seawater or air.
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Viscosity has the most significant influence on heat loss and highly viscous
fluids will require less heat than those of low viscosity for the same bulk
temperature. The letter however, will allow good heat transfer rates from
the coils. Fluids should always be carried at the lowest possible
temperature commensurate with ease of handling by cargo pumps and
minimum residue following evacuation.

HEAT TRANSFER
For heat transfer between a fluid and the inner wall of a pipe in conditions
of turbulent flow, McAdams (3) gives
Nu = 0.023 (Re)0.8 (Pr)0.4
(i) for Reynolds numbers from 10, 000 to
120,000 and Prandtl numbers from 0.7 to 120. B.P. Oil Limited and others
present the above for their own fluids in diagram form, typically for fluid
temperatures between 50 C and 325 C, pipe diameters of 20mm to
400mm and fluid-velocities of 0.25 m/s to 5 m/s.
Heat transfer by natural convection between the outer wall of a pipe and a
fluid at rest is given by :
Nu = 0.59 (Gr.Pr.)0.25 (ii)
Fluid properties are evaluated at the film temperature which can be. taken
as 1/2 (bulk fluid temperature + skin temperature). When heating viscous
fluids the outside coefficient dominates the overall heat transfer rate; for
instance taking 6500 sec. RN1 oil at a bulk temperature of 86C, heated
by thermal fluid at 165 C mean, inside and outside coefficients can be
860 W/m2 C and
105 W/m2 C respectively. Even with an inner coefficient of double that
above, the overall rate would only vary by approximately 5 %.
Even though a condensing vapour gives a higher inside transfer coefficient
than a liquid, it is of little significance and if thermal fluids are used it is, in
the majority of cases, easy to design heating surfaces based on a higher
fluid temperature. In fact if much higher temperatures are permitted by
the characteristics of the cargo, a significant saving in heating surface can
be made. The foregoing comments make thermal fluids even more
favourable for air heat exchange.
The layout of heating surface in tanks is determined by fluid flow rate,
pressure loss and fluid velocity, all three factors being interrelated. The
most common arrangement is a single transverse coil for small heat loads
and two or more in parallel for large heat loads. Alternatives are
longitudinal parallel (more commonly used for steam heating), helical and
storied helical which may be used in deep tanks.
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THERMAL FLUID HEATERS
The prime mover in a thermal fluid system is the heater and associated
circulating pump and it is now widely acknowledged that the most suitable
heater design is of the vertical coil type, with forced circulation and
continuous positive control of fluid velocity in each coil.
In other types of heater, such as the shell design with annular spaces, it is
not possible to ensure, or to monitor, fluid velocity in all parts of the
space. Varying heat flux rates in different parts of the heater can
therefore go undetected. Thermal fluid heaters based on the water tube
boiler type of construction also suffer from this limitation.
In a well designed heater one or more coiled tubes are fabricated to form
the combustion chamber and secondary convection heating surfaces, with
an annular space between the outer coil and casing used to provide
combustion air preheating and insulation. The result is a compact, robust
and highly efficient unit without imposing excessively high thermal
stresses on either fluid or heater.
It is important that the quantity of refractory material be kept to an
absolute minimum. This is necessary to keep thermal inertia low and
thereby prevent fluid overheating and degradation in the event of
accidental circulation failure.
Thermal fluid heaters may be fitted with equipment suitable for the
combustion of light grade oils requiring no preheating residual fuel oils,
natural, manufactured and L.P. gases, or a combination of gas and oil. For
heavy oils, electric, thermal fluid or combined pre-heaters can be fitted, to
bring the fuel up to atomising temperature. Burner control can be on/off,
high/low/off or fully modulating depending on heater size and fuel.
When burning fuel oil in large heaters a separate butane or propane fired
pilot burner is often incorporated, but for shipboard services direct spark
ignition or a low voltage retractable carbon rod are utilised. Burner startup and shut-down sequences are automatically controlled by a
synchronous timer in the same way as a boiler, with programme checking
operation of the heater safety devices and controls and continuous flame
monitoring by photo-cell or UV sensing. Fluid temperature is normally
controlled from thermostats mounted in the main control panel with
sensing elements in the inlet and outlet headers. Safety controls monitor
temperature at each coil outlet, on units fitted with two or more coils.
Fluid velocity in each coil is monitored by flow measuring devices and in
the event of abnormal conditions these, or the fluid over temperature
thermostats will put the burner to lock-out in order to prevent damage to
the coils or fluid. Lloyds and other authorities insist that the expansion
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vessel be fitted with low and high level float switches to prevent burner
start-up or ensure lock-out if the fluid rises or falls beyond two specified
levels.
Most A.C. electrical supply voltages can be accepted with 50 or 60 Hz
frequency and in some cases, such as on small barges where only a D.C.
supply is available, the fluid circulating pump can be driven by a D.C.
motor with an alternator providing an A.C. supply to the combustion air
fan and fuel pump motor and control circuits.
Thermal fluid circulating pumps have been specially developed for
transporting high temperature fluids without the need for water cooling,
this feature removing the requirement for water piping and fittings. Back
pull-out pumps are to be preferred as even major repairs can be carried
out without disturbing pipe work.
The author appreciates that space is at a premium on ships, but sufficient
room should always be allowed to carry out routine maintenance on the
heater and circulating pump. Should it ever be necessary to take out the
heater coil, if sufficient headroom is not available, a removable deck-plate
may be incorporated. Routine maintenance is normally limited to cleaning
of the burner nozzle and electrodes and the lubrication of moving parts.

