Assignment 2: Aristotle on Voluntary Action

1. What are the two main types of cause that make an action involuntary
for Aristotle? Illustrate each type with an original example.
According to Aristotle, the two main types of cause that make an
action involuntary are when they are performed under compulsion or
through ignorance (50). For the action to be compulsory, there has to
be some sort of uncontrollable external influence that causes the
action to occur, not the actions of the agent. An example of this
compulsory action could be someone swimming in the ocean and being
pulled out to sea by a rip tide. The swimmer contributed nothing to the
action; he was at the mercy of the rip current the uncontrollable
external influence.
In order for an action to be considered involuntary due to
ignorance, the action must cause the agent subsequent pain and
repentance (52). Likewise, the agent must be ignorant of one several
specific circumstances (53). For example, it would be an act of
ignorance if a movie actor were to kill another actor with a gun he was
told was a prop. This would be an action committed in ignorance
because the actor was ignorant of the tool of his actions. Also, the
actor would undoubtedly feel remorse for his actions. All of these
factors would classify this action as one committed in ignorance.
2. On what grounds does Aristotle dismiss the idea that pleasure or desire
can make an action compulsory and thus involuntary?

Aristotle dismisses the idea that pleasure or desire can make an

action compulsory because if these external pressures defined
compulsion, all actions would then be considered compulsory because
everything we do is based on these pressures. Furthermore, acting
under compulsion implies pain or discomfort in the action, while
pleasure and admiration only lead to pleasant ends. Finally, pleasure or
desire cannot make an action involuntary by means of compulsion
because it doesnt make sense that a man should be able to attribute
his successes to his own efforts, but all of his failures to compulsion
caused by pleasure or desire. If this were the case, all failures or
immoral acts would be attributed to the external pressures of his
desires and pleasures. Thus, an action can only be compulsory if the
external influence is outside of the control of the actor, and if the
action causes some sort of pain, discomfort, or other displeasure to the
actor.
3. Using original examples, illustrate four circumstances of ignorance that
can make an action involuntary.
a. It would be considered in ignorance if one were to visit another
country and do something that would be considered innocent in
their own country, but is considered offensive in the country they
are visiting. (#2 ignorance of the act)
b. It would be considered in ignorance if a woman were to tase
someone she thought was a stranger, but was really just her

husband coming up behind her to surprise her. (#3 ignorance

of object or medium of act)
c. It would be considered in ignorance if one were tell a joke with
the intent of cheering someone up, but instead unknowingly
reminds them of why they are sad. (#5 ignorance of aim)
d. It would be considered in ignorance if one were to brutally
criticize a piece of art, only to find out that it was created by a
small child (who is now sad and discouraged) and that comments
were supposed to be light and positive. (#6 ignorance of
manner)
4. Explain what Aristotle means when he asserts that animals other than
humans can act voluntarily, but they cannot act from choice.
When Aristotle makes this assertion, he means that while these
nonhuman beings
are able to act voluntarily, these actions are driven by appetites and
desires instead of by conscious choice. As previously described, actions
that are executed based on appetites, desires, or pleasures can only be
considered voluntary. Since nonhuman beings do not have the mental
capacity that humans do to think through situations and make choices,
they must be driven by appetites. For example, if a dog sees food
laying on the floor, he cannot consciously make the choice to not eat it
due to the consequences that it may bring. Instead, he will be guided
by his appetite to either consume the food or to not consume it due to
lack of hunger.

5. What is deliberation? What types of things do we deliberate about?

What type of things do we not deliberate about?
Deliberation is a thought process that precedes choice in which
one makes considerations about the implications of their choices and
thoughts before they are made. For example, people deliberate over
whether an action is considered good or bad, whether to take the path
of goodness or the opposite, and the best course of action to take.
People tend to deliberate about ill defined problems, with no clear
course of action or final result, when we are to performs practical
measures that lie within our power. For example, creating a piece of art
requires much deliberation because it is uncertain. We also do not
deliberate about the starting point or goal of an action, but rather
about the events and decisions that happen in between these points.
Things people do not deliberate about include all situations regarding
facts of the universe or events with precise rules (e.g. mathematics,
2+2 will always be 4), natural events (tides, sunrise), or chance
occurrences (winning the lottery). These situations lie outside of the
realm of human control.
6. Is a persons character (whether they are good or bad, selfish or
selfless, courageous or cowardly, etc.) voluntary or involuntary for
Aristotle? Explain.
According to Aristotle, a persons character is voluntary and
defined by their dispositions, or tendency to respond in a certain way.
At their core, dispositions can be either virtuous or vicious, with a

moral disposition lying somewhere in between according to the

Doctrine of the Mean. These dispositions are determined by action by
actions when these dispositions are being formed, the actions taken
that determine virtuousness or viciousness are voluntary. After this
determination is made, the development of the disposition happens
automatically in a seemingly involuntary manner. However, according
to Aristotles definition of being involuntary, they are not so because
they actors are not remorseful of their actions they are simply acting
according to what seems right to them. Also, although one may act in
accordance to a disposition, they are still making a choice to act
virtuously or viciously in their actions. While they may not have been in
direct control of their disposition as it developed, the dispositions are
still voluntary because they were formed by the choices of the person,
and the actor continues to choose their course of action. They are not
acting under compulsion, nor are they acting in ignorance, therefore
people act voluntarily through their dispositions. Since dispositions are
what comprise the idea of character, character is therefore voluntary.