Aws Cmws 2005

CERTIFIED WELDING
SUPERVISOR MANUAL
for
QUALITY and PRODUCTIVITY
IMPROVEMENT
Jack R. Barckhoff, P.E.

Kenneth M. Kerluke, P. Eng.
Don L. Lynn, P.E.
550 N.W. LeJeune Road, Miami, Florida 33126
Total Welding Management and Total Welding Management System are both copyrighted (2005) by Jack R. Barckhoff,
P.E. Throughout this manual, the use of Total Welding Management or TWM, and Total Welding Management System
or TWMS refers to copyrighted Total Welding Management System. Copyright laws protect any reference to this
system. Total Welding Management is also the title of a book written by Jack R. Barckhoff, P.E., copyrighted and
published by the American Welding Society (AWS). In this book, all of the principles and concepts of Total Welding
Management (TWM) are detailed.
The Barckhoff Welding Management System and the Barckhoff Method are both copyrighted (1980) and later service
marked by Jack R. Barckhoff. Copyright law protects any references to Systems and Methods used in this manual. The
use of the Management System or The System refers to the Barckhoff Welding Management System. The use of The
Method refers to the Barckhoff Method.
International Standard Book Number: 0-87171-029-3

American Welding Society, 550 N.W. LeJeune Road, Miami, FL 33126
2005 by American Welding Society. All rights reserved
Printed in the United States of America
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical,
including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing
from the publisher.
NOTE: Although care was taken in choosing and presenting the data in this guide, AWS cannot guarantee that it is
error free. Further, this guide is not intended to be an exhaustive treatment of the topic and therefore may not include all
available information, including with respect to safety and health issues. By publishing this guide, AWS does not insure
anyone using the information it contains against any liability or injury to property or persons arising from that use.
Photocopy Rights
Authorization to photocopy items for internal, personal, or educational classroom use only, or the internal, personal, or
educational classroom use only of specific clients, is granted by the American Welding Society (AWS) provided that the
appropriate fee is paid to the Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, Tel: 978-750-8400;
online: http://www.copyright.com.
ii
Dedication
Several years ago on the Gulf Coast, a group of dedicated men in the shipbuilding industry were
concerned about the lack of well-trained welding supervisors. If welding supervisors did not have
the appropriate knowledge and skill levels, how then could the welders being supervised achieve
improved quality and productivity levels? To this end, those dedicated men became the catalyst that
advanced the Certified Welding Supervisor Program to where it is today. Most likely, this manual
would not have become a reality when it did without their support, their initial efforts as a Beta Test
Site, and their feedback during program development. For that reason, this manual is dedicated to
Ron Pierce of Welding Engineering Services Company and Tom Bender, Jackie Morris, and Lavon
Mills of Bender Shipbuilding & Repair Company.
iii
Contents
Page No.
Chapter 1MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS FOR THE WELDING SUPERVISOR................. 1

Introduction..................................................................................................................................1
No SystemSystem ......................................................................................................................3
Lean Manufacturing.....................................................................................................................3
Total Quality Management (TQM)..............................................................................................7
Total Welding Management (TWM) .........................................................................................10
Conclusion .................................................................................................................................18
References..................................................................................................................................18
Review Questions ......................................................................................................................19
Answers .....................................................................................................................................21
Chapter 2REQUIREMENTS OF A WELD .................................................................... 23
Introduction................................................................................................................................23
Requirements for a Fillet Weld..................................................................................................23
Objectives ..................................................................................................................................25
Weld Terminology .....................................................................................................................25
Weld Failure ..............................................................................................................................27
Weld Size ...................................................................................................................................27
Weld Length ..............................................................................................................................36
Appearance and Weld Profile ....................................................................................................37
Weld Soundness.........................................................................................................................38
Mechanical Properties................................................................................................................44
Corrosion Resistance .................................................................................................................46
Achieving the Correct Requirements of a Weld ........................................................................47
Welding Procedures ...................................................................................................................47
References..................................................................................................................................50
Guides and Exercises .................................................................................................................50
Answers .....................................................................................................................................52
Chapter 3SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING (SMAW) ............................................. 53
Introduction................................................................................................................................53
Chapter Objectives.....................................................................................................................53
Process Fundamentals................................................................................................................53
SMAW Electrodes .....................................................................................................................56
Features and Applications of SMAW Electrodes ......................................................................59
Recommended SMAW Equipment ...........................................................................................62
SMAW Essential Welding Variables ........................................................................................66
SMAW Procedures and Techniques ..........................................................................................76
Identify and Correct SMAW Defects ........................................................................................80
Reference ...................................................................................................................................81
Guides and Exercises .................................................................................................................81
Answers .....................................................................................................................................86
v
Page No.
Chapter 4GAS METAL ARC WELDING APPLIED TO MILD STEELS ....................... 87

Introduction................................................................................................................................87
Chapter Objectives.....................................................................................................................87
What is Gas Metal Arc Welding? ..............................................................................................87
Modes of Metal Transfer in GMAW .........................................................................................94
Applications ...............................................................................................................................97
Wire and Base Metal Melting ....................................................................................................99
Wire Burnoff and Arc Length..................................................................................................104
GMAW Essential Welding Variables......................................................................................105
Summary of the Eight Essential Welding Variables ...............................................................130
Equipment for GMAW ............................................................................................................130
Find Out More .........................................................................................................................132
Reference .................................................................................................................................132
Exercises ..................................................................................................................................132
Answers ...................................................................................................................................136
Chapter 5FLUX CORED ARC WELDING APPLIED TO MILD STEELS ................... 137
Introduction..............................................................................................................................137
Chapter Objectives...................................................................................................................137
What is Flux Cored Arc Welding? ..........................................................................................137
Process Fundamentals .............................................................................................................. 145
Objectives ................................................................................................................................145
Manufacture of FCAW Wires..................................................................................................145
Classification of Filler Metals for FCAW of Mild Steel ......................................................... 147
Electrode Size ..........................................................................................................................148
Effect of Shielding Gases ........................................................................................................150
Electrode and Base Metal Melting...........................................................................................153
FCAW Essential Welding Variables .......................................................................................157
Summary of the Seven Essential Welding Variables ..............................................................175
FCAW Equipment ...................................................................................................................175
Welding Techniques ................................................................................................................177
Reference .................................................................................................................................180
Exercises ..................................................................................................................................180
Answers ...................................................................................................................................184
Chapter 6THE SUBMERGED ARC WELDING PROCESS........................................ 185
Introduction..............................................................................................................................185
Advantages of SAW ................................................................................................................185
Joint Tracking Methods ...........................................................................................................187
Evolution of the Welded Joint .................................................................................................189
Applications .............................................................................................................................191
SAW Fluxes .............................................................................................................................191
SAW Essential Welding Variables for Single Wire Applications...........................................195
Effect and Control of SAW Essential Welding Variables .......................................................196
Effect of Other Variables in SAW ...........................................................................................199
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Page No.
Reference .................................................................................................................................201
Guides and Exercises ...............................................................................................................201
Answers ...................................................................................................................................203
Chapter 7STEEL METALLURGY ............................................................................... 205
Introduction..............................................................................................................................205
Steelmaking .............................................................................................................................205
Chemical Reactions in Steelmaking ........................................................................................206
Important Elements in Plain Carbon Steels .............................................................................207
Carbon in Iron ..........................................................................................................................208
Strengthening Methods ............................................................................................................210
Alloying ...................................................................................................................................212
Carbides ...................................................................................................................................212
Effects of Manganese and Sulfur.............................................................................................214
Effects of Aluminum ...............................................................................................................214
Strengthening by Solid Solution ..............................................................................................214
Strengthening by Precipitation Hardening...............................................................................216
Grain Size Strengthening .........................................................................................................217
Normalizing .............................................................................................................................218
Fine-Grained Microalloyed Steels ...........................................................................................219
Strengthening by Heat Treating ...............................................................................................221
Effect of Alloy Additions ........................................................................................................221
Mechanical Testing of Base Metals.........................................................................................226
Weld Testing............................................................................................................................228
Welding Metallurgy of Steels ..................................................................................................232
Mechanical Properties of Welds ..............................................................................................232
Hydrogen Cracking..................................................................................................................241
Controlling the Hydrogen Content in the Weld.......................................................................243
Preheating ................................................................................................................................245
Postheating...............................................................................................................................247
Controlling the Hardness of the Weld Zone ............................................................................248
Weld Metal Cracking...............................................................................................................252
Solidification Cracking ............................................................................................................252
Find Out More .........................................................................................................................257
Reference .................................................................................................................................257
Exercises ..................................................................................................................................257
Answers ...................................................................................................................................262
Chapter 8WELDING SYMBOLS................................................................................. 263
Introduction..............................................................................................................................263
Objectives ................................................................................................................................264
Types of Joints and Types of Welds ........................................................................................264
Components of a Welding Symbol ..........................................................................................267
Weld Symbols and Supplementary Symbols...........................................................................270
Groove Welds ..........................................................................................................................271
vii
Page No.
Partial Penetration Welds.........................................................................................................274

Fillet Welds..............................................................................................................................276
Combined Weld Symbols ........................................................................................................281
Other Welding Symbol Conventions .......................................................................................281
Plug and Slot Welds.................................................................................................................283
Welding Symbol Summary......................................................................................................284
References................................................................................................................................284
Answers ...................................................................................................................................290
Chapter 9WELDING INSTRUCTION .......................................................................... 293
Introduction..............................................................................................................................293
Quality Metric..........................................................................................................................293
Cost Metric ..............................................................................................................................295
Throughput Metric ...................................................................................................................295
Safety Metric............................................................................................................................296
Welding Procedures .................................................................................................................296
Welder Qualification Test Record ...........................................................................................304
Conclusion ...............................................................................................................................306
Review Questions ....................................................................................................................307
Answers ...................................................................................................................................308
Chapter 10WELDING ECONOMICS AND VARIABLES............................................ 309
Introduction..............................................................................................................................309
Welding Productivity ...............................................................................................................310
Dos Goal 1: Reduce Weld Metal Volume ..............................................................................311
Dos Goal 2: Reduce Arc Time Per Weldment .......................................................................323
Dos Goal 3: Reduce Rejects, Rework, and Scrap ..................................................................328
Dos Goal 4: Reduce Work Effort ...........................................................................................333
Dos Goal 5: Reduce Motion and Delay Time ........................................................................336
Method for Computing Operating Factor ................................................................................340
Putting It All together ..............................................................................................................342
Conclusion ...............................................................................................................................347
Summary of Key Concepts ......................................................................................................348
Reference .................................................................................................................................349
Answers ...................................................................................................................................354
Chapter 11APPLICATION OF WELDING STANDARDS........................................... 355
Introduction..............................................................................................................................355
Widely Used Standards and Codes ..........................................................................................355
Qualification of Welding Procedures ......................................................................................359
Qualification of Welders..........................................................................................................359
Comparison of Common Standards .........................................................................................359
Conclusion ...............................................................................................................................362
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Page No.

Answers ...................................................................................................................................364
Chapter 12WELDING INSPECTION........................................................................... 365
Welding Inspection ..................................................................................................................365
Acceptance Criteria..................................................................................................................366
Visual Discontinuities..............................................................................................................367
Visual Inspection Method ........................................................................................................373
Liquid Penetrant Testing (PT) .................................................................................................379
Magnetic Particle Testing (MT) ..............................................................................................381
Ultrasonic Testing (UT)...........................................................................................................385
Radiographic Testing ...............................................................................................................389
Conclusion ...............................................................................................................................392
References................................................................................................................................393
Answers ...................................................................................................................................396
Chapter 13WELDING HEALTH AND SAFETY .......................................................... 397
Creating a Safe Workplace ......................................................................................................397
The Importance of Training .....................................................................................................397
Important References ...............................................................................................................398
Hazards in the Shop and Construction.....................................................................................398
Electrical Safety .......................................................................................................................399
Arc Radiation ...........................................................................................................................404
Burns and Fire..........................................................................................................................404
Fumes and Gases .....................................................................................................................407
Gases Produced During Welding.............................................................................................413
Working with Oxygen and Other Gases ..................................................................................413
Cylinders ..................................................................................................................................415
Working in Confined Space.....................................................................................................418
Welding on Containers that Have Held Hazardous Materials .................................................419
Reference .................................................................................................................................419
Answers ...................................................................................................................................424
Chapter 14WORK REPORTS AND RECORDS ......................................................... 425
Introduction..............................................................................................................................425
Quality Metric..........................................................................................................................426
Cost Metric ..............................................................................................................................426
Conclusion ...............................................................................................................................432
Answers ...................................................................................................................................434
ix
Preface
In 2000, the American Welding Society (AWS) initiated the establishment of a Certification
Program for Welding Supervisors. First, an AWS committee drafted the B5.9:2000, Specification
for the Qualification of Welding Supervisors, which was followed by the AWS QC-13, AWS
Standard for the Certification of Welding Supervisors. This groundwork was done by AWS, which
recognized that the position of welding supervisor was one of the most under-trained positions in all
of manufacturing, construction, and fabricationparticularly in the area of optimizing the quality
and productivity of personnel under the supervisors direction. AWS saw an industry need and
responded.
Welding supervisors are found in every industry that uses welding as a core process in the manufacture, construction, or fabrication of their products. The role they play is often one of organizing
production paperwork and ensuring that parts are available to the welders. In many cases, welding
supervisors have little or no welding experience, knowledge of welding science, or training in how
to support their welders. This situation has resulted in years of missed opportunities in many companies to improve welding quality while also increasing productivity.
Significant improvements can be made through the efforts of a well-trained welding supervisor, who
knows what factors influence welding quality, and how monitoring welders can achieve that quality.
At the same time, through training, a welding supervisor can understand all of the complimentary
factors in welding operations that lead to maximized productivity.
This manual takes a comprehensive approach to present the welding supervisor, planner, engineer,
or other management personnel with the most useful technical welding information combined
with the most effective management principles, concepts, and techniques to apply this welding
knowledge.
Sample questions are included in each section of this manual to help students gauge their understanding and confidence level. When this program is completed, the welding supervisor will have
the working knowledge to direct, support, and instruct welders to improve both quality for the
customer and productivity for the company.
This manual has been developed by AWS to support welding supervisors in one of the most
challenging and rewarding careers in industry. Those candidates who successfully complete this
program will be prepared to take the AWS Certification Test. More importantly, they will be better
prepared to make one of the most important contributions that any employee can offerhelping
their company to be more competitive in the global marketplace by improving manufacturing
performance. This is a challenge that all companies now face.
xi
Acknowledgments for Course Materials

