Thermal physics

Temperature
The definition of temperature is not easy.
We will only provide a precise definition in a month..
From now on, we consider an operative definition of temperature,
temperature is what you measure with a thermometer.
In this lesson we describe empirical observations that allow to
understand how a thermometer works

Termometry
Three empirical observations allow for the functioning of
thermometers
systems in thermal contact reach thermal equilibrium
zeroth law of thermodynamics
there are physical properties we can measure that change with
temperature (e.g. volume, pressure, electrical resistance, )

We now have a look at these facts.

Thermal equilibrium
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Thermal interaction
Thermal interaction does not require physical contact (i.e., the sun does not touch the
earth)
Thermal contact might occur through:
1. Conduction: require physical contact
2. Radiation: electromagnetic waves
3. Convection: mass motion of a fluid, i.e. gas and/or liquid

Thermometry
Three empirical observations allow for the functioning of thermometers
systems in thermal contact reach thermal equilibrium
zeroth law of thermodynamics
there are physical properties we can measure that change with temperature (e.g.
volume, pressure, electrical resistance, )

Zeroth law of thermodynamics

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0th law makes it possible to define temperature.

Thermometry
Three empirical observations allow for the functioning of thermometers
systems in thermal contact reach thermal equilibrium
zeroth law of thermodynamics
there are physical properties we can measure that change with temperature (e.g.
volume, pressure, electrical resistance, )

Properties depending on temperature

To make a thermometer, one could use any physical property that changes with
temperature (in a reversible an monotonic way), such as:
The volume of a liquid
The length of a solid
The pressure of a gas held at constant volume
The volume of a gas held at constant pressure
The electric resistance of a conductor
The thermal radiation (emissivity) of an object

Thermometers
A thermometer is any device calibrated to measure the temperature of an object.
Thermometers operate by establishing thermal equilibrium with the system whose
temperature needs to be measured.
For accurate measurement, the thermometer must be much smaller than the system
so that the energy the thermometer gains or loses doesnt significantly alter the
energy content of the system.

Common thermometers
Mercury and alcohol thermometers are examples of common thermometers
The level of the mercury (alcohol) rises due to thermal expansion
Temperature can be defined by the height of the mercury (alcohol) column

Calibration of thermometers
Calibrate thermometers by placing them in thermal contact with an environment that
remains at constant temperature. Examples of similar environments are mixtures of ice and
water, and of water and steam, in thermal equilibrium.
It is observed that temperature (e.g. height of liquid column) of a mixture of ice and water,
as well as of water and steam does not depend on the relative amount of ice and water, and
of water and steam.
Conventionally, one assigns to the ice/water mixture the temperature of 0 degree Celsius,
and to the water and steam mixture the temperature of 100 degree Celsius.

Celsius scale
Temperature of an ice-water mixture is defined as 0 C
This is the freezing point of water
Temperature of a water-steam mixture is defined as 100 C
This is the boiling point of water
Distance between these points is divided into 100 segments or degrees, hence
also the name of centigrade scale

Gas thermometer (constant volume)

The volume of gas in the flask is kept constant by raising or
lowering reservoir B to keep the mercury level in column A
constant
Temperature readings are nearly independent of the gas
(as long as the gas pressure is low and the temperature is
well above the point at which the gas liquefies).
Pressure varies with temperature when maintaining a
constant volume.
Can be calibrated using ice and steam points.
P
The pressure P is proportional to h

Pressure v.s. temperature

Constant gas volume

Absolute zero

Regardless of the type of gas and (constant) volume, all curves

extrapolate to the same temperature of, -273.15 C, at zero pressure
(perfect vacuum).
This temperature is defined as the absolute zero

Kelvin scale
Absolute zero is used as the basis for the Kelvin temperature scale which
sets 273.15oC as its zero point:
273.15 C = 0 K
To convert: T[K]= T[oC] + 273.15
The size of the degree in the Kelvin and Celsius scales is the same

Interesting Kelvin temperatures

Note that this scale is logarithmic
Absolute zero has been approached but never
been reached

Fahrenheit scale
Most commonly used in the United States, it sets the temperature of the
ice point at 32 F, and the temperature of the steam point at 212 F :
0 C = 273.15 K = 32 F
100 C = 373.15 K = 212 F
To convert, let
be the temperature measured in degree Celsius, and
the temperature measured in degree Fahrenheit.
Then
Prove that

Thermometry
Three empirical observations allow for the functioning of thermometers
systems in thermal contact reach thermal equilibrium
zeroth law of thermodynamics
there are physical properties we can measure that change with temperature (e.g.
volume, pressure, electrical resistance, )

What do we feel ?
metal

Touch a cold metallic object:

Metal: good thermal contact
Large flux of energy from the body to the object
The object appears really cold

plastic

Touch a cold plastic object:

Plastic: bad thermal contact
Small flux of energy from the body to the object
The object does not appear too cold

We are not sensible to the temperature of an object, but to the flux of energy we exchange with
that object. The larger the flux of energy we transfer to an object, the cooler the object
appears.
Have a look at this video