THERMAL FLUIDS
The best known and most easily understood thermal fluid is of course
water. It possesses excellent heat transfer properties between 0 C and
100 C ,i.e. low viscosity and vapour pressure combined with high thermal
conductivity, density and specific heat. However, at temperatures above
100 C a pressurised system must be employed and, although package
boilers are readily available at operating pressures of up to 17 bar (250
psig), to obtain a steam temperature of more than 200 C will result in
increased capital costs. This was accepted without much question up to
about forty years ago, when chemical processes requiring higher and
higher temperatures, demanded an alternative heating medium. Boilers
and associated plant would have become exorbitantly expensive and to
avoid this heat transfer fluids such as Dowtherm, Thermex and
Mobiltherm 600 having low vapour pressures (i.e. high boiling point)were
developed.
At the opposite end of the scale it is always necessary, when using water,
to maintain the surrounding temperature above 0 C in order to prevent
freezing and costly repair bills.

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Thus at first sight a seemingly excellent heat transfer medium, water, has
been found to have severe limitations outside a very narrow temperature
range.
The author has not been able to determine with any confidence, even a
close date when alternative fluids were first introduced, but one or two
mineral oils and also a synthetic diphenyl/diphenyl oxide fluid (Dowtherm
and Thermex) were certainly being used as early as 1937. The synthetic
fluid has been in use ever since, its most common applications being in
chemical process plants and edible oil deodorising where very high
temperatures are needed.
As the potential of this 'new' type of heating began to be realised, major
petroleum and chemical companies became interested in producing heat
transfer fluids as saleable products in their own right, but it was not until
the mid 1950's through the sixties and early seventies that development
took place to produce the fluids available today. The range of heat
transfer fluids now available includes; (1) parafinic or napthenic based
mineral oils (the most commonly used fluids), (2) synthetic hydrocarbons,
(3) isomers, (4) diphenyl/ diphenyl oxide, (5) inorganic salts and (6)
mercury. The last three mentioned will not be discussed further as their
use is found mainly in special high temperature processes. Synthetic
hydrocarbons and isomers will be discussed together as their operation
range is similar.
Thermal fluids may be divided generally into three temperature ranges :
(a) Low temperature
(b) Medium temperature
(c) High temperature

- minus 25C to 250C (1) (2) and (3)

- 0C to 315C (1) (2) and (3)
- 0C to 350C and above (2) and (3)

The lower temperatures stated are the minimum at which a single stage
centrifugal pump will handle the fluid and correspond to a viscosity of 300
cS.
From the foregoing it will appear that a single fluid, (2) or (3) will operate
over the whole range, but this is not true as different fluids having the
same base have been developed to do a job over a limited range.
The most common shipboard applications have used the medium
temperature range of fluids, but more recently (since about 1972) an
increasing use of the low temperature range has been made, especially in
the extreme climatic conditions likely to be encountered by trawlers and
survey vessels.

