Cathodic Protection

Engineering Encyclopedia
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards
Cathodic Protection Systems
Note: The source of the technical material in this volume is the Professional
Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services.
Warning: The material contained in this document was developed for Saudi
Aramco and is intended for the exclusive use of Saudi Aramcos
employees. Any material contained in this document which is not
already in the public domain may not be copied, reproduced, sold, given,
or disclosed to third parties, or otherwise used in whole, or in part,
without the written permission of the Vice President, Engineering
Services, Saudi Aramco.
Chapter : Materials And Corrosion Control

For additional information on this subject, contact
File Reference: COE101R4
O.S. Abdul Hamid on 874-2532 or A.M. Al-Ghamdi on 873-1290
Materials And Corrosion Control


SAUDI ARAMCO

NOTE:
THE SOURCE OF THE TECHNICAL MATERIAL IN THIS VOLUME IS THE PROFESSIONAL

ENGINEERING DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM (PEDP) OF ENGINEERING SERVICES.
WARNING. THE MATERIALS CONTAINED IN THIS MANUAL WERE DEVELOPED FOR THE
SAUDI ARABIAN OIL COMPANY (SAUDI ARAMCO) AND ARE INTENDED FOR THE EXCLUSIVE
USE OF SAUDI ARAMCO EMPLOYEES. ANY MATERIAL CONTAINED IN THIS MANUAL WHICH IS
NOT ALREADY IN THE PUBLIC DOMAIN MAY NOT BE COPIED, REPRODUCED, SOLD, GIVEN, OR
DISCLOSED TO THIRD PARTIES, OR OTHERWISE USED, IN WHOLE OR IN PART, WITHOUT THE
PRIOR WRITTEN PERMISSION OF VICE PRESIDENT, ENGINEERING SERVICES, SAUDI
ARAMCO.

CONTENTS
PAGES
INFORMATION
Principles and Operation of Cathodic Protection Systems
How Cathodic Protection Works
Measuring Electrical Potential
Operation of Galvanic Anode Systems
1
1
5
7
Galvanic Anodes
12
Anode Chemical Backfill
16
Advantages and Disadvantages of Galvanic Anode Systems
17
Operation of Impressed Current Systems
18
Impressed Current Anodes
20
Coke Breeze
23
Advantages and Disadvantages of Impressed Current Systems
23
Calculating Cathodic Protection Requirements for Buried Pipelines
24
Calculating Cathodic Protection Requirements for Tanks and Vessels
26
Calculating Cathodic Protection Requirements for Marine Structures
28
Offshore Platforms
28
Marine Pipelines
29
Piers and jetties
30
WORK AID
Work Aid 1: Formula, Criteria, and Guideline for Calculating Cathodic
Protection Requirements for Buried Pipelines
31
Work Aid 2: Formulas, Criteria, and Guidelines for Calculating

Cathodic Protection Requirements for Tanks and Vessels
32
Work Aid 3: Criteria, and Guidelines for Calculating Cathodic

Protection Requirements for Marine Structures
33
GLOSSARY
34

PRINCIPLES AND OPERATION OF CATHODIC PROTECTION SYSTEMS

How Cathodic Protection Works
Cathodic protection (CP) is an electrical method to control corrosion. It is based on the
principles of the electrochemical corrosion cell. Figure 1 shows two typical corrosion cells.
The diagram on the left is a laboratory corrosion cell that contains two dissimilar metals. The
diagram on the right is a corrosion cell that can occur on the surface of a metal. In both
diagrams, the potential difference between the anode and cathode is the driving force for
corrosion. The direction of the corrosion current is shown for each diagram. Electric current
flows in the opposite direction of the electrons. The direction of current flow is from positive
+ to negative - in the metal path. The metal corrodes where current leaves its surface.
The metal does not corrode where electric current enters its surface.
A Laboratory Corrosion Cell (left) and a Corrosion Cell on a Metal Surface (right)
Figure 1