The material for this Certified Welding Supervisors Manual for Productivity and Quality Improvement was developed for AWS by Barckhoff Welding Management Corporation, a thirty-year-old
welding management consulting firm.
This manual has been copyrighted by the American Welding Society (AWS), and Barckhoff
Welding Management holds and retains prior copyrights for much of its material.
The authors of this manual include:
Jack R, Barckhoff, P.E. is the founder and CEO of Barckhoff Welding Management and a member
of the 2004 Class of Counselors of the American Welding Society. Jack is a management consultant
whose career spans over half a century. He has devoted his lifes work to helping companies apply
his philosophy of Total Welding Management to become more competitive and profitable through
effective management of their entire welding operations. Jack is an industry recognized expert on
welding management. He is the author of Total Welding Management, which was published by
AWS in 2005, has published many articles, and lectured to thousands over his long career on the
management of welding. He is a member of the Board of Trustees for the AWS Foundation, established the Jack R Barckhoff Welding Management Scholarship, which is awarded to college
students pursing a career in Welding Engineering, has received the AWS District Meritorious
Award; served as AWS Section Chair, and is a lifetime member of AWS. Jack studied Mechanical
Engineering and Business Administration at The Ohio State University.
Don L. Lynn, P.E. has over thirty years of diversified experience in all aspects of welding. His technical welding experience spans shipbuilding, nuclear, sheet metal, pressure vessel, piping, and power
generation in a variety of roles from engineering design and supervision to quality assurance. He
holds a B.S. Degree in Welding Engineering from The Ohio State University as well as a Masters
Degree in Business Administration from Northern Kentucky University. Don is an AWS Certified
Welding Engineer and a Certified Welding Inspector, and also holds a diploma in International
Welding Engineering. He is an active member of AWS, serving on several committees, and is also a
member of the Society of Manufacturing Engineers and the American Society of Metals. He has
written technical welding articles, has contributed to the AWS Welding Handbook Chapter Committees, and has served as a technical welding expert in litigation regarding welding issues. For the past
14 years Don has worked as a consultant and project manager for Barckhoff Welding Management.
Kenneth M. Kerluke, P. Eng. has over thirty years of broad welding industry experience in
manufacturing, fabrication, and quality assurance. Ken holds a Bachelors Degree in Mechanical
Engineering from the University of British Columbia as well as a Masters Degree in Welding Engineering from the Cranfield Institute of Technology in the United Kingdom. Ken is a welding process
specialist with experience in all arc welding processes. He is an active member of AWS and the
Canadian Standards Association, and served on the technical committee for the CSA W59 Welded
Steel Construction. He has also served as Director of Technology Outreach Services for the Welding Institute of Canada, which was a national technology center in Canada, where he was responsible for the transfer of welding technology to Canadian companies. Ken has also provided training
and education services to the welding industry, conducted welding failure investigations, developed
welding procedures, provided technical consulting services, and presented expert reports in welding
related litigation. For the past 11 years Ken has served as a technical consultant and trainer for
Barckhoff Welding Management.
xiii
AWS CWS Manual for Quality and Productivity Improvement

Chapter 1Management Systems for the Welding Supervisor
Chapter 1MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS FOR THE WELDING SUPERVISOR

Introduction
In manufacturing and construction companies that use welding as a core

process, welding supervisors hold a unique position. To begin to understand
the welding supervisor and his duties, it is important to understand his unique
position.
Most companies have supervisors. They may be called team leaders or managers, but their role is the same. A supervisor provides workers their assignments,
makes sure they have the tools, materials, and training to do their work, provides support, and monitors them throughout their work shift. The result of
effective supervision is each worker is efficient and produces only quality
work. With effective supervision, production workers achieve higher levels of
productivity and quality.
With the day-to-day pressures of getting production out, how a supervisor
should function and the results expected are lost. In many production environments, supervisors, including welding supervisors, are expediting parts, chasing paperwork, filling out unnecessary reports, and performing other nonsupervisory duties, which take them outside of their assigned department. This
leaves production workers unsupervised for long periods of time. This results
in lack of communication and support, leaving welders with the feeling that
they are on their own. Problems that they encounter must be handled with the
hope that the results will be acceptable.
In many cases, welding supervisors have limited understanding of the technical
aspects of welding and, therefore, are unsure of their ability to provide direction and support to the welders. This situation has unwittingly limited the
amount of daily support the welder receives. Company management may not
realize the detrimental affect when welding supervisors are not properly
trained or assigned to perform essential duties, which can lead to improved
quality and productivity on each shift.
Any training course for welding supervisors should address a welding supervisors need both for technical and managerial training to develop the skills to
perform his job in the most professional manner. This leads to improved results
in both quality and productivity. This Certified Welding Supervisor Manual for
Quality and Productivity Improvement recognizes that the welding supervisor
has an important role in the operations of any company that does welding.
To fully understand and appreciate his role, the supervisor must first understand some of the different management systems currently used by manufacturing companies.
The management systems used by companies are numerous and varied. To
maintain a manageable review of these systems, this manual will consider only
1

those systems that are most widely used and have the most impact on welding
operations.
The systems that will be reviewed are:
1. No SystemSystem. Some companies do not have a comprehensive management system, but instead follow an undocumented way of doing
things. Their No System has evolved over the time that the company has
been in existence. This system exists in a wide variety of companies and
may describe the approach used in your company.
2. Lean Manufacturing. This management system brings a variety of techniques and tools to all types of manufacturing companies, including welding companies. Lean Manufacturing is a broad-based management system
that has been designed for all types of manufacturing environments. The
primary focus of Lean is to reduce or eliminate waste or non-value added
steps in all processes, including design, administration, and sales.
3. Total Quality Management (TQM). This is a management system that
focuses on all the measures necessary to meet the quality requirements of a
customer. This system has evolved over many years and is manifested in a
number of different ways. TQM is a system that extends beyond manufacturing and incorporates all functions involved in assuring that the customer
gets the quality product or service that he expects.
4. Total Welding Management (TWM).1 Total Welding Management is
an approach to improving welding operations that uses the Barckhoff
Welding Management System and The Barckhoff Method2 to focus on
the critical company functions, key results areas, and welding goals to
achieve improved quality and productivity. It was developed for companies
that do welding, but has been successfully applied in other production environments. A principle of TWM is to align the organization to serve the
welder with the tools needed to achieve consistently high levels of quality
and productivity.
1. Total Welding Management and Total Welding Management System are both copyrighted
(2005) by Jack R. Barckhoff, P.E. In this chapter and throughout this manual, the use of Total
Welding Management or TWM, and Total Welding Management System or TWMS refers to
copyrighted Total Welding Management System. Copyright laws protect any reference to this
system. Total Welding Management is also the title of a book written by Jack R. Barckhoff,
P.E., copyrighted and published by the American Welding Society (AWS). In this book, all of
the principles and concepts of Total Welding Management (TWM) are detailed.
2. The Barckhoff Welding Management System and the Barckhoff Method are both copyrighted (1980) and have been Service marked by Jack R. Barckhoff, P.E. In this chapter and
throughout this manual, the use of Systems or The System refers to the Barckhoff Welding
Management System. The Method refers to the Barckhoff Method. Copyright law protects
any reference to Systems and Methods used.

No System
System
This system, although it has little documentation or specific training, is considered a management approach. Companies that use this approach can be easily
identified by the way they conduct day-to-day operations. They rely heavily on
what was done in the past and often learn expensive lessons from their failures.
What they do in the future is defined primarily by what worked or did not work in
the past. In many cases practices are defined in negative terms of what not to do.
When it comes to training new personnel, the veterans conduct on the job
training that consists of both useful practices as well as the transfer of bad
habits. This training can perpetuate a pattern of performance that is similar to
the performance the company experienced in the past. With this management
system, it is difficult to make improvements, as most of the learning comes
from correcting mistakes of the past.
In order to survive, companies using the No SystemSystem management
approach emphasize the need to be productive and to get out the shipments.
This can lead to a belief among manufacturing personnel that productivity and
output are more important than quality. Even if this is not true, the lack of a
management approach and supporting system that defines the needs of both
quality and productivity leaves the impression that getting out shipments is the
foremost concern of management.
Companies using this No SystemSystem tend to be slow to react to change
and slow to make improvements, since only costly mistakes are likely to move
them into a new direction.
Companies with this type of management system pose a challenge along with a
level of frustration to a new manufacturing supervisor. The challenge starts
when a new supervisor begins his duties. In most cases the supervisor he is
replacing or the manager he will be working for usually trains the new supervisor. New supervisors, not exposed to a quality/productivity approach, learn
to focus primarily on making sure that parts are always available to meet
production schedules. New supervisors receive little formal training on how to
technically support their welders. As a result, many end up as glorified
expediters, spending the bulk of their time making sure that production is not
interrupted. They have very little day-to-day contact with their employees and
therefore have little impact on either the quality of the welds made or on
increasing the productivity of the welders.
Lean
Manufacturing
Lean Manufacturing is a management system that has received much attention

in manufacturing companies in the past several years. Lean started to gain popularity in the U.S. after the Japanese automaker Toyota demonstrated its success. The introduction of Lean Manufacturing is viewed as a management
paradigm shift. It represents a cultural change in the way companies are managed in all aspects. The paradigm shift comes from the concept that everyone
in the company must focus on eliminating waste in all operations, from sales
3

and design through production. When applied to welding, Lean would review
each welding operation with the goal of eliminating the steps that do not
contribute to making quality parts efficiently. Lean is a continuous improvement process that never ends. After more than twenty years of dedicated effort,
Toyota acknowledges that they have only achieved about 1015% of their total
potential improvement.
Lean Manufacturing achieves results by focusing on several core concepts and
tools:
1. Just-in-Time (JIT) Production. This concept requires a company to produce products only when customer orders exist. JIT requires that a company rethink its traditional approach to high volume continuous production
and develop systems that are cost effective and responsive to low volume
and high variety demand. JIT results in a steady flow of parts. The right
parts arrive at the right time, in the right place, and in the right quantity to
keep production moving on schedule. When carried out properly, JIT
results in shorter customer lead times, improved quality, a minimum
amount of work-in-progress inventory, and less finished goods. Lean
considers any inventory as waste that needs to be eliminated from all parts
of a business.
2. Quality Principle. This principle requires quality to be built into the
design of each part and into each production process. It prevents defective
parts from moving from one workstation to the next. For welders this
means inspecting their own work and assuring that they correct any defects
found. The supervisor is notified if this cannot be done. In Lean organizations, this quality principal is extended to all functions, and gives everyone
both the responsibility and the authority to halt production for any
observed quality defect. Everyone accepts responsibility for quality.
3. Full Utilization of Team Members. Lean Manufacturing holds the fundamental belief that all members of an organization can contribute to all
aspects of the business. Continuous training and development is a cornerstone of Lean. Lean utilizes cross training and defines the responsibilities
of a team or department. This concept supports a team or department in
solving problems and taking responsibility for the workmanship of what
they produce. Through training and utilizing the potential of each
employee, everyone is more committed to the goals of the organization and
develops the additional skills to increase their contribution.
4. Muda. Muda is the Japanese word for waste. In Lean Manufacturing, the
elimination of Muda is considered the highest principle. All activities,
training, analysis tools, controls, and management systems in Lean are
used to focus on improving everyones ability to eliminate waste. Waste in
Lean is defined as any non-value added step or process. In a Lean organiza4

tion, waste in every function is viewed as an opportunity to improve and

reduce costs. Lean analysis tools such as Value Stream Mapping and
Process Flow focus on identifying waste. Lean companies train all employees in these basic tools so that they can all contribute to elimination of
Muda.
5. Pull. In Lean Manufacturing plant layouts, process flows and systems are
designed around the concept of pulling materials through the factory rather
than the traditional approach of pushing materials through based on a production schedule. In traditional systems, detailed schedules for each
department and supplier are developed to support the production schedule.
With Pull, schedules for supporting departments are determined by the
demand of the final operation. Parts are replenished by both internal
departments and outside suppliers. Kanban, JIT, and other tools are used to
accomplish this. The Pull system supports the Lean concept of elimination
of waste, as nothing is produced until it is needed by the customer.
Lean Manufacturing uses a variety of tools, techniques, and methods to support its concepts and achieve its higher-level goals. Some of the more common
ones include:
KanbanKanban is the communication process used to ensure that parts

are available when they are needed for subsequent manufacturing operations. It is generally a visual message or signal that is sent to a supplying
department or outside supplier to communicate how many and when the
next batch of parts is needed for production. Many companies with and
without Lean Manufacturing use this replenishment process.
Single Piece FlowThis is the system that allows a company to cost effectively build only parts when needed. It requires a great deal of focus on
manufacturing throughput, where quick change set ups will allow for economical production runs of as little as one part. The focus is on eliminating
the waste of inventory and having production resources making parts that
are needed now.
Takt TimeThis is an approach to manufacturing planning that begins by

establishing a rate of required production output based on customer
demand. Production capacities and production rates of all parts and processes are established based on the output rate required to meet customer
demand. Once the Takt time for the end product is established, the production rates and allowed production times for each part can be established.
These become the output standards for component parts and operations.
Standardized WorkThis is used to determine the method and sequence to

make the parts in the most efficient manner. Standardized work units for
component parts must support the overall Takt time required to support the
final production rates.
5