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A good fluid possesses the properties of, high thermal stability and
conductivity, coupled with low viscosity and vapour pressure. By
maintaining controlled turbulent flow conditions within the fluid heater, a
long fluid life can be expected. This can be from a minimum of five years
and up to ten or even fifteen years, in a properly designed and operated
system.
At cold start-up the fluid viscosity must not be more than 300 cSt, this
being the maximum that centrifugal pumps will handle and therefore,
selection of the correct fluid is most important, taking into account
minimum and maximum temperature requirements. Figures 3 and 4 show
the properties of typical low, medium and high temperature fluids.
Most fluids are available on a few days delivery, the current cost for
mineral oils and some synthetics being around 25-35 p/litre, others
ranging up to 60-70 p/litre for special applications. A good supplier will
sample the fluid, prior to and following system start-up, and at regular
intervals thereafter for routine analysis, the frequency depending on the
rate of chemical change. Customers are then advised in advance as to
when the fluid should be changed.

APPLICATIONS
Liquid phase thermal fluids used as both heating and cooling media have
proved to be so successful that any list of applications is never complete,
new uses being found every year. At a first glance the obvious advantages
over steam and high pressure hot water would appear to be at either end
of the range, high temperature, 250 C to 520 C for heating bitumen and
low temperature, down to minus 25 C for severe climates such as Arctic
and Antarctic service conditions. However, to date, the majority of
installed systems have been working in the medium temperature range
from 150 C to 2400C. For direct heating applications via coils and heat
exchangers, most systems use fluid between 170 C and 220 C. These
include cargoes of crude, residual and light oils, liquid sulphur, chemicals
such as concentrated acids and alkalis and general products.
Under certain regulations it is sometimes necessary to include an
intermediate heat exchanger in the system when carrying particular
chemicals. Other uses in this temperature range are; cargo pump and line
tracing, fuel oil bunkers and preheating fuel oil to atomising viscosity,
lubricating oil, engine combustion air and cooling water preheating,
accommodation and galley heating and air conditioning via fluid/air heat
exchangers, domestic hot water calorifiers, radiant strip or air heaters for
helicopter hangars, seawater heating for tank washing, slop tanks and
exposed freshwater tanks.

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In order to heat edible oil cargoes such as molasses, palm oil, lard, etc. it
is necessary to keep thermal fluid skin temperatures within quite low
limits in order to prevent possible degradation of the cargo. Where indirect
heating is
preferred a thermal fluid heater can be used in conjunction with an unfired
generator producing steam at low pressures. A further application, which
is now becoming widespread due to the ever increasing need to preserve
energy, is that of heat recovery from main and auxiliary engine exhaust
gases.
Waste heat recovery units have been specially designed for thermal fluids,
are easily able to cope with pulsations from diesel engines without stress
and have obtained Lloyds approval.
Exhaust gases from marine engines are frequently at temperatures of 550
C 570 C and at this level it is easily possible to attain thermal fluid,
temperatures of 200 C, at the same time recovering large quantities of
heat. This can then be used, for instance, in essential services heating in
conjunction with a fired thermal fluid heater, acting as standby and when
main engines are shut down. In practical terms, each 9 to 10 kW of heat
recovered means one litre per hour of fuel oil less to burn in a fired
heater, even at 80 % gross combustion efficiency.
In conclusion the author would ask all of those involved in the selection of
shipboard heating services not just to automatically think "steam" in
future, because there is and has been for some years now an alternative
which is worthy of very serious consideration.

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AB Heatec engineering

NOMENCLATURE
Gr. Grashof number
Nu. Nusselt number
Pr.
Prandtl number
Re. Reynolds number
L.
Length (diameter of pipe)

Density
g.
Acceleration

Coefficient of Expansion
t. Temperature difference

Viscosity
k.
Thermal Conductivity
h.
Coefficient of Heat Transfer
Cp. Specific Heat
V.
Fluid Velocity

L3 2 g t / 2
hL / k
Cp / k
LV /

BIBLIOGRAPHY
(1) A MANUAL OF TANK HEATING CALCULATION
by Curt Christensen (Danish Ship Research
Institute. Report DSF-24, May 1971
(2)

THEORETICAL EVALUATION OF HEAT TRANSFER IN

DRY CARGO SHIP'S TANKS USING THERMAL OIL AS
A HEAT TRANSFER MEDIUM
by D J Vander Heeden (Netherlands Ship Research Centre
TNO. Report No:86M, December 1966)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author wishes to thank his colleagues at Wanson Company Limited for
their assistance in the preparation of this paper.
REFERENCES
(3) McADAMS,. WILLIAM H. "Heat Transmission" Mcgraw Hill.

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