How Cathodic Protection Works, Contd

To understand how cathodic protection works, consider the electrochemical reactions that
occur in a corrosion cell on the surface of a metal (Figure 2). As corrosion occurs, the
electrons that are released in anodic reactions are consumed in cathodic reactions.
Anodic reactions
An Electrochemical Corrosion Cell on the Surface of a Metal
Figure 2
If additional electrons are supplied to the metal from an external source, more electrons are
available for cathodic reactions (Figure 3). As a result, the cathodic reaction rate and the
evolution of hydrogen gas increases. Consequently, electron demand from the anode
decreases and the anodic reaction rate decreases to produce fewer electrons. Reducing
electron demand from the anode by supplying additional electrons to the metal is the basic
principle of cathodic protection.
e
Decreased anodic reactions
Electrons from external source
Electrons Introduced from an External Source

Figure 3

How Cathodic Protection Works, Contd

These additional electrons are supplied by direct electric current. As direct current is applied
to the metal, the potential of the cathodic areas shifts toward the potential of anodic areas.
This is shown graphically in Figure 4.
negative
positive
Cathodic Polarization Caused by Direct Current

Figure 4
If enough direct current is applied, the potential difference between an anode and cathode will
be eliminated and corrosion will cease. For example, Figure 5 shows corrosion cells on a
buried section of pipeline. Corrosion currents flow between local anodic areas (A) and
cathodic areas (C) in the corrosion cells.
Before Cathodic Protection

Figure 5

How Cathodic Protection Works, Cont'd

In Figure 6, an external current source is connected to the buried pipeline through a lead wire.
Direct current flows from the external current source onto the buried pipeline. This current
causes the potential of the cathodic areas to shift in a negative direction. If enough current
flows onto the metal surface, the potential of the cathodic areas will equal the potential of the
most anodic area on the pipeline. As a result, corrosion will stop. To complete the circuit, the
lead wire returns current to the current source. It is important to note that CP does not
eliminate corrosion. It transfers corrosion from the protected structure to the expendable
external current source or anode.
After Cathodic Protection Current is Applied

Figure 6
NOTE: Cathodic protection current will only protect external surfaces on buried structures.
Above ground, structures cannot be protected by cathodic protection because the current
discharged from the current source will not travel through the atmosphere. Internal surfaces
of pipelines can only be protected by either corrosion inhibitors or coatings, or by using a
corrosion resistant alloy for the pipeline.

Measuring Electrical Potential
When direct current is applied to a metal surface, its potential becomes more negative. This
shift in electrical potential can be measured and used as a criterion of cathodic protection.
Electrical potentials are always measured with respect to a reference electrode. The coppercopper sulfate (Cu-CuSO4) reference electrode is the most common reference electrode used
for buried structures. The Cu-CuSO4 reference electrode is durable, easy to make, and easy
to maintain. Also, the potential of a Cu-CuSO4 reference electrode changes very little with
temperature.
Figure 7 is a diagram of a Cu-CuSO4 reference electrode. The voltage of a Cu-CuSO4
reference electrode depends on the concentration of copper sulfate in the electrolyte solution.
Saturated solutions are easiest to make and they provide consistent measurements. To make a
saturated solution, copper sulfate crystals are added to water until some of the crystals do not
dissolve. The solution remains stable as long as some copper sulfate crystals are undissolved.
The plug at the bottom of the reference electrode is made of porous material. The porous plug
provides a conductive path between the reference electrode and the electrolyte around a
structure.
Diagram of a Copper-Copper Sulfate Reference Electrode

Figure 7

Figure 8 shows how the potential difference between a pipeline and the Cu-CuSO4 reference
electrode is measured. The reference electrode is connected to the positive lead of a high
impedance voltmeter. The common (negative) terminal of the voltmeter is connected to the
pipeline test lead. The voltmeter reading is the sum of the potential between the reference
electrode and the soil and the potential between the pipeline and the soil. The potential
between the reference electrode and the soil is constant. The potential between the pipeline
and the soil can vary. When connected as shown, the potential reading will normally be
positive. By convention, voltage readings are often reported as negative numbers.
Measuring Structure-to-Reference Electrode Potential