KaizenA technique used by a team or department to make improvements

in a process or series of processes. A Kaizen event is usually conducted
with all team members over a few days and then the improvements are
made and implemented immediately. This is an intensive effort to reorganize an activity to achieve higher efficiency, better quality, and lower costs.
The basic premise for this technique is to achieve continuous improvement.
It is done using a very intense, tight time frame.
Poka-YokeThis is a technique that is used to design processes and equipment for processes to prevent the possibility of error. Common applications
include the detection of missing parts or the prevention of incorrect assembly. Poka-yoke is often referred to in Lean as mistake proofing. It is used to
improve quality by reducing the possibility of error through process design.
Visual ControlThis technique involves the use of lights and/or audible

signals that highlight a problem at a workstation. They are used to get a
quick reaction to solve a problem so that quality productive work can
resume.
TeamingThis is the technique of forming teams of six to eight people

with the responsibility to meet a specific quality, production, or safety goal
of the company. Teams are formed only after adequate training and often
assigned to work on specific improvement projects. An hourly employee
often leads these teams, and they stay together until the project has been
completed and implemented.
For welding supervisors there are several positive things that result from the
implementation of a Lean Manufacturing system. They include:
1. An approach to standardizing the process times for each welding operation,
which gives the supervisor standards by which to evaluate productivity.
2. The use of process control and monitoring equipment to detect missing
parts and incorrect assemblies. This helps improve the quality of input
parts for welded assembles.
3. A welder inspecting his own work and not allowing defective parts to
move on helps define many of the inputs and outputs to and from the welding workstation.
4. Lean Manufacturing also introduces the concept of 5S to the workstation,
which can be used as an organizing and housekeeping system.
The 5S system consists of the following sequence of steps:
1. Sortremove from the workstation any item that is not needed.
6

2. Straightenarrange items in the workstation so that they are easy to find

and use. Mark and label items to aid in identification and for ease of future
location.
3. Sweepclean the workstation thoroughly, paint if necessary, and replace
all worn and nonfunctioning items.
4. Scheduleset up a schedule to see that the first 3Ss sort, straighten, and
sweep are continued and do not become just one time events.
5. Sustainmonitor the repetition of these procedures until they become
habit.
The result of the 5S approach is a neater, better organized, and more attractive
work area. This helps set the environment that leads to better productivity. The
5S approach to layout represents a series of steps that are applied to each specific area, such as a welding workstation. How the 5S principles are applied by
the welding supervisor with the welders depends on the knowledge and experience of both in building the best environment for the welder.
One of the drawbacks to using the 5Ss and other Lean principles in welding
operations is that many company and supervisory personnel have little technical training either in welding or in the Lean principles to effectively implement
them. Without specific training, attempts at Lean Manufacturing are likely to
fail. Lean is a general company-wide system for managing and improving all
processes. It does not specifically focus on any one manufacturing technology
such as welding.
Total Quality
Management
(TQM)
The system of TQM grew out of the need to ensure quality in day-to-day manufacturing. As pointed out in the No SystemSystem, quality is often ignored
in the day-to-day push to get product out the door.
TQM traces its origins to the 1960s when Japanese companies desired to
improve quality in order to compete in world markets. The Japanese started
their journey to quality by listening to W. Edwards Deming, an American
trained statistician and quality teacher. Deming was a pioneer in the field of
applying statistical approaches to measuring quality and designing techniques
for controlling processes and predicting when deviations were leading to out of
control conditions. These techniques are practiced today by many companies
in the U.S. as Statistical Process Control.
TQM begins with an understanding of what the customer wants, and then creates a quality system that will ensure that the customer receives the product
that fulfills his requirements. TQM does this by focusing on three goals:
1. Quality of Design. A product must be designed to meet the customers
needs.
7

2. Quality of Conformance. Takes the design and any standards that are
needed, and puts in place the measurements and controls to ensure that the
specifications are met.
3. Qualities of Performance. The performance of the product and customer
satisfaction with the product are measured and any shortcomings corrected.
TQM achieves these goals through the quality assurance function in a company. They develop and implement the quality system to ensure the quality of
design, conformance, and performance. As part of the TQM system, reports of
the quality measures go to the Quality Department. This data provides facts for
the correction of deficiencies that occur during various production processes.
This feedback provides the opportunity for continuous improvement of
processes and quality.
In some companies, there is not a strong link between TQM and productivity.
This is often due to the perception that there are few opportunities to improve
both quality and productivity. This has been disproved, especially in welding.
As an example, the reduction in welding defects results in a marked savings in
welders time to make repairs. That time can then be used to make more production welds, thus increasing productivity.
A TQM management system tries to integrate the following organization
functions:
1. Marketing
2. Management
3. Product Design
4. Process Control
5. Production
6. Training
7. Quality Assurance
Although TQM can take a number of different forms in an organization, there
are some characteristics that are common to successful TQM companies. They
include:
The culture of the organization changesthis is seen most notably at the

supervisory level by better training and a deeper understanding of the
importance of quality and how quality is achieved.
8

Greater welder involvement in more aspects of the business by using the

welders as a source of ideas for continuous quality improvement.
Use of incentives, such a gain sharing or other profit sharing, to reward all
employees for improved results.
Improving customer satisfaction with the quality of the product. A willingness to make changes that answer customer concerns about quality without
blaming employees.
Elimination of rigid constraints that were put in place as a result of earlier

problems or failures. Band-aid solutions are eliminated and replaced by an
effective quality system.
Greater use of technology and more flexibility in solving problems and

addressing quality issues.
Better cooperation with suppliers to improve the quality of materials

supplied.
Measurable progress in recording, analyzing, and reporting quality

improvement, and providing more emphasis where needed for further
improvement.
The welding supervisor sees that a company that follows the TQM system
shows a definite focus on quality. A TQM company has the support of management and the rest of the organization to achieve and sustain the quality of
not only welding, but also of all the materials and parts that are used in welded
assemblies. The drawback of TQM for the welding supervisor is that it is not
welding specific. It only identifies the need to put in place measures, procedures, and methods that will improve quality but does not provide the technical
detail required to achieve welding quality.
TQM does not include the technical specifics of the science of welding and
welding processing required to define what form the procedures and methods
should take or how specific values are determined. The supervisor also does
not see in TQM what training is necessary to raise the level of knowledge and
skill of the welders to meet the quality needs of the TQM system. Although
improved quality does help improve productivity, the TQM system itself does
not specifically address productivity in any meaningful way to aid the supervisor in trying to increase productivity while improving quality. For companies
doing welding, TQM needs to be supplemented by a system, which is focused
on improving total welding operations so that higher levels of quality and productivity can be achieved.
9

Total Welding
Management
(TWM)
Total Welding Management1 (TWM) is a system for managing welding operations that leads to the achievement of high levels of quality and productivity. It
is the only management system that provides the detail required for every function and person involved in welding. TWM offers a comprehensive organization wide approach to long-term sustainable improvement.
The control system within TWM is designed to assure that all welding related
activities are carried out in a correct, safe, timely, and efficient manner, and
results in the production of cost effective quality products every time.
TWM is based on the Barckhoff Welding Management System, which is the
model that provides the framework of TWM to plan and control all welding
related activities in a company. This model represents a systematic approach
for the development of a companys specific welding management system.
TWM encompasses much more than the welding supervisors responsibility,
but by reviewing the total system, supervisors will better understand their role
in achieving the companys goal of quality weldments at the lowest cost.
TWM uses a three-phased process of evaluating, planning, and improving all
of the welding-related activities in a company referred to as the Barckhoff
Method.
The Method encompasses product design, material procurement, process
design and control, quality assurance, parts preparation, fitup, and final assembly to meet specifications without defects.
TWM using the Barckhoff Method applies proven technical, organizational,
and management principles to welding as they have been applied to other
manufacturing processes such as machining and assembly.
TWM has three distinct characteristics:
1. It combines the art, science, and technology of welding with tested and
proven management principles and includes the four critical organizational
functions, which impact welding (Four Critical Functions).
2. It associates five defining responsibilities (Five Key Results Areas) for
each of the Four Critical Functions, resulting in twenty different Key
1. Total Welding Management and Total Welding Management System are both copyrighted
(2005) by Jack R. Barckhoff, P.E. In this chapter and throughout this manual, the use of Total
Welding Management or TWM, and Total Welding Management System or TWMS refers to
copyrighted Total Welding Management System. Copyright laws protect any reference to this
system. Total Welding Management is also the title of a book written by Jack R. Barckhoff,
P.E., copyrighted and published by the American Welding Society (AWS). In this book, all of
the principles and concepts of Total Welding Management (TWM) are detailed.
10

Results Areas that collectively represent all of the welding-related responsibilities in a company.
3. It is a systematic approach in which a six-step process (Six Managerial
Steps) and cost reduction goals (Five Welding Dos or Goals) are applied
to the Five Key Results Areas of each of the Four Critical Functions to
identify and quantify opportunities to improve productivity and quality.
The Four Critical Functions are:
1. Design Engineering
2. Manufacturing Engineering
3. Manufacturing Operations (including Supervisors)
4. Quality Assurance
The Five Welding Dos (Goals) are:
1. Reduce Weld Metal Volume
2. Reduce Arc Time Per Weldment
3. Reduce Rejects, Rework, and Scrap
4. Reduce Work Effort
5. Reduce Motion and Delay Time
Welding supervisors, as part of their daily responsibilities, focus on these five
goals.
The Five Key Results Areas for Manufacturing Operations are:
1. Personnel Training and Qualification
2. Material Input
3. Equipment Performance
4. Method and Procedure Application
5. Work Center Control
11

These Key Results Areas of Manufacturing Operations affect and are affected
by welding supervisors more than any others. The other Critical Functions also
have Key Results Areas related to achieving the Five Welding Dos.
The Six Managerial Steps are:
1. Information Gathering and Analysis
2. Planning and Goal Setting
3. Training
4. Implementation and Fine Tuning
5. Measurement and Control
6. Reporting
These six managerial steps are used both to implement TWM and provide the
framework for the management system.
The Barckhoff Method has three phases to TWM:
1. Phase ISurvey and Evaluation. The improvement of welding operations begins with benchmarking current conditions and performance. Gathering data as well as conducting interviews at all levels in the organization
helps establish the baseline.
The Six Managerial Steps and the Five Welding Dos are used to evaluate
each of the Five Key Results Areas within each of the Four Critical Functions to find opportunities for improving productivity and quality.
This data is then analyzed. From the summarized results, improvement
goals are established and projects prioritized. Potential savings are reported
in both man-hours and dollars.
2. Phase IIManagement Planning and Goal Setting. Management
reviews the Phase I findings, recommended actions, and potential productivity and profitability gains. Projects are then prioritized. Resources are
assigned, schedules agreed to and then a Gantt chart is developed. This
serves as the roadmap for TWM.
3. Phase IIIImplement and Sustain. In this phase, the company develops
and implements a customized welding management system and pursues the
objectives selected in Phase II. Teamwork and team building are stressed
as knowledge is instilled in welders and others through training.
12

Five Welding Dos (Goals)

These Dos represent the five major goals that any welding company needs
to focus on to gain significant improvement in both welding quality and
productivity.
1. Reduce Weld Metal Volume. The intent of this goal is to eliminate waste
by reducing the volume of weld metal to the minimum necessary to be
consistent with the joint application and specification requirements.
Designers should minimize the volume of weld metal required and avoid
over-specifying weld sizes. Welders should not deposit welds larger than
required by the design specifications. Although this goal directly affects
arc time, it is considered separate from arc time because it is distinct from
weld process deposition rate.
2. Reduce Arc Time Per Weldment. This goal centers on the deposition rate
capabilities of the welding process and the welding technique used. The
specified volume of weld metal should be deposited in the least amount of
arc time.
3. Reduce Rejects, Rework, and Scrap. This goal focuses on eliminating or
correcting any situation that tends to result in the production of unacceptable welds. The achievement of this goal results in minimizing or eliminating the costs and unproductive labor hours associated with rejects, rework,
and scrap. This results in both weld quality improvement and a reduction of
weld costs for repairs.
4. Reduce Work Effort. Work effort refers to the degree of difficulty,
fatigue, and hazard associated with welding. The focus of this goal is to
minimize or eliminate characteristics of work habits; methods, environment, equipment, tooling, and workplace that tend to increase the difficulty
of work effort.
5. Reduce Motion and Delay Time. This goal includes all time elements
associated with a welding operation except for arc time. The focus of this
goal is to minimize or eliminate all characteristics of work habits, methods,
environment, equipment, tooling, and the workplace, that tend to increase
time, produce excess motion or repeat time, or cause the welder delay time.
Four Critical Functions and Key Results Areas
There are four distinct support functions required to produce a weldment or
welded product. The Barckhoff Method defines them as the Four Critical
Functions. They are Design Engineering, Manufacturing Engineering, Manufacturing Operations and Quality Assurance.
13