Figure 8

Operation of Galvanic Anode Systems

Galvanic anode systems are based on the galvanic corrosion cell. A galvanic corrosion cell is
two dissimilar metals connected in a common electrolyte. Corrosion current flows from the
metal with the more negative potential to the metal with the least negative (more positive)
potential. The metal with the least negative potential is protected from corrosion. For
example, the Practical Galvanic Series below shows the potentials of metals in soil with
respect to a Cu-CuSO4 reference electrode. If two metals in the Series form a galvanic
couple, the metal nearest the top will be anodic to the other metal.
Normal Electrode
Potential, volts vs. Cu-CuSO4
Metal
High potential magnesium alloy
Magnesium alloy (contains Al, Zn, Mn)
Zinc
Aluminum alloy (Contains zinc)
Mild steel
Cast iron
Brass, bronze, or copper
High silicon cast iron
Mill scale on steel
Carbon, coke, graphite
-1.80
More anodic
-1.55
-1.10
-1.05
-0.50 to -0.80
-0.50
-0.20
-0.20
-0.20
+0.30
More cathodic
Practical Galvanic Series In Neutral Soil

Figure 9

Operation of Galvanic Anode Systems, Contd

Figure 10 shows two galvanic couples in soil. One couple contains magnesium and steel and
the other couple contains zinc and steel. In each couple, the more negative metal (magnesium
or zinc) corrodes and the steel is protected from corrosion. The corrosion rate is greater in the
magnesium-steel couple because the potential difference is greater.
Galvanic Couples in Soil

Figure 10
Galvanic anode systems work like the galvanic couples in the previous figure. The
components in a typical buried galvanic anode system include anodes, chemical backfill, lead
wire, and a junction box (Figure 11). Lead wires from the anodes go to a junction box.
Another lead wire connects the lead wires in the junction box to the structure. When galvanic
anodes are connected to a buried structure such as the steel pipeline, a galvanic corrosion cell
develops. Electric current flows from the anodes, through the soil, and onto the pipeline. The
pipeline becomes cathodically protected. To complete the circuit, current returns to the
anodes through the lead wires.

Typical Galvanic Anode System in Soil (arrows show the direction of electric current)
Figure 11


Figures 12 and 13 show how a galvanic anode shifts the potential of a structure. Figure 12
shows a section of corroding pipeline and a buried magnesium anode. Voltmeter E1
measures the potential of the pipeline using a Cu-CuSO4 reference electrode. Voltmeter E2
measures the potential of the anode. The pipeline and anode are not connected because there
is an open switch between them. The switch is open so that current does not flow.
The Potential Differences of a Section of Buried Pipeline and an Anode

Figure 12
10


In Figure 13, the switch is closed and current flows from the anode onto the pipeline. The
potential of the pipeline shifts toward the potential of the magnesium anode. If enough
current flows onto the pipeline, it will overcome all the corrosion current trying to leave the
pipeline at the previously anodic sites. When this occurs, corrosion stops. The pipeline
becomes the cathode of the corrosion cell and the magnesium becomes the anode.
Potential Differences of a Section of Buried Pipeline and an Anode During Cathodic

Protection
Figure 13
11

Galvanic Anodes
Galvanic anodes can protect small structures or parts of larger structures. A galvanic anode
supplies a given amount of electric current. Several anodes may be grouped to provide
enough current to shift the potential of a structure. Galvanic anodes are effective when (1)
electric current requirements are low, (2) the structure is well coated, or (3) the electrolyte has
relatively low resistivity. Galvanic anodes are usually made from materials near the top of the
Galvanic Series (e.g., magnesium, zinc, and aluminum).
Magnesium Galvanic Anodes - Magnesium is the most widely used material for buried galvanic
anodes. Saudi Aramco normally uses magnesium anodes on pipelines at road and camel
crossings. A typical 27.3 kg (60 lb) magnesium anode is shown in Figure 14.
Typical 27.3 kg (60 lb) Magnesium Galvanic Anode

Figure 14
12

Two types of magnesium anodes are availablestandard alloy and high-potential alloy. Both
have a theoretical energy content of about 2,200 ampere-hours per kg and an efficiency of
50%. Therefore, the actual energy content available is 2,200 ampere-hours per kg x 0.50, or
1,100 ampere-hours per kg. The standard magnesium anode has a solution potential of -1.55
volts versus Cu-CuSO4. High-potential magnesium anodes have a solution potential of -1.80
volts. Saudi Aramco uses high-potential magnesium anodes almost exclusively. NOTE:
Magnesium anodes are susceptible to polarization. For this reason, their solution potential is
reduced by 0.10 volt for design purposes.
Zinc Galvanic Anodes - Zinc anodes are most often used in sea water or in soil resistivities
below 700 ohm-cm. Occasionally they are used in soils up to 2,500 ohm-cm. Pure zinc has a
theoretical energy content of 820 ampere-hours per kg. Zinc anodes typically operate at about
95% efficiency. Therefore, the actual energy content available is 820 ampere-hours per kg x
0.95, or 779 ampere-hours per kg. Zinc anodes have a potential of -1.10 volts versus a CuCuSO4 half-cell.
Zinc galvanic anodes used in soil have long slender shapes to achieve low resistance to earth
(Figure 15). Their shape also provides practical current output despite their low driving
voltages. Zinc anodes are not subject to significant polarization when they are used in
suitable backfill.
CAUTION: Do not use zinc anodes when the temperature will exceed 49 C. This
temperature may cause the polarity of zinc anodes to reverse and result in corrosion of the
structure.
13

Typical 13.6 kg (30 lb) Zinc Anode

Figure 15
14

Aluminum Galvanic Anodes - Aluminum anodes are used in offshore applications. The three
general types of aluminum anodes are as follows:
Heat-treated aluminum zinc-tin alloy

Aluminum-zinc-mercury alloy
Aluminum-zinc-indium alloy
All of these alloys have slightly different theoretical energy contents, but they average
2,700 ampere-hours per kg in sea water service. Aluminum anodes are effective in electrolyte
resistivities less than 700 ohm-cm. The efficiencies of aluminum anodes range from 85% to
95% in sea water. The potentials of aluminum anodes range from -1.05 to -1.15 volt versus
Cu-CuSO4.
Aluminum galvanic anodes are manufactured so they can attach directly to an offshore
structure. Three types of core arrangements are shown in Figure 16.
Aluminum Anodes for Offshore Structures

Figure 16
15

Anode Chemical Backfill
Figure 17 shows a typical vertical galvanic anode installed in soil. Galvanic anodes installed
in soil are surrounded with a special chemical backfill material. A typical backfill mixture for
magnesium anodes is 75% hydrated gypsum, 20% bentonite clay, and 5% sodium sulfate.
Clays in the backfill adsorb water from the soil and keep the anode moist for maximum
current output. The backfill materials also prevent passive corrosion films from forming on
the anode. The chemical backfill also lowers the resistance of the anode to the soil. Galvanic
anodes are frequently pre-packaged in backfill material. The entire cloth backfill package may
be buried as shown in Figure 17.
Typical Vertical Surface Anode in Pre-Packaged Backfill

Figure 17
16

Advantages and Disadvantages of Galvanic Anode Systems
The advantages of sacrificial anodes are as follows:
An external power source is not required.

Installation costs are low for new structures.
Maintenance costs are low.
Sacrificial anodes seldom cause interference problems with other structures.
The disadvantages of sacrificial anodes are as follows:
The driving potential is limited.