Key Results Areas make up the major portion of a Critical Functions responsibility as related to welding. They are defined as follows:
Design Engineering
Key Results Areas are:
1. Material Selection. Identifying, evaluating, and choosing between combinations of base metal and filler metal
2. Weld Size Determination. Determining the proper size of weld for a specific type of joint and specific application.
3. Weld Joint Selection. Selecting and applying the appropriate type and
geometry of weld consistent with welding economics and quality.
4. Manufacturing Review. Reviewing and appraising weldment design to
ensure economic manufacturing consistent with specifications and manufacturing capabilities.
5. Weldment Specification. Development, review, and release of the documents that define, describe, and explain the welding requirements for each
weldment.
Manufacturing Engineering
Key Results Areas are:
1. Workmanship Standards. Specifying or providing welding production

requirements to meet quality and quantity standards.
2. Welding Process Selection. Choosing and specifying the most efficient
and effective process for a welding application.
3. Equipment and Tooling Selection. Choosing and specifying welding
equipment, fixtures, jigs, and positioners for a welding process and
application.
4. Method and Procedure Development. Determining the most effective
combination of welding materials, welding process, and technique characteristics, consistent with production and quality requirements to satisfy inservice conditions.
5. Work Center Planning. Organizing efficient and effective work center
layout, workflow, process sequencing, motions, and accountabilities to
enable the welder to meet or exceed productivity and quality requirements.
14

Manufacturing Operations
Key Results Areas for the welding supervisor are:
1. Personnel Training and Qualification. Instruction and qualification of

welders and other manufacturing personnel in the use of the work methods,
procedures, fixtures, and equipment in accordance with the work center
control plan.
2. Material Input. Controlling the shape, size, dimensions, surface condition, and composition of materials entering all welding workstations.
3. Equipment Performance. Insuring all equipments capability to perform
to its intended purpose.
4. Method and Procedure Application. The use of equipment, tooling, process, and techniques to meet standards, specifications, and procedures.
5. Work Center Control. Auditing and monitoring the welder, work methods, procedures, materials, equipment, and tooling in accordance to plan
and correcting variances.
Quality Assurance
The Key Results are:
1. Policy and Accountability. Statements of acceptable standards, behavior,

and organization responsibilities relating to quality.
2. Quality Standards. Definitions and descriptions of acceptable quality levels.
3. Quality Procedures. The means and methods for measuring quality.
4. Inspect, Measure, Report. The process of translating technical measurements into meaningful management reports.
5. Corrective Action. Procedures that describe the actions to be taken to correct variances from standards, specifications, or other requirements applicable to a part, product, or process.
Six Managerial Steps Defined
In a TWM system, to properly develop, implement, and control a welding
management system project and effectively solve any welding problem, the
following Six Managerial Steps as described below are applied.
15

Step 1Information Gathering and Analysis. This step is used for collecting, recording, and analyzing facts and information necessary to build
the foundation for the project. This step also provides the basis for evaluating the projects performance after its implementation. Personnel working
in this step must be knowledgeable in the operations surveyed and with the
resultant data.
Step 2Planning and Goal Setting. In this step, the total project is developed and the goals are established. Assignments are made and schedules
are determined. All necessary methods for insuring the development and
implementation of the program are established. The necessary control
methods for insuring maintenance of the implemented project and measurement of project performance are also developed.
Step 3Training. In this step, all personnel who will control, use, or work
on the project are trained in the detail of their functional responsibility,
how the overall program works, what the goals are, and when the project is
to start.
Step 4Implementation and Fine-Tuning. In this step, the project is put

into action. It is closely monitored to insure that all necessary details are
covered. When required, on the job follow-up training is conducted.
Step 5Measurement and Control. This is the step that audits, monitors,
and collects data regarding project performance. Essential data must be
reported to insure the continuing success of the project.
Step 6Reporting. In this step, all measurements are analyzed for comparison to goals and the results reported to management and others responsible for taking corrective actions. Timely feedback of critical information
is essential to reverse undesirable trends and avoid unwanted change.
When implemented, TWM results in a closed-looped management system that

includes all aspects of welding, and ensures both proper control as well as
continuous improvement of welding operations.
Before we summarize the advantages of each of the four systems reviewed
above, a brief discussion of both Six Sigma and ISO would be appropriate as
welding supervisors may encounter them.
Six Sigma. Six Sigma is a methodology and set of tools used to evaluate
processes for the purpose of reducing variation to reduce costs and improve
quality. The tools used by Six Sigma can be quite analytical and involved
and require specialized training.
16

With completion of formal Six Sigma training, formal levels of proficiency

are granted from Green Belt to Black Belt. Companies such as General
Electric, under the leadership of Jack Welch, have trained thousands of
Black Belts. This training in their estimation has result in significant annual
cost reductions through the application of Six Sigma tools and methodologies. Savings have come from reducing process variation both internally
and with suppliers.
Six Sigma tools can be used in both TQM and TWM systems to support
improvement programs. These tools can also be used with the No System
System but without a formal structure, results would be limited.
ISO. ISO represents the formal documentation of a companys quality system to defined national and international standards. ISO requires formal,
periodic external audits to assure that a companys documented quality
procedures are followed. Many companies are required to maintain ISO
certification by the industry or customers they serve. ISO international
standards include ISO 9000, 9001, 9002, and 1400. ISO is a natural extension of TQM, as it provides the structure for formal documentation
required for an effective TQM system and provides the formal certification
and independent outside audit.
TWM supports ISO as it provides complete documentation with the TWM
system for all welding-related operations. A No SystemSystem would
have difficulty meeting any ISO certification requirements as there is little
formal documentation followed in the No SystemSystem.
Table 1 will help highlight some of the strengths and weaknesses of the management systems reviewed. The characteristics included in the comparison
show how each system supports quality improvement, productivity improvement, continuous improvement, and whether each system provides generalized
or detailed welding specific information for improvement.
Table 1.1Comparison Chart

No
System
Lean
TQM
TWM
Quality
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Productivity
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
Welding Specific
No
No
No
Yes
Continuous Improvement
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
17

Conclusion
A welding supervisor could work for a company using any one of the above
management systems. Only one has been found to provide the detailed technical and managerial information required to achieve lasting welding quality and
productivity improvement. For this reason, this manual is written using the
Total Welding Management System to prepare welding supervisors for their
very important role in manufacturing.
This does not mean that a welding supervisor who has learned the concepts and
principals of TWM will not be able to apply them in other environments. He
will find that this detailed technical and managerial knowledge will fit very
neatly with and enhance other systems of management. It will definitely
enhance the quality and productivity where there is no company manufacturing
system at all.
A welding supervisor is not expected to be involved in all of the activities of
TWM. The purpose of introducing TWM is to provide a better understanding
of how other parts of the organization function and to show how the supervisors role forms an integral part of the management system.
The most important knowledge that a welding supervisor should come away
with after having studied this manual is their new found ability to:
look at the situation that exists in their department and evaluate whether it
is the most appropriate way to perform the welding tasks, based on this
manual; if not to understand what actions need to occur to correct the
situation.
then take those things that should and can be changed, and have the confidence and knowledge to effect change without fear or doubt.
evaluate the changes that have been made through monitoring of those
improvements to verify that they have achieved the desired result, and then
to continue to refine and improve upon the result.
In this manual, it will become clear that supervisors play a very important role
in any management system. This is true, especially in the Critical Function of
Manufacturing Operations and the Key Results Areas of Personnel Training
and Qualification, Material Input, Equipment Performance, Method and Procedure Application and Work Center Control. Throughout the remainder of this
manual the welding supervisors role will be detailed along with the technical
information required to fulfill his important role in the quality and productivity
of his welding operations.
References
The Lean Company, Making the Right Choices, James A. Jordon, Jr. and
Frederick J. Michel. 2001. Society of Manufacturing Engineers, Dearborn,
Michigan.
18

Total Quality Management for Engineers, Mohamed Zairi. 1991. Woodhead

Publishing Limited, Abington Hall, Abington, Cambridge, England.
Implementing World Class Manufacturing, Larry Rubrich & Madelyn
Watson. 1998. WCM Associates, Fort Wayne, Indiana.
Total Welding Management, Jack R. Barckhoff, P.E. 2005. American
Welding Society, Miami, Florida.
Review Questions
1. Many companies have supervisors doing which of the following?

A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
Supporting the welders activities

Checking the quality of parts
Expediting parts and pushing productivity
Playing cards
None of the above
2. Which management approach relies on welders teaching welders on the

job?
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
Total Welding Management

No SystemSystem
Lean Manufacturing
Total Quality Management
Total Quality Welding
3. In the Lean Manufacturing System, which is not a concept?

A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
Muda
Pull
Quality Principal
Just-In-Time
Quality of Conformance
4. In the workstation approach using 5S, which of the following are part of
that system?
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
Sort
Straighten
Schedule
Sustain
All of the above
5. The TQM System approach relies on which of the following to achieve the
goals of this system approach?
A. Quality of Effectiveness
B. Quality of Efficiency
19

C. Quality of Repair
D. Quality of Performance
E. Quality of Training
6. Which if any of the following may be characteristic of a TQM System
approach?
A. Use of incentives
B. Kanban
C. Improving customer satisfaction
D. A and C
E. Takt time
7. The TWM System approach which of the following is not one of the
5 Welding Dos Goals?
A. Reduce Nonconformance
B. Reduce Arc Time Per Weldment
C. Reduce Work Effort
D. Reduce Weld Metal Volume
E. Reduce Motion and Delay Time
8. For a welding supervisor which of the Key Results Areas are most
important?
A. Welding Process Selection
B. Method and Procedure Application
C. Material Selection
D. Weldment Specification
E. Quality Standards
9. Which of the Six Managerial Steps is essential for sustainability?
A. Information and Goal Setting
B. Measurement and Control
C. Reporting
D. Implementation and Fine Tuning
E. Training
20

Answers
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
C
B
E
E
D
D
A
B
C
21

Notes
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22

Chapter 2Requirements of a Weld
Chapter 2REQUIREMENTS OF A WELD

Introduction
Welds must meet a variety of requirements to provide a safe and economical

structure or weldment (see Figure 2.1). Requirements for welds can be specified in several different ways:
Company design and quality requirements
Codes and specifications
Customer requirements and/or expectations
size
size
Figure 2.1Requirements of a Fillet Weld
Requirements for
a Fillet Weld
These requirements need to be well thought out and properly documented for
shop use. Formulating these requirements into a welding workmanship standard along with weld sample boards and mock-ups is best way of doing this.
Quality cannot be a matter of opinion but should be defined by requirements
that mean the same to all those involved in welding operations. The quality
requirements should be both observable and measurable, and need to be effectively communicated to the shop floor.
Quality requirements for shop use are specified by:
Welding workmanship standards
Weld sample boards

23

Weld mock-ups
Weldment mock-ups and sample boards are effective communication tools.

Mock-ups can be a replica of the actual products being produced or a representation of typical welds. Mock-ups show how the parts fit together, where the
welds are placed, acceptable weld appearance and even weld sequence,
if appropriate. They provide a visual display of the weld bead and joint
requirements (see Figure 2.2).
Figure 2.2Weld Mock-Ups
Sample boards on the other hand, represent acceptable and unacceptable welds
from a visual inspection perspective. Company expectations in terms of weld
quality are effectively communicated with weld sample boards (see Figure
2.3). In essence, mock-ups and sample boards are the visual representations of
the welding workmanship standard.
Requirements for welds can include:
Size
Length
Profile and appearance
Weld soundness
24

(A)
(A)
Figure 2.3 Sample Board
Objectives
Mechanical properties
Leak tightness
Corrosion properties and/or chemistry requirements
This chapter has the following objectives:

1. Learn the terms and definitions commonly referred to in welding
2. Understand how weld size is specified
3. Know how to use a welding gage
4. Understand the difference between a weld discontinuity and a defect
5. Learn the types of defects encountered in welding
Weld Terminology
It is important to define the terminology used in the industry before discussing

welding requirements in detail. Figure 2.4 describes parts of a weld. Root of
joint vs. root of weld is shown in Figure 2.5.
25

Weld Metal
Unaffected
Base Metal
Heat-Affected Zone
Figure 2.4Parts of a Weld
Base metal
Weld interface
Weld metal
Fusion face
Root of joint
Root of weld
Figure 2.5Root of Joint vs. Root of Weld
Weld size and throat for flat, convex, and concave profile fillet welds are
shown in Figures 2.62.8.
Terminology for groove welds is illustrated in Figure 2.9.
26

Leg & size

Theoretical throat
Leg & size
Actual throat
Figure 2.6Weld Size and Throat for a Flat Profile Fillet Weld
Leg & size

Theoretical throat
Leg & size
Actual throat
Figure 2.7Weld Size and Throat for a Convex Profile Fillet Weld
Weld Failure
How do welds fail? To understand how welds are sized we first need to know
how welds fail when overstressed. Which is the most likely failure plane for
the simple T-joint shown in Figure 2.10? Make a note of your answer. The
most likely plane of failure will become evident as you read the next few
pages.
Weld Size
The requirements of a weld are shown in Figure 2.11. Weld size determines the
strength of a weld. When a plate is loaded in tension as shown in Figure 2.12,
the load is transferred from one part to the next by the connecting welds.
Before the designer can correctly design the weld, he or she must first understand how the joint will fail. Both the base metal and weld metal must be
designed to carry the intended loads.
27

Leg
Theoretical throat
Leg
Actual throat
Figure 2.8Leg Size and Throat for a Concave Profile Fillet Weld
- Groove
Angle
Bevel
Angle
S - Depth of
Preparation
Root Face
G - Root Opening
Root Gap
Weld Face
Weld Beads
(passes)
Face Reinforcement
Toe
Layers
t - Thickness
- Weld Size
Heat-Affected Zone
Toe
Root Reinforcement
Back Weld (done after

welding prepared side)
Figure 2.9Terminology for Groove Welds
28

failure plane
2
failure plane
3
failure plane
Figure 2.10Examples of Failure Planes in Simple T-Joints
For a fillet weld, failure will occur through the weld throat, which is the shortest distance from the root of the weld to the weld face. The weld throat is, in
fact, the weakest part of the weld (see Figure 2.13). Hence, the answer to the
question posed for Figure 2.10 is the # 3 failure plane.
29

size
size
Figure 2.11Weld Leg Size is Used to Specify

the Strength of the Fillet Weld
Figure 2.12Welds are Used to Transfer Load
Fracture surface
along the weld throat
Figure 2.13Fracture Surface Along Weld Throat
30

When designing a fillet weld, the engineer works with weld throat but specifies leg size in accordance with our standards. Similarly, when the shop determines the size of a weld by its leg size, it is really trying to ensure that the
weld throat is adequate. Caution must be exercised when measuring the size
of concave weld because the leg will not be representative of the throat (see
Figure 2.14).
Size
Leg
Figure 2.14In Concave Welds, Leg Size is Not Representative of Throat
A typical gage for measuring the size of a fillet weld is shown in Figure 2.15.
0.177
1/4
1/4
WELD FILLET GAGE

Throat
Measurement
Leg measurement
For a Fillet Weld
Leg Size = 1.41 Throat
Figure 2.15Typical Weld Fillet Gage
Proper use of a fillet gage to measure the size of a weld is shown in Figures
2.16 and 2.17. Examples of the proper use of a weld gage are shown in Figure
2.18.
31

For CONVEX or FLAT fillet welds,

use fillet gage to measure leg length.
For CONCAVE fillet welds, use

fillet gage to measure the throat.
Figure 2.16How to Use a Fillet Gage
Figure 2.17Closeup of a Fillet Gage
32

This gage correctly

measures the shorter
leg length
This gage incorrectly

measures the longer
leg length
For fillet welds with unequal leg sizes

(where an equal leg fillet was specified)
always measure the shorter leg length
Correct use of
Gage
Incorrect use
of Gage
User incorrectly measures

a 1/4 in. weld
User correctly measures

a 3/16 in. weld
1/4
3/16
Less than
1/4 in.
Fillet weld leg must at least touch the gage to be considered that size of weld
Figure 2.18Examples of the Proper Use of a Weld Gage
33

Gaps between the base metals in a fillet welded connection present a special
problem. As shown in Figure 2.19, a gap can reduce the weld throat. This
reduction of weld throat lessens the load carrying capacity of the fillet weld.
Increase weld size by

amount of separation
T = required throat
t = reduced throat
T
Figure 2.19Gaps Between Base Metals Can Reduce Weld Throat
Example
When the gap is 1/16 in. or greater the weld size must be increased by the
amount of gap (see Figure 2.20).
1/4
1/8
3/8
Specified Size
Required Size
Figure 2.20Increasing Weld Size by Amount of Gap
34

Welders should also be knowledgeable about the costs of overwelding. As

shown in Figure 2.21, the adjacent sidebar small changes in weld size can
make a big difference in weld volume and costs
Weld Size Increase
% Increase in
Amount of Weld Metal
36%
7/16
3/8
44%
3/8
5/16
56%
5/16
1/4
77%
1/4
3/16
Figure 2.21Cost of Overwelding
A very common overwelding problem, which can result from an incorrect

transverse electrode angle, is a horizontal leg that is larger than required. As
shown in the table in Figure 2.22, weld volume and costs are significantly
affected by this type of problem.
Excessive convexity can also lead to unnecessary extra costs. Welding position, shielding gas, and other essential welding variables can affect the amount
of convexity (see Figure 2.23).
35

extra weld metal
vertical
leg
horizontal
leg
Weld Size
Specified
Horizontal
Leg +1/16
Increase in
Weld Volume
Horizontal
Leg +1/8
Increase in
Weld Volume
3/16
1/4
33%
5/16
67%
1/4
5/16
25%
3/8
50%
5/16
3/8
20%
7/16
40%
3/8
7/16
17%
1/2
33%
1/2
9/16
13%
5/8
25%
Figure 2.22How Overwelding Affects Weld Volume and Costs
extra weld metal
size
size
Figure 2.23Excessive Convexity Can Lead to Unnecessary Extra Costs
Weld Length
Continuous welds run from one end of a joint to the other end. Craters must be
filled to ensure that the weld throat is continuous for this length. Similarly for
an intermittent weld (or stitch weld, which is a nonstandard term), craters need
to be filled within the required weld length (see Figure 2.24).
36

ive
ffect
Len
gth
Unfilled craters reduce

the effective length of
the weld
L
eld
eng
th
Figure 2.24Effective Length of Welds
Appearance and
Weld Profile
The shape or profile of a weld is also important. Welds with sharp edges or
sharp changes in direction cause a concentration of stress at these points. Stress
concentrations will produce higher stresses, which can be undesirable (see
Figure 2.25).
Lines of stress
Good profile
Stress concentration
point
Poor profile
High
stress
Figure 2.25The Effect of Weld Profile on Stress
37

When loaded, rounded type discontinuities will be less likely to propagate or

fail than planar or sharp discontinuities. Rounded discontinuities have a lower
stress concentration effect (see Figure 2.26).
Planar or crack
type defect
Circular or
blunt defect
Extension
Fracture
Figure 2.26Rounded Discontinuities are Less Likely to Fail
Some unacceptable welds are shown in Figure 2.27.
Weld Soundness
All welds contain discontinuities of one type or another. It is difficult to

deposit a perfect weld, however, in many cases small discontinuities have no
detrimental effect on the weld. Workmanship requirements take this fact into
consideration. A discontinuity is classified as a defect only when the discontinuity exceeds a certain size or number (see Figure 2.28).
Incomplete Joint Penetration
Incomplete joint penetration is generally not acceptable (see Figures 2.29
2.31).
Incomplete Fusion
Incomplete fusion is generally not acceptable (see Figures 2.32 and 2.33).
38

required
size
required
size
Poor
Profile
Excessive
Convexity
required
size
required
size
Excessive
Undercut
Overlap
required
size
required
size
Insufficient
Leg
Insufficient
Leg
Figure 2.27Unacceptable Welds
DISCONTINUITY
Less than specified
size or frequency
Greater than specified

size or frequency
DEFECT
NO ACTION
REQUIRED
REPAIR
REQUIRED
Figure 2.28Classification of Weld Discontinuity or Defect
39

Incomplete
Penetration
Lack of Fusion
Figure 2.29Examples of Incomplete Penetration and Lack of Fusion
Figure 2.30Photograph of Incomplete Penetration
Figure 2.31Radiograph of Incomplete Penetration
Porosity
Porosity can be acceptable if a certain size or frequency is not exceeded.
Where leak tightness is important, porosity of any size may be unacceptable
(see Figure 2.34).
40

Figure 2.32Photograph of Lack of Fusion
Figure 2.33Radiograph of Lack of Fusion
Figure 2.34Porosity
Unless it is highly excessive, porosity usually has little effect on weld strength
(see the fractured tensile specimen shown in Figure 2.35). Because porosity
can obscure and hide other more serious defects on a radiograph, there is usually some limit on the amount allowed. Excessive porosity can also be an indication of something wrong with the welding process (lack of shielding) or that
the welding was performed on dirty materials.
41

Figure 2.35Porosity Has Little Effect on Weld Strength
Cracks
Cracks are never acceptable. They present a plane of separation with a sharp
stress concentration at the leading edge of the crack. Under stress the crack can
extend in length (see Figures 2.362.38). Refer to Chapter 7, Steel Metallurgy,
for more information on this subject.
Figure 2.36Cracks in Welds are Unacceptable
Slag
Slag can be acceptable if a certain size or frequency is not exceeded (see
Figure 2.392.41). Slag is usually the result of inadequate cleaning between
passes.
Arc Strikes
Arc strikes can leave small hard spots or even cracks on the surface of base
metals. Avoid arc strikes as much as possible (see Figures 2.42 and 2.43).
42

Figure 2.37Photograph of Weld Metal Cracking
Figure 2.38Radiograph of Weld Metal Cracking
Figure 2.39Example of Slag Inclusions
Figure 2.40Photograph of Slag Inclusions
43

Figure 2.41Radiograph of Slag Inclusions
Figure 2.42Arc Strikes
Clamps
A work return (ground) clamp with inadequate clamping force can also leave
hard spots on the base metal surface due to arcing between the clamp and base
metal (see Figure 2.44).
Spatter
Although spatter has little effect on the strength or performance of a weld, it
gives the impression of poor quality. Spatter can also be a sign that the welding
parameters are incorrectly set. This cosmetic type of discontinuity is usually
removed wherever it is exposed (see Figure 2.45).
Mechanical
Properties
To carry the required loads, the weld should be as strong and ductile as the
base metal (see Figures 2.46 and 2.47).
For some materials such as aluminum the welding wire is selected to avoid
cracking.
44

Figure 2.43Photographs of Arc Strikes
Figure 2.44Ground Clamp
Matching properties or other requirements are achieved by selecting the correct welding electrode for the materials to be welded. The American Welding
Society (AWS) classification for the welding electrode must be specified.
Refer to Chapter 7, Steel Metallurgy, for more information on this subject.
45

Figure 2.45Spatter is a Cosmetic Defect
1/8 in. max
(A) Tensile Test
(B) Bend Specimen
Figure 2.46Examples of Tests for Strength and Ductility
Corrosion
Resistance
When materials such as stainless steels are used, corrosion resistance is usually
an important factor. Ensure that the weld is as good, if not better than, the base
metals. The correct filler metal needs to be specified to achieve this result.
46

Achieving the
Correct
Requirements
of a Weld
Welding
Procedures
Our previous discussion described many of the requirements that a weld may
have to meetbut how are these requirements actually achieved? Getting the
job done right the first time and every time is not a simple matter. As you
review this program, it becomes evident that there are many facets to a management system which can achieve these kinds of results on a consistent basis.
Just a few of the important considerations are as follows:
Correct welding symbols on drawings
Workmanship standards with communications tools
Proper welding procedures
Trained and qualified welders
Proper supervision
Let us consider the use of welding procedures. When performed by different

people, most work requires some kind of direction or recipe to consistently get
the job done right. This is where written welding procedures play an important
role. Some key points about welding procedures are:
They provide the essential information (or recipe) to make a weld that
meets the productivity and quality requirements.
They list the seven essential welding variables that determine the productivity and quality of a deposited weld (see Figure 2.47).
Wire Feed Speed
Voltage
Travel Speed
Travel Angle
Transverse Angle
Wire Position
Contact Tip to
Work Distance
Figure 2.47Seven Essential Welding Variables
47

They can be prequalified or be based on actual tests that prove whether the
productivity and quality requirements have been met. This information is
then documented in a Procedure Qualification Record (PQR).
Why Have Welding Procedures?

Welding procedures are necessary to ensure that:
Welds will be made to the proper size.
Welds will meet the arc time requirements.
Welds will meet the quality requirements.
Correct welding electrodes will be used.
Welds will be consistent when all welders follow the same procedure
(recipe).
A mechanism to constantly improve welding procedures will be provided.