The current output from individual anodes is low and limited.
Sacrificial anodes are effective in a limited range of soil resistivities.
17

Operation of Impressed Current Systems

When current requirements are high, Saudi Aramco cathodically protects structures with
impressed current (IC) systems. The operation of a typical IC system is shown in Figure 18.
An electrical grid supplies high-voltage alternating current to a rectifier. The rectifier reduces
the voltage of the alternating current and converts it to pulsating direct current. The direct
current goes from the positive terminal of the rectifier to a junction box. At the junction box,
the current is distributed to a anode bed of impressed current anodes. The anodes drive, or
impress, the current into the earth. The current travels through the earth and is collected by
the structure. The current returns to the negative terminal of the rectifier via a cable, which is
connected to the structure.
A Typical Impressed Current System with a Surface Anode Bed

Figure 18
18

vent pipe
Operation of Impressed Current Systems,

Cont'd
AA-036385
A Typical Deep Anode Bed Design

Figure 19
Deep anode beds (Figure 19) are used when

surface soil resistivity is too high for normal
anode bed design. Deep anode beds are also used in congested areas such as pipeline
corridors and in-plant areas to provide better current distribution.
Saudi Aramco installs a PVC vent pipe to allow gases formed by anodic reactions to escape.
A separate loading pipe runs to the bottom of the hole and pumps a water slurry of coke
breeze into the hole. The loading pipe is slowly withdrawn from the hole as it is filled with
coke breeze. This procedure allows the slurry to be pumped upward from the bottom of the
well until the anodes are completely surrounded.
19

Operation of Impressed Current Systems, Cont'd

Saudi Aramco uses solar powered systems to provide direct current where alternating current
is not available and it is not economical to extend power lines. For example, solar systems
are used to protect the external casings of many remote oil and gas wells. Solar power also
provides impressed current for remote sections of the East-West Pipeline, the QQ pipeline,
and along various pipeline corridors. Saudi Aramco also uses engine driven generators to
provide power to remote impressed current anode beds along the East-West Pipeline and the
QQ Pipeline.
Impressed Current Anodes
Saudi Aramco normally uses five types of impressed current anodes.
graphite (no longer used but still in service)
high silicon chromium cast iron
scrap steel
mixed metal oxide composite
platinized niobium
Other types of anodes offer little economic advantage over the above materials. Figure 20
shows a typical center-connected anode. Center connections reduce the consumption of
anode material at the ends of anodes compared to end-type connections.
Typical Center-Connected Impressed Current Anode

Figure 20
20

High silicon chromium cast iron anodes contain 14% to 15% silicon and about 5% chromium.
High silicon cast chromium iron loses weight at a rate of 1.0 kg /A-year. It forms a stable
amorphous hydrated oxide film that protects the anode surface and conducts electricity. High
silicon chromium cast iron anodes are rated at a maximum current density of 1.0 mA/cm2 in
soils.
Scrap steel is sometimes used as impressed current anode material because it is abundant and
inexpensive. Ordinary steel loses weight at the rate of 9.1 kg/A-year. However, the current
discharge is seldom uniform. The area around the cable connection often corrodes rapidly;
consequently, several cable connections are used. Scrap steel anodes perform erratically, and
the anode bed life is fairly unpredictable. The suggested maximum current density of scrap
steel is 0.5 mA/cm2 in soil.
Mixed Metal Oxide Composite Anodes are used in soil and marine environments. Their major
advantage is their small size and high current output compared to other impressed current
anode materials. The consumption rate of mixed metal oxide composite anodes in soils is low
(7 g/A-year). Their suggested current density is 10 mA/cm2 in soils and 12.5 mA/cm2 in sea
water.
21

Platinized niobium anodes protect offshore structures with high current requirements. Niobium
alone is unsuitable as an anode material. Niobium forms very stable oxide films on its
surface. These films have high chemical and electrical resistance. Therefore, niobium is
plated with platinum or platinum alloys, which form conductive oxide films. The niobium
substrate maintains excellent chemical resistance while the platinum layer allows high current
output with low consumption rates (8.63 x 10-6 kg/A-yr). The result is a more efficient anode.
Platinized Niobium Impressed Current Anode on an Offshore Platform

Figure 21
22

Coke Breeze
Except for scrap steel, impressed current anodes in soil are usually surrounded with
carbonaceous backfill. The carbonaceous backfill is usually calcined petroleum coke
(sometimes called coke breeze). Coke breeze serves the following purposes:
1. Coke breeze increases the effective size of the anode and lowers the resistance of
the anode to the earth.
2. Coke breeze extends the life of the anode because the coke breeze is consumed
rather than the anode.
Coke breeze consumption depends on good electrical contact between the anode and the
backfill. The backfill must be packed solidly around the anode so that little of the current will
discharge directly from the anode to the soil.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Impressed Current Systems
The advantages of impressed current systems are:
greater driving voltages

higher current outputs
adjustable current output
The disadvantages of impressed current systems are:
higher equipment and installation costs

higher maintenance costs
possible interference problems with foreign structures
23

CALCULATING CATHODIC PROTECTION REQUIREMENTS

FOR BURIED PIPELINES
To design and monitor CP systems, it is necessary to know the amount of current required to
protect structures. The CP current must overpower the corrosion currents on the structure.
When CP current is applied to a structure, the potential of the cathodic areas shifts toward the
potential of the anodic areas. This shift in potential, or polarization, is directly related to the
amount of CP current that flows onto the structure. This relationship between current and
potential is given by Ohms Law, E=IR.
The most anodic areas on a corroding steel structure has a structure-to-soil potential of about 0.80 volts. The structure-to-soil potential is measured with a Cu-CuSO4 reference electrode
placed close to the anode. When the entire structure has a potential of -0.80 volts or more
negative, no corrosion can occur because anodic and cathodic areas cease to exist. The
reference electrode is usually placed on the ground directly over the buried structure (e.g., a
pipeline).
CP experts have generally accepted a potential of -0.85 volt or more negative as a criterion for
adequate corrosion protection. For cross-country pipelines, Saudi Aramco has established a
criterion of -1.20 volts. The stricter criterion compensates for special local conditions such as
high reference cell contact resistance and large IR drops in dry soils.
Enough CP current must be applied to a structure to reach these protective potentials. The
amount of CP current needed can be calculated if the required current density is known.
Saudi Aramco has determined the design current densities needed for most structures. The
design current density is given in milliamperes per square meter, mA/m2. To calculate the
amount of CP current needed to control corrosion, multiply the current density by the surface
area of the structure in the electrolyte. For example, the amount of current needed to protect a
coated structure with a surface area of 1,000 m2 and a required current density of 0.75 mA/m2
is
1,000 m2
0.75 mA/m2 =
750 mA
0.75 amperes
Coatings prevent direct contact between the metal surface and corrosive electrolyte. The
coatings greatly reduce the amount of CP current required to control corrosion. Most of the
CP current is needed at areas where the coating is damaged. For this reason, coatings and
cathodic protection are often used together.
24

CALCULATING CATHODIC PROTECTION REQUIREMENTS FOR BURIED

PIPELINES, CONT'D
Saudi Aramco uses CP to protect pipelines, well casings, exterior storage tank bottoms, and
the interior of vessels that contain water. CP is also used for marine structures like offshore
production platforms, piers, pipelines, and ships. Aramco Engineering Standard SAES-X-400
specifies procedures and equipment for CP system design. The following information shows
how to calculate the amount of CP current needed to protect various structures.
Impressed current systems are always used except for short sections of buried pipelines.
Rectifiers supply power where a-c power is available. Solar panels with lead storage batteries
supply power where a-c power is not available. Impressed current systems should be
designed to give a 20-year life for anode beds. The number of anodes in the anode bed is
adjusted so that the anode bed will provide 120% of the rated current output of the d-c power
source.
Galvanic anodes are used for short sections of buried pipelines such as paved road crossings
or camel crossings. Saudi Aramco's current requirements and a guideline for calculating the
amount of current needed for buried pipelines are shown in Work Aid 1.
25


FOR TANKS AND VESSELS
Moisture in the soil causes external tank bottoms to corrode. Saudi Aramco bonds all buried
structures and external tank bottoms together into one large system. The entire system is
usually cathodically protected with surface or deep anode beds (Figure 22). Impressed
current or galvanic anode systems may also be installed near the tanks or along pipe runs.
This provides extra current to local areas with low potentials and distributes the current more
uniformly. Distributed anodes should be installed with a direct line of sight to all metal
surfaces.
External Tank Bottom Impressed Current System

Figure 22
26


FOR TANKS AND VESSELS, Contd
Corrosion in water-wet areas inside tanks and vessels is also controlled by cathodic
protection. In many cases, protective current is furnished by galvanic anodes (Figure 23).
Internal water-wet surfaces are often coated to reduce CP current requirements.
Tank Galvanic Anode System

Figure 23
Saudi Aramco's current requirements and a guideline for calculating the amount of current
needed for tanks and vessels are shown in Work Aid 2.
27


FOR MARINE STRUCTURES
Saudi Aramco cathodically protects offshore platforms, marine pipelines, breasting dolphins,
and loading/mooring buoys. The following information shows how to calculate the amount of
CP current needed to protect various marine structures.
Offshore Platforms
Saudi Aramcos objective is to quickly polarize offshore platforms to a minimum of 0.90
volts versus a silver/silver chloride reference electrode. This has two advantages. First, little
corrosion occurs. Second, chemical reactions at the cathode form a protective calcium
carbonate scale. This scale reduces current requirements and allows current to reach metal
surfaces further from the galvanic anode. Aluminum alloys are often used as the galvanic
anode material for large offshore structures. Indium or zinc-tin are alloyed with aluminum to
prevent a passive aluminum oxide layer from forming on the anode. The galvanic anodes are
sized to provide current for 25 years. Offshore structures have several thousand meters of
surface area and require many anodes. The anodes are distributed so they quickly polarize
critical structural areas on the platform. Figure 24 shows a typical aluminum anode
installation for an offshore platform. A galvanic cell forms when the structure and anode are
immersed in sea water.
Typical Aluminum Anode Installation for an Offshore Platform
Figure 24
28

Offshore Platforms, Contd

Impressed current systems provide flexible current output and weigh a lot less than galvanic
anode systems. Impressed current systems cost less initially but they require a continuous
power supply and routine maintenance. These systems cannot be installed until power is
available and they are frequently turned off during well workovers. Saudi Aramco requires a
15-year design life for impressed current systems. Marine impressed current systems use
platinized niobium or mixed metal oxide anodes.
Marine Pipelines
Subsea pipelines are always coated before they are installed. The pipelines connect directly
to the offshore platform and they usually receive some protective current from the platforms
CP system. Extra galvanic anodes, which are spaced along the length of each pipeline,
provide uniform current distribution along the pipeline and reduce current requirements from
the platforms CP system. Figure 25 shows a bracelet type anode used for subsea pipelines.
A Typical Anode for a Subsea Pipeline

Figure 25
29

Piers and Jetties

Steel piers and jetties are cathodically protected like offshore platforms. Metal sheet piling
may corrode on both the earth side and the water side of the pilings. Two separate CP
systems may be needed to protect each side of the sheet piling. Galvanic anodes may be used
to protect the water side of the pilings. The earth side of the pilings is usually protected with
impressed current surface anode beds. To cathodically protect the entire structure, each
section of sheet piling must be electrically bonded to adjacent sections of piling.
Saudi Aramco Engineering Standard SAES-X-400 specifies procedures and equipment for CP
system design. Saudi Aramco's current requirements and a guideline for calculating the
amount of current needed for marine structures are shown in Work Aid 3. The following
information shows how to calculate the amount of CP current needed to protect various
structures.
30

WORK AID 1: FORMULA, CRITERIA, AND GUIDELINE FOR CALCULATING

CATHODIC PROTECTION REQUIREMENTS FOR BURIED
PIPELINES
Formula
Surface Area of a Pipeline

Figure 26
Criteria
Saudi Aramcos design current densities for coated and uncoated pipelines, shown in the table
below, are listed in Section 4.4 of SAES-X-400.
Pipeline Surface
Uncoated
Tape or P-2 wrap
Coaltar epoxy
Fusion bonded epoxy
Polyethylene
Current Density (mA/m2)

20.00
1.25
0.75
0.10
0.10
Guideline
1.
Locate the required current density for the structure in the table above.
2.
If the surface area is not provided, calculate the exposed surface area of the section of
pipeline using the formula provided.
3.
Multiply the required current density by the surface area of the pipeline.
31

WORK AID 2: FORMULAS, CRITERIA, AND GUIDELINE FOR CALCULATING

CATHODIC PROTECTION REQUIREMENTS FOR TANKS AND
VESSELS
Formulas
Surface Areas of Tank Interiors and Exteriors

Figure 27
Criteria
Saudi Aramcos design current density requirements for tanks and vessels, shown in the table
below, are listed in Section 4.4 of SAES-X-500 and Section 4.4 of SAES-X-600.
Surface
External tank bottoms (uncoated)

Coated tanks (internal)
Coated vessels (internal)
Uncoated tanks & vessels (internal)
20.0
0.5
3.0
30.0
Guideline
1.
2.
If the surface area is not provided, calculate the exposed surface area of the tank or
vessel using the formula provided.
3.
Multiply the required current density by the exposed surface area of the tank or vessel.
32

WORK AID 3: CRITERIA AND GUIDELINE FOR CALCULATING CATHODIC

PROTECTION REQUIREMENTS FOR MARINE STRUCTURES
Criteria
The design current density requirements for marine structures, shown in the table below, are
listed in Section 4.4 of SAES-X-300.
Environment
Sea water structures
Structures in mud or soil
Marine pipelines

Coated
Uncoated
10.0*
10.0
2.5
50.0*
20.0
* Higher current density may be required depending on

turbulence and/or velocity.
Guideline
1.
2.
If the surface area is not provided, calculate the immersed surface area of the marine
structure.
3.
Multiply the required current density by the total immersed surface area of the marine
structure.
33

GLOSSARY
activation polarization
The characteristics of the reaction that control the corrosion

rate.
Examples of characteristics are the type of metal, the hydrogen
ion concentration, and the temperature of the system.
anode
The negative electrode or area where oxidation occurs.
anodic half-cell reaction
The chemical oxidation reaction that occurs at the anode.
area effect
The effect on corrosion rate of the ratio of the cathodic to

anodic area in a galvanic couple.
cathode
The positive electrode or area where practically no corrosion

occurs. Reduction reactions take place at the cathode.
cathodic half-cell reaction
The chemical reduction reaction that occurs at the cathode.
cation
A positively charged ion.
close electrode
An electrode placed on the surface directly above a coated

structure.
concentration cell
A cell that consists of an electrolyte and two identical

electrodes. The potential in the cell results from differences in
the chemistry of the environment near the metal surface.
concentration polarization
Polarization of an electrode caused by concentration changes

in the environment near the metal surface.
contact resistance
Resistance at the interface between two materials.
corrosion potential
The potential that a corroding metal exhibits under specific

conditions of concentration, time, temperature, aeration,
velocity, etc.
electrochemical reaction
A chemical reaction that involves the transfer of electrons and

electric current.
electrolyte
An ionic conductor. Examples are soil and sea water.
34

half-cell
A pure metal in contact with a solution of known concentration

of its own ions. When two half-cells are coupled together, an
overall potential develops, which is the sum of the half-cell
potentials.
ion
An atom, or group of atoms, that has gained or lost one or

more outer electrons and thus carries an electric charge.
metal path
The contact between the anode and cathode that allows the
flow of electrons and electric current.
oxidation
A chemical reaction where electrons are lost (e.g., when a

metal goes from the metallic state to the corroded state).
oxygen concentration cell
A galvanic cell caused by a difference in oxygen concentration

at
two points on a metal surface.
polarization
A shift in the electrode potential due to the effects of current

flow, measured with respect to the zero-flow (reversible)
potential.
reduction
A chemical reaction that results in a gain of electrons.
remote electrode
An electrode that is electrically remote from a structure at a

point where there is no significant increase in negative
potential readings.
resistance
A property of a conductor based on its resistivity, size, and

shape.
resistivity
The resistance between opposite sides of a one-centimeter cube

of a given material. The unit of measurement of resistivity is
the ohm-centimeter.
subkha
A low resistivity soil found near the Arabian Gulf. Subkha is

high in moisture and salt content and low in oxygen content.
35

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