Any new variable or change in variable can be applied to all welders (see
Figure 2.48).
A Welding Axiom: Welders cannot make a bad

weld if they follow the seven essential welding
variables as specified in the welding application
procedure.
Figure 2.48Always Follow Proper Welding Procedures
48

Welding procedures that meet the requirements of specific codes or standards

(e.g., AWS D1.1) are described as Welding Procedure Specifications (WPSs).
A typical WPS in accordance with the requirements of AWS D1.1 is shown in
Figure 2.49, with some additional essential welding variables indicated under
General Notes.
WELDING PROCEDURE SPECIFICATION (WPS)

Company Name: ABC Company Inc.,
Welding Process(es): SMAW
Types: Manual
Date Issued Jan. 24, 2002
Revision No. 0
Welding Procedure: WI-1-6b

Welding Procedure Spec. No. WI-1
Applicable Standards: AWS D1.1
Date Revised: Jan 24, 2002
Base Metal: A572 Grade 50

T
T
Filler Metals
AWS specification:
AWS classification:
Size of filler metal:
Joint Details
Joint Type:
Weld Type:
Backing:
Tee or Lap
Fillet weld
None
Preheat
Preheat temperature: 150F
Interpass temperature: 450F Max
Preheat maintenance: None
Position
Position of joint:
Weld progression:
Other:
Vertical (3F)
Vertical up
None
Electrical Characteristics
Current type:
Polarity:
Shielding Gas
Gas type:
Composition:
N/A
N/A
A5.1
E7018
1/8 in.
DC
Positive
Weld
Size
T
Side
No.
Layer
Pass
Electrode
Size
Wire
Feed
Speed
1/4
1/8
N/A
5/16
1/8
3/8
1/8
Amps
Volts
CTTWD
Travel
Speed
120140 2224
N/A
45
N/A
120140 2224
N/A
23
N/A
120140 2224
N/A
1.51.75
General Notes
Travel angle = 0 5
Approvals
Transverse Angle = 45 Wire Position = Weave
Figure 2.49Typical Welding Procedure Specification (WPS)
49

References
AWS B1.11, Guide for the Visual Examination of Welds

AWS A3.0, Standard Welding Terms and Definitions
Guides and
Exercises
To obtain maximum benefit from this program it is recommended that you follow this guide and complete the exercises. It is important that you thoroughly
study each section carefully before moving to the next section. The exercises are
designed to give you an indication of whether you understand the material presented. If you answer a question incorrectly, go back and read that section again.
1. Which of the following are ways in which a proper welding management
program can communicate weld quality requirements to shop floor
workers?
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
Welding workmanship standards

Equipment manufacturers information
Weld sample boards
Weld mock-ups
All of the above
A and C and D
2. List four possible requirements for a fillet weld.

__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
3. True or False?
For a concave fillet weld you only need to measure the leg to determine
the weld size. True False
4. A T-joint has a 1/4 in. fillet weld called for on the print. If there is a gap of
1/8 in., what should the final weld size be?
A.
B.
C.
D.
1/4 in.
5/16 in.
3/8 in.
1/2 in.
5. If a 1/4 in. fillet weld is overwelded by 1/16 in. on both the horizontal and
vertical legs, by how much is the weld volume increased?
__________________________________________________________
50

6. If a welder deposits a 3/16 in. specified fillet weld with a 3/16 in. vertical
leg and a 1/4 in. horizontal leg, by how much is the weld volume and
arcing time increased?
__________________________________________________________
7. Identify the parts of the following welds.
Flat & Convex Fillet Welds
8. An unfilled crater in a fillet weld has the following effect:

A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
Increases overall weld size

Reduces overall weld size
Reduces the effective length
Has no effect
All of the above
9. True or False?
Stress concentrations are desirable in a weld. True False
10. Which of the following explains why a crack type defect can be more
dangerous than a slag type defect?
A.
B.
C.
D.
A crack is a planer defect

A crack will tend to propagate under load
A crack is a higher stress concentration
All of the above
11. True or False?

Arc strikes are so small they never have any effect on weld quality.
True False
51

Answers
1. F
2. Size, length, profile and appearance, weld soundness, mechanical properties, leak tightness
3. False
4. C
5. 56%
6. 33%
7.
Base metal
Horizontal
Leg and size
Flat and Convex

Fillet Welds
Weld interface
Weld metal
Fusion face
Vertical
Leg and size
Theoretical throat
Actual throat
Root of joint
Root of weld
8.
9.
10.
11.
C
False
D
False
52

Chapter 3Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)
Chapter 3SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING (SMAW)

Introduction
The numerous advantages of the SMAW process make it the preferred choice
for many welding applications. SMAW can deposit high quality welds with
relatively simple equipment. Successful application of SMAW requires that
the supervisor have a good understanding of the process variations and the
controlling essential variables. The focus of this chapter is SMAW applied to
mild steel.
Chapter
Objectives
After successful completion of this chapter, you should be able to:
Process
Fundamentals
List the advantages and limitations of the SMAW process
Recognize the different types of electrodes available for SMAW
Set up the welding equipment for SMAW
Understand each of the seven essential welding variables
Know how the essential variables affect bead shape, penetration, and
spatter
Set the essential variables for different electrodes and welding applications
Avoid commonly encountered SMAW defects
SMAW (often called stick welding, a nonstandard term) is a process in

which the heat for welding is generated by an electric arc between the end of a
flux-covered metal electrode and the base metal. As the electrode metal progressively melts, it is transferred across the arc into the weld (see Figure 3.1).
Electrode coating
Electrode wire
Protective gas
from electrode
coating
Molten metal
Slag
Metal droplets
Solidified
weld metal
Base metal
Figure 3.1Example of the SMAW Process
53

The core of the electrode is a solid metal rod that conducts the electric current
to the arc and provides filler metal for the joint. The flux coating decomposes
to provide ingredients that stabilize the arc and gases that shield the molten
weld metal from the atmosphere. The flux coating may also contain additional
weld metal additives such as iron powder.
A typical electric circuit for the SMAW process is shown in Figure 3.2. Welding current flows when an electric arc is struck between the end of the electrode and the work. Current then flows from the power source to the arc
through the welding lead or cable and back to the power source through the
work return lead.
Input plug
Electrode holder
Work return clamp
Power source
Work return lead
Work table
ground
Figure 3.2Typical Electric Circuit for the SMAW Process
Advantages
SMAW is one of the most widely used processes, particularly for maintenance
and repair work and in field construction. Compared with other welding
processes, SMAW has the following advantages:
The equipment is simple, inexpensive, and highly portable
Gas shielding or additional flux is not required
Less sensitive to wind and drafts than gas shielded processes, and therefore
is ideal for outdoor applications
54

Can be easily applied in any welding position
Can be used in areas of limited access
Disadvantages
Compared with other welding processes, SMAW has the following
disadvantages:
Welding travel speeds and productivity are much lower (see Figure 3.3).
Fume generation rate is relatively high (see Figure 3.4).
3.60 m
in 1 hr.
SMAW @ 0.70 kg/man-hr.
7.40 m
in 1 hr.
GMAW @ 1.40 kg/man-hr.
Figure 3.3SMAW vs. GMAW Welding Travel Speeds
55
higher

FCAW
(self shielded)
SMAW
FCAW (CO2)
Particulate
fume
generation
rate (g/min)
GMA (CO2)
GMA (argon)
Increasing current
higher
Figure 3.4Comparison of Fume Generation Rate
SMAW Electrodes
Electrodes for the SMAW process have a solid metal core rod with a flux
coating (see Figure 3.5). These electrodes are available in sizes ranging from
3/32 in. (2.5 mm) to 1/4 in. (6.0 mm) or larger (see Figure 3.6).
Electrode size is
the diameter of
the core wire
Flux coating
1
70
Core wire
Core wire
Figure 3.5A Typical SMAW Electrode
The flux coating performs the following important functions:

1. The flux is broken down by the heat of the arc to produce shielding gases
that protect the molten weld metal from contamination.
2. Melted flux forms a slag that chemically reacts with the molten weld metal.
This reaction helps to purify the weld metal by reducing the oxygen
content as well as minimizing the effect of contaminates from the base
metal surface.
56

U.S. Customary 3/32

sizes (in.)
Metric
sizes (mm)
2.5
1/8
5/32
3/16
7/32
1/4
3.2
4.0
5.0
N/A
6.0
Figure 3.6Electrode Sizes in U.S. Customary and Metric Units
3. Flux contains ingredients that help to stabilize the arc.

4. The flux coating may contain additional weld metal additives, such as iron
powder, which increases the deposition rate of the electrode.
5. Molten slag supports and shapes the weld pool.
Specifications for SMAW electrodes conform to American Welding Society
(AWS) standards. Most electrodes are manufactured to meet the requirements
detailed in the various AWS Filler Metal Specifications, such as:
Size
Mechanical properties
Chemical composition
Type of coating
Welding position
Type of currentDirect Current (DC), Alternating Current (AC)
A typical electrode classification number in accordance with AWS A5.1, Specification for Carbon Steel Electrodes for Shielded Metal Arc Welding, is shown
in Figure 3.7. A detailed breakdown of the A5.1 classification system is shown
in Figure 3.8.
57

Tensile Strength
Welding Position
Coating and Polarity
Electrode
E 7 0 1 8
Figure 3.7Example of an AWS Electrode Classification Number
Minimum Tensile Strength

e.g., 60 = 60,000 psi
70 = 70,000 psi
Electrode
XX
X
EX
Coating and Polarity
Welding Positions
1 = all positions
2 = flat position and horizontal fillets
3 = flat only
4 = flat and vertical down only
0 = cellulose, DC
1 = cellulose, AC or DC
2 = rutile, AC or DC
3 = rutile, AC or DC
4 = rutile + iron, AC or DC
5 = low hydrogen, DC
6 = low hydrogen, AC or DC
7 = iron oxide + iron, AC or DC
8 = low hydrogen + iron, AC or DC
Figure 3.8Details of the A5.1 Electrode Classification System
The flux thickness depends on the type of electrode coating (see Figure 3.9).
E6011
E7028
Figure 3.9Comparing Electrode Coating Thickness
58

Features and
Applications of
SMAW Electrodes
Cellulosic Electrodes
E6010
E6010
EX0X0
EX0X1
Cellulosic electrodes have either a 0 or 1 as the last digit. These electrodes

have a large portion of cellulose (wood pulp) in the coating that produces a
large volume of carbon dioxide and hydrogen to shield the weld pool.
Because the hydrogen produced by these electrodes can cause cracking, cellulosic electrodes should not be used for any applications that require thicker carbon steels or alloy steels of any thickness.
Cellulosic Electrodes
Features
Applications
PolarityE6010
PolarityE6011
Penetration
Welding Positions
Starting Characteristics
Deposition Rate
Resistance to Cracking
DCEP (Reverse Polarity)

DC or AC
Deep
All
Good
Low
Low
NOTE: Cellulosic electrodes are designed to have moisture levels

from 3%7% and should not be rebaked or stored at higher than room
temperature.
CAUTION: Do not store cellulosic electrodes in heated rod ovens.
Rutile Electrodes
E7014
EX0X2
EX0X3
EX0X4
Rutile electrodes have either a 2, 3, or 4 as the last digit. The rutile coating
produces a heavy, fast-freezing slag that makes this electrode easy to use in all
positions. The E6013 electrode is useful for sheet material because of its low
penetration characteristics. The E7014 electrode version has a higher iron
powder content for faster welding.
59

Rutile Electrodes
Features
Applications
Polarity
Penetration
Welding Positions
Deposition Rate
DC or AC
Medium (E6013Low)
All
Good
Low (E7014Medium)
Medium
Low Hydrogen Electrodes
E7018
EX0X5
EX0X6
EX0X8
Low hydrogen, or basic, electrodes have either a 5, 6, or 8 as the last digit. The
coating of these electrodes contains a large amount of lime or calcium carbonate. When properly stored, this type of coating gives off relatively little hydrogen and is therefore resistant to hydrogen cracking. Low hydrogen electrodes
are not as penetrating as the cellulosic electrodes, and produce less carbon
dioxide to shield the weld pool. As a result, they must be used with a short arc
length to avoid porosity.
Low Hydrogen Electrodes
Features
Applications
Polarity
Penetration
Welding Positions
Deposition Rate
DC or AC
Shallow (E7016Medium)
All
Poor
Medium (E7016Low)
High
NOTE: Because low hydrogen electrodes can absorb water, they are
packed in moisture resistant containers. Once removed from the container
they should be stored in a heated oven (250F min) or used within 4 hours
(see Figure 3.10).
CAUTION: Always store low hydrogen electrodes in heated rod ovens.

Any electrodes that have flux that is chipped, cracked, or wet from exposure to rain or snow should be discarded.
60

Photograph courtesy of Phoenix International
Figure 3.10Rod Oven for Storage of Low Hydrogen Electrodes
Iron Powder Electrodes
E7024
E7024
EX024
EX027
EX028
The coating of these electrodes is a high iron powder version of rutile, mineral,
and low hydrogen type coatings. The iron powder content of the coating is
about 50% of the weight and provides a high deposition rate for fast welding
speeds. The number 2 as the second to last digit indicates that iron powder
electrodes are used for flat groove and horizontal fillet welds only. AC polarity
provides the highest travel speeds and best operating characteristics, particularly on larger diameter electrodes.
Iron Powder Electrodes

Features
Applications
Polarity
Penetration
Welding Positions
Deposition Rate
DC or AC
Shallow
Flat grooves and horizontal fillets
Good
High
Depends on specific electrode
A comparison of the AWS system with other classification systems that use
metric units is shown in Table 3.1.
61

Table 3.1Canadian Electrode Classification (Metric)

vs. AWS Classification
Recommended
SMAW Equipment
CSA Classification
AWS Classification
E4310
E6010
E4311
E6011
E4313
E6013
E4327
E6027
E4910
E4911
E4914
E7014
E4918
E7018
E4924
E7024
E4927
E7027
E4928
E7028
Welding Power Source

The welding power source is typically either a transformer-rectifier or an
engine-driven generator (see Figure 3.11). Engine-driven generators use either
a gasoline or diesel engine.
(A) Transformer-Rectifier
(B) Engine-Driven Generator
Photographs courtesy of The Lincoln Electric Company
Figure 3.11Welding Power Sources
62

The polarity and welding amperage are set at the welding power source. A
typical control panel of a welding power source is shown in Figure 3.12.
Constant Current
Welding Power
Source
400 Amp.
200
100
Arc Force
Output
DC+
0
On
A A
B
Remote Amperage
Power
20
40
0
Off
DC-
Figure 3.12Power Source Control Panel
Electrode Holders
Electrode holders are available in a range of sizes and capacities, and should be
selected for the maximum amperage to be used. This equipment should be
properly maintained and used only for its intended application.
A whip lead of flexible welding cable is connected directly to the electrode
holder to allow easy manipulation of the holder (see Figure 3.13).
Figure 3.13SMAW Electrode Holders
Welding Cables
Welding cables are available in a variety of sizes to suit the amperage and
cable length (see Figure 3.14).
63

Figure 3.14Example of Welding Cable Sizes
Welding cables should be of good quality and be properly maintained. Any

cuts must be repaired and any exposed copper conductor must be replaced. It is
also important that the welding cables be of the correct size for the job as
shown Table 3.2.
Table 3.2Recommended Copper Welding Cable Sizes
AWG Cable Size for Combined Length
of Electrode and Work Return Cables
Power Source
Amperes
Duty
Cycle %
050 ft
(015 m)
50100 ft
(1530 m)
100150 ft
(3046 m)
150200 ft
(4661 m)
200250 ft
(6176 m)
100
20
200
60
1/0
200
50
1/0
250
30
1/0
300
60
1/0
1/0
1/0
2/0
3/0
400
60
2/0
2/0
2/0
3/0
4/0
500
60
2/0
2/0
3/0
3/0
4/0
600
60
2/0
2/0
3/0
4/0
23/0
Cable Connectors
Cable connectors are used to connect the cables to the power source or to
connect lengths of welding lead together (see Figure 3.15). Ensure that all connectors are clean and correctly sized for the cables that they connect.
64

Lugs
Cable connectors
Figure 3.15Examples of Cable Connections
Work Return Clamps

Often incorrectly referred to as the ground clamp, this piece of equipment is
important for safety and obtaining proper welding conditions (see Figure 3.16).
Rust, paint, or other potential insulators must be removed prior to attachment.
Always attach the work return clamp securely in order to make good electrical
contact and position it as close to the welding arc as practical. In some situations, welding current flowing long distances through a structure or piping
system can be dangerous.
Figure 3.16Work Return Clamp
65

The SMAW process is controlled by seven essential welding variables (see

Figure 3.17). These variables are set by the welder to control welding speed,
bead appearance, penetration, and spatter. These variables are the key settings
that make the deposit a good weld or an unacceptable weld. Knowledge and
control of the seven essential welding variables are critical factors if quality
welds are to be consistently obtained.
Polarity & Current
Travel Angle
Amperage
Transverse Angle
200
100
20
0
0
40
SMAW Essential
Welding Variables
Arc Length
Electrode Position
Travel Speed
Figure 3.17The Essential Welding Variables for SMAW
To consistently obtain quality welds, the welder must:
Understand each of the seven essential welding variables
Know how the essential variables affect bead shape, penetration, and spatter
Be able to set the essential variables for different electrodes and welding
applications.
Polarity and Current Type

As detailed in Figure 3.8, SMAW electrodes are designed to operate on DC,
AC, or both. The effect that current type and polarity have on welding is shown
in Table 3.3.
66

Table 3.3Effect of Current Type and Polarity on Welding

Current Type and Polarity
Welding Application
DC
Negative (Straight)
DC+
Positive (Reverse)
AC
Positive ion flow
Heat balance
More at electrode
More at work
Equal
Shallow
Deep
Medium
Metal deposition rate
High
Low
Medium
Sensitivity to arc blow
Medium
High
None
Good
Good
Poor
Penetration
Arc starting
NOTE: Reverse polarity is a nonstandard term for DCEP and straight polarity is a
nonstandard term for DCEN.
For most electrodes, DC electrode positive (DCEP) is the preferred choice if

the power source operates in this polarity. AC is beneficial, however, where
arc blow is a problem. In addition, for iron powder electrodes like E7024, AC
can increase the deposition rate over DC.
Current type and polarity for different electrodes are shown in Table 3.4.
Table 3.4Settings for AWS Classified Electrodes
AWS Classification
Current Type and Polarity
EXX10
EXX11
DC+ only
AC or DC+
EXX12
EXX13
EXX14
AC or DC
AC or DC
AC or DC
EXX15
EXX16
EXX18
DC+ only
AC or DC+
AC or DC+
EXX24
EXX27
EXX28
AC or DC
AC or DC
AC or DC+
67

Amperage
200
100
20
40
0
0
0
Correct amperage settings are critical to the welder who wants to make sound
welds. Arc starting, penetration, bead appearance, and spatter are all affected
by the amperage setting.
For example, increasing the amperage increases penetration, because of greater
arc heating. Increasing the amperage also increases the burnoff of the electrode
as shown in Figure 3.18.
Greater fill
Increasing Amperage
Greater penetration
and fusion
Figure 3.18Effects of Increased Current on Electrodes
The effect of incorrect amperage settings are shown in Figure 3.19. Too low an
amperage setting produces a narrow, cold-looking weld. Too high an amperage
setting produces excessive spatter.
Low
Correct
High
95 amps
135 amps
180 amps
Figure 3.19Effect of Amperage Settings on 1/8 in. Diameter E7018
68

The correct amperage range depends on the electrode size and type of coating
(see Table 3.5).
Table 3.5Correct Amperage Ranges for Various Electrodes
Electrode
Diameter
in. (mm)
E6010
E6011
E6013
E7014
E7018
E7028
3/32 (2.5)
5085
5085
75100
75110
100145
1/8 (3.2)
80130
80130
115150
110160
140190
5/32 (4.0)
120170
120170
140200
150220
140240
3/16 (5.0)
140215
150250
200275
210300
240300
Arc Length
Arc length determines the voltage across the arc (see Figure 3.20).
Increasing arc length

Increasing voltage
Figure 3.20Increased Arc Length Equals

Increased Voltage Across the Arc
Too long an arc can cause spatter, undercut, and porosity. Electrodes such as
E7018 are designed to operate with a short arc length; E6010 electrodes are
designed to operate with a longer arc. Generally, arc length should be less than
the diameter of the electrode.
The effect of incorrect arc length is shown in Figure 3.21.
69

Correct
Too Long
Figure 3.21Effect of Arc Length on 1/8 in. Diameter E7018
Travel Speed
Travel speed affects the amount of filler metal deposited per inch of weld. A
speed that is too slow deposits excessive weld metal; a speed that is too fast
deposits too small a bead (see Figure 3.22).
Bead-on-plate results
Increasing travel speed
Figure 3.22Effect of Travel Speed on Weld Bead Size
Although the bead-on-plate results in Figure 3.23 show that slower travel
speeds result in greater penetration, this is not the case when the weld pool is
allowed to build in depth. Using too slow a travel speed when making a groove
weld or a fillet weld typically results in undercut and lack of penetration (see
Figure 3.24).
NOTE: Keep the arc at the front of the weld pool.
70

Too Fast
Correct
Too Slow
Figure 3.23Effect of Travel Speed on 1/8 in. Diameter E7018
A slow travel speed will make it difficult for

the arc to penetrate to the root of the joint.
The arc is "cushioned" by too deep a weld
pool. Also, excessive surface heating will
cause undercut.
Faster travel speed will produce less fill

and less depth of weld pool allowing the
arc to penetrate better.
Figure 3.24The Effect of Travel Speed on Weld Penetration
71

Travel Angle
The electrode forms an angle with the workpiece in a plane that is parallel to
the direction of travel. This angle is called the travel angle, which can be a
push or drag angle (see Figure 3.25).
20 30
Figure 3.25Travel Angle
With the SMAW process, use a drag angle to keep the slag back from running
in front of the weld pool (see Figure 3.26).
Molten metal
Molten slag
Solidified
weld metal
NOTE: Use a drag angle between 2030.
Figure 3.26Always Drag the Slag
72

Transverse Angle
The electrode forms an angle with the workpiece in a plane that is
perpendicular to the direction of travel. This angle is called the transverse
angle, which can affect bead shape, penetration, and undercut (see Figure
3.27).
Correct
Angle
40 - 45
Angle
Too High
Angle
Too Low
Figure 3.27Examples of the Transverse Angle
Electrode Position
The position of the electrode in the joint is an important factor that determines
the quality of the weld. Examine the edges of the weld pool and position the
electrode so that the weld is centered on the joint (see Figure 3.28).
Examine the edges of the pool
Center the
weld on the
joint
Figure 3.28Correct Positioning of the Electrode
Electrode manipulation as shown in Table 3.6 is used to control the bead

shape.
73

Table 3.6Basic Motions for Electrode Manipulation

Motion
Description
Typical Uses
Straight
whipping
motion
Used with fast-fill electrodes to make

stringer beads in all positions and on
all types of joints. Bead tends to be
somewhat convex in the vertical position. Provides good penetration.
Vertical
side-to-side
weave
Used with all types of electrodes to

make fill passes on vertical fillets and
V-butts; sometimes used with fillfreeze and low-hydrogen electrodes
for first pass on fillets and V-butts.
Triangular
weave
Used with fill-freeze and low-hydrogen

electrodes to make first pass on vertical
fillets and V-butts.
Box weave

make fill passes on vertical fillets and
V-butts, and has a distinct pause and
slight upward motion at each edge of
the weld.
Circular
motion

make overhead welds, and is sometimes used with a slight whip after
each circular motion in crater.
Flat
side-to-side
weave
Used with all electrodes on wide fillets

and butts in the flat position.
Remember the seven essential welding variables. They are the key to making
quality welds with the SMAW process (refer to Figure 3.29).
74

Travel Speed
Travel Angle
Arc Length
Amperage
Transverse Angle
200
Electrode Position
100
0
0
0
20
40
0
Polarity & Current
Remember the seven

essential welding variables.
They are the key to productivity and quality in SMAW.
Figure 3.29Remember the Seven Essential Welding Variables
Setting the Amperage

Once the equipment is properly set up and the correct polarity is selected, the
welder should adjust the amperage control and make the initial settings for:
type of electrode, size of electrode, and position of welding (see Figure 3.30).
200
100
20
40
0
0
Figure 3.30Amperage Control
Once the arc is struck, additional adjustments may be necessary to obtain optimum
conditions. Do not set up on the work. Use scrap material to test the arc conditions.
Typical amperage ranges were listed previously.
75

SMAW Procedures
and Techniques
Striking the Arc

NOTE: Do not set up on the work. Use scrap material first to test the arc
conditions.
Since an air gap will not conduct electricity, the arc is formed by quickly striking the work and pulling the electrode back about 1/8 in. This action creates
enough heat to get the arc started (see Figure 3.30).
Electrode
Electrode
Arc gap
Arc gap
Plate
(A) Scratching
(B) Tapping
Figure 3.30Two Methods of Striking the Arc
Once the arc is struck, additional amperage control adjustments may be necessary to obtain optimum conditions. Typical amperage ranges were listed previously (see Table 3.5)
The coating of E7018 type electrodes burns back at a slower rate than the metal
core, which forms a cup at the end of the electrode (see Figure 3.31). Because
this type of electrode has a thicker coating, it is more difficult to reignite after the
first start. As a result, these electrodes must be scratched or tapped fairly hard.
Figure 3.31Electrode Cup
76

Once the arc is struck, do not move the electrode over the work. Hold the electrode at the starting point until the weld pool begins to form. When the weld
pool reaches the correct size (approximately 1.5 times the diameter of the electrode), move the electrode at a uniform speed. Control the travel speed by comparing the weld size with the electrode diameter (see Figure 3.32).
NOTE: Remember to incline the electrode at a slight drag angle as
shown in Figure 3.33.
Correct
Incorrect
Figure 3.32Compare Weld Size with Electrode Diameter
2030
Figure 3.33Drag Angle
77

Maximum Single-Pass Fillet Sizes

For each electrode size there is a maximum fillet size that can be deposited (see
Table 3.7). As the weld size increases, higher amperage is needed to ensure
fusion to the root, therefore, a larger electrode size is required. Making too
large a weld with a given electrode size results in the welding arc staying on
top of the pool, rather than penetrating to the root.
Table 3.7Maximum Single Pass Fillet Weld SizeE7018
Single Pass Fillet Size
in. (mm)
Welding Position
Minimum Electrode Size

in. (mm)
3/16 in. (5 mm)
Flat or Horizontal
3/32 in. (2.5 mm)
1/4 in. (6 mm)
Flat or Horizontal
1/8 in. (3.2 mm)
5/16 in. (8 mm)
Flat or Horizontal
5/32 in. (4.0 mm)
3/8 in. (10 mm)
Flat only
1/4 in. (6.0 mm)
3/8 in. (10 mm)
Vertical up
1/8 in. (3.2 mm)
1/2 in. (12 mm)
Vertical up
5/32 in. (4.0 mm)
To achieve adequate penetration with the minimum electrode sizes in Table

3.7, run the electrode at the upper end of the amperage range. To achieve good
root penetration in the vertical position, it is easier to keep the arc at the front
of the pool because the pool is sagging down and the electrode progression is
up. Therefore, in the vertical position, 1/8 (3.2 mm) or 5/32 (4.0 mm) diameter
electrodes can deposit a fairly wide range of weld sizes.
Minimum Fillet Weld Size
If a weld cools too quickly it can crack. For a given plate thickness a small
weld cools faster than a large weld (see Figure 3.34).
It is good practice to deposit a minimum fillet size in a single pass. Table 3.8
gives the requirements used in structural welding codes.
Slag Removal
To avoid trapping slag in the weld, always remove the slag between welding
passes. Slag must also be removed after the last pass to allow proper inspection
of the completed weld (see Figure 3.35).
78

Cooling Rate (C/sec @ 540C)
100
3/16 Fillet
90
80
SMAW
70
60
50
40
5/16 Fillet
30
20
10
0.25
0.50
0.75
1.0
1.25
1.50
Plate Thickness "t" (in.)
Figure 3.34Cooling Rate vs. Plate Thickness in SMAW
Table 3.8Minimum Fillet Sizes for Structural Welding*

Thickness, t, of Thicker
Part to be Joined (in.)
Minimum Size of
Single Pass Fillet (in.)
t 1/2
3/16
1/2 t 3/4
1/4
3/4 < t
5/16
*Required to avoid cracking.
Figure 3.35Chipping Hammer Used for Slag Removal
79

Identify and
Correct SMAW
Defects
Cold Weld (Weld bead is ropey in appearance or shows little fusion)

Problem
Electrode too small
Current too low
Travel speed too fast
Solution
Use a larger electrode
Increase amperage
Use a slower travel speed
Undercut (See Chapter 12, Welding Inspection)
Problem
Amperage too high
Arc length too long
Erratic travel speed or electrode manipulation
Travel speed too slow
Solution
Reduce amperage
Shorten arc length
Keep travel speed and electrode manipulation smooth
Increase travel speed
Excessive Spatter (See Chapter 2, Requirements of a Weld)
Problem
Amperage too high
Arc length too long
Solution
Reduce amperage
Shorten arc length
Porosity (See Chapter 12, Welding Inspection)
Problem
Contaminated base metal
Improper shielding from excessive arc length
Solution
Clean base metal of rust, oils or grease
Shorten arc length
Keep travel speed smooth
80

Lack of Penetration (See Chapter 12, Welding Inspection)

Problem
Electrode size too small for size of weld
Amperage too low
Travel speed too slow; arc is not at the front of the weld pool
Solution
Use a larger diameter electrode
Increase amperage
Increase travel speed
Reference
The AWS Welding Handbook, Volume 2, Welding Processes, Chapters 1

and 2.
Guides and
Exercises
To obtain maximum benefit from this program, it is recommended that you follow this guide and complete the exercises. It is important that you thoroughly
study each section carefully before moving to the next section. The exercises
are designed to give you an indication of whether you understand the material
presented. If you get a question wrong go back and read that section again.
1. What does SMAW stand for? ___________________________________
2. SMAW can be used in which of these welding positions?
A.
B.
C.
D.
Flat and horizontal only

Flat, horizontal, and overhead only
All welding positions
None of the above
3. Which of the following is not an advantage of the SMAW process?

A.
B.
C.
D.
Simple, portable, and inexpensive equipment

It can be used in areas of limited access
Most metals and alloys can be welded
Very low fume generation rate
4. The size of a SMAW electrode is determined by the:

A.
B.
C.
D.
Outside diameter of the electrode

Electrode core diameter
Length of the electrode
Recommended current range
81

5. The functions of the flux coating include:

A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
Arc stabilization
Forms a shielding gas
Supports and shapes the weld pool by forming slag
Reduction in weld pool oxygen content
All of the above
6. An electrode with an AWS classification of E7018 means that it:

A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
Has a minimum tensile strength of 70,000 psi

Can be used in all positions
Is a low hydrogen electrode
Is 18 in. long
All of the above
A, B, and C
7. Where are cellulosic electrodes (E6010) used?

A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
High deposition rates are needed

A low hydrogen electrode is required
Deep penetration and sound weld metal are desirable
Low penetration is needed
Sheet metal thicknesses are to be joined
8. An electrode with an AWS classification of E6027 means that it:

A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
Has a minimum tensile strength of 70,000 psi

Can be used in all positions
Is a low hydrogen electrode
Can be used for flat and horizontal fillets
All of the above
A, B, and C
9. Low hydrogen electrodes when removed from their packaging container

should be stored:
A.
B.
C.
D.
At room temperature
At 150F maximum
Anywhere that is dry
At 250F minimum
10. What is the maximum length of time E7018 electrodes should be left out
of the rod oven once the packaging container is opened?
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
1 hour
2 hours
4 hours
8 hours
6 hours
82

11. True or False?

E6010 electrodes should always be stored in a heated rod oven.
True False
12. E6010 electrodes are used with the following polarity:
A.
B.
C.
D.
AC or DC
DC negative
DC positive
None of the above
13. Which of the following electrodes would make the fastest 1/4 in. fillet
weld?
A.
B.
C.
D.
E7018
E6010
E7014
E7028
14. Which of the following electrodes has the greatest resistance to hydrogen
cracking?
A.
B.
C.
D.
E7018
E6010
E7014
E6013
15. DC Reverse Polarity has the electrode connected to the:

A.
B.
C.
D.
Positive (+) connection of the power source

Negative () connection of the power source
AC connection of the power source
Work lead
16. DC Straight Polarity has the electrode connected to the:

A.
B.
C.
D.
Positive (+) connection of the power source

Negative () connection of the power source
AC connection of the power source
Work lead
17. For a 400 amp power source, what size welding cables should be used for
250 ft of cable?
A.
B.
C.
D.
3
1/0
4/0
1
83

18. Compared to DCEN, DCEP has:

A.
B.
C.
D.
Shallow penetration, higher metal deposition rate

Deeper penetration, lower metal deposition rate
Shallow penetration, lower metal deposition rate
None of the above
19. For a given electrode size, increasing the amperage:

A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
Reduces the penetration

Reduces the metal deposition rate
Increases the metal deposition rate
Increase the penetration
A and B
C and D
20. List the seven essential welding variables for the SMAW process:
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
21. Which three of the above variables have the greatest effect on weld
penetration?
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
22. What is the amperage range for a 1/8 diameter E7018 electrode?
__________________________________________________________
23. What three things determine your amperage setting?
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
84

24. What is the largest fillet weld that can be deposited with a 1/8 in. E7018
electrode in one pass in the horizontal position?
A.
B.
C.
D.
3/16 in.
1/4 in.
5/16 in.
3/8 in.
25. What are the effects of setting the amperage too high?
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
26. What are the effects of setting the amperage too low?
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
27. What are possible causes of undercutting?
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
85

Answers
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
Shielded Metal Arc Welding

C
D
B
E
F
C
D
D
C
False
C
D
A
A
B
C
B
F
Polarity, Amperage, Arc length, Travel speed, Travel angle, Transverse
angle, Electrode position
Polarity, Amperage, Travel speed
110160
Type of electrode, Size of electrode, Position of welding
B
Excessive spatter
Poor penetration, Poor starting, Narrow cold looking weld
Amperage to high, Arc length too long, Travel speed too slow or erratic
86

Chapter 4Gas Metal Arc Welding Applied to Mild Steels
Chapter 4GAS METAL ARC WELDING APPLIED TO MILD STEELS

Introduction
The Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) process has numerous advantages
that make it the preferred choice for many welding applications. GMAW
can deposit welds with high productivity and good quality. However, it is one
of the more challenging processes to apply, because it has four different
process variations that must be correctly selected and set up for the job in
hand. Successful application of GMAW demands on a relatively high level
of knowledge from those who utilize it. The GMAW welder must have a
good understanding of the process variations and the controlling essential
variables.
Chapter
Objectives
After successfully completing this chapter the supervisor should be able to:
What is Gas Metal

Arc Welding?
List the advantages and limitations of the GMAW process
Understand the four modes of metal transfer and how each is applied
Know the difference between base metal melting and wire melting, and
how each is controlled
Understand the relationship between wire feed speed, voltage, and arc
length
Use the eight essential welding variables to control weld productivity and
quality
Read and understand GMAW procedures
Avoid commonly encountered GMAW defects
GMAW is a welding process that uses an electric arc to generate the heat
for welding. The electric arc is maintained between a consumable wire
electrode and the work. The wire electrode is fed continuously into the weld
pool and becomes the weld deposit as the wire is burned off. The welding
power source provides arc stability so that the rate of burnoff matches the
rate of wire feed. A gaseous shield provided by a stream of gas delivered
through the welding gun protects the electrode and molten weld pool (see
Figure 4.1).
87

Spool
Wire drive motor
Shielding gas
Current
conductor
Power
source
Figure 4.1Schematic of the GMAW Process
Advantages of GMAW
Can be applied to many commercially important metals

Mild Steels
Alloy Steels
Stainless Steels
Aluminum
Accommodates a wide range of material thicknessby using appropriate

operating parameters, GMAW can weld from very thin to very thick
materials with high welding productivity
Has high productivity rate compared to manual (SMAW) welding processes (see Figure 4.2)
Has low fume generation rate (see Figure 4.3)
Requires no deslagging or cleaning between passes (see Figure 4.4)
Has high deposition efficiency rate (see Figure 4.5)
Provides a low hydrogen deposit that helps to avoid cracking in thick or

alloyed materials (see Figure 4.6)
88

1/4
12 ft
in 1 hr.
SMAW @ 1.5 lb/man-hr.
1/4
24 ft
in 1 hr.
GMAW @ 3.0 lb/man-hr.
higher
Figure 4.2Higher Productivity with the GMAW Process
FCAW
(self shielded)
SMAW
Particulate
fume
generation
rate (g/min)
FCAW (CO2)
GMA (CO2)
GMA (argon)
Increasing current
Figure 4.3Low Fume Generation Rate
89
higher

Figure 4.4Deslagging or Cleaning is Not Required Between Passes
1 kg Wire
0.98 kg Weld Metal
Figure 4.5High Deposition Efficiency
Low
Hydrogen
Very Low
Hydrogen
Non-Hydrogen Controlled
Non-hydrogen
controlled electrodes
SAW
FCAW
Basic Electrodes
GMAW
10
15
20
25
Weld metal hydrogen content, ml/100g of deposited metal
Note: The lower the hydrogen levels, the less the possibility of having cold
cracking in the weld or HAZ.
Figure 4.6Weld Metal Hydrogen Levels for

Different Welding Processes (After Coe)
90
30

Disadvantages of GMAW
Requires more control of the essential welding variables than other welding processesGMAW typically has a narrower range of parameters that
deposit acceptable welds than FCAW (see Figure 4.7).
Has potential for lack of fusion when the process is not properly applied
(see Figure 4.8).
FCAW
e
tabl
cep
c
a
Un
ble
epta
Acc
Voltage
Operating "windows"
that give ranges of
parameters for
acceptable welds
GMAW
WFS
Figure 4.7Operating WindowsGMAW vs. FCAW
Figure 4.8Failed Bend Test from Welder

Qualification of 3/8 in. (10 mm) Plate
91

GMAW is susceptible to the following mill scale problems (see Figure

4.9):
Mill scale on plate or structural shape surfaces affects process

performance
The weld bead is more convex

Spatter is more prevalent
Mill scale also causes undercut at higher travel speeds
Mill scale
removed
Figure 4.9Mill Scale Removed
GMAW is more sensitive to porosity formation than other welding

processes because of the following factors:
The absence of a slag, which provides additional chemical reactions to

minimize porosity is one factor (see Figure 4.10)
The use of a shielding gas, which can be blown away by drafts (see
Figure 4.11)
Sometimes requires a special equipment feature such as pulsed GMAW

for out-of-position welding; however, standard GMAW works well in the
vertical down position on thin materials (see Figure 4.12)
92

GMAW
Flux Cored
Submerged Arc
Shielded Metal Arc
Relative Porosity Level
Increasing
Figure 4.10Comparison of Porosity Levels for Different Processes
Figure 4.11Air Drafts
Figure 4.12Overhead Welder
93

High
The GMAW process supports four different modes of metal transfer: shortcircuiting, globular, spray, and dip-spray when utilizing a shielding gas with a
high percentage of argon. Dip-spray is a nonstandard term and is used in this
program to explain a mode that is above the transition wire feed speed (WFS)
but has insufficient voltage to be in a true spray mode. With 100% CO2 shielding gas only the short-circuiting and globular modes are possible. The voltage
and WFS determine the mode of metal transfer as shown in Figures 4.13 and
4.14.
Transition range
High Argon Mixture
e.g., 90% Ar10% CO 2
Voltage
Spray
Globular
pray
Dip-S
Short- g
Circuitin
Low
Low
Amperage (Wire Feed Speed)
High
High
Figure 4.13GMAW Metal TransferHigh Argon Mixture

(e.g., 90% Ar10% CO2)
Voltage
Transition range
lobular
r
Globula
100% CO2
shielding gas
Shortit- ing
Circu
Low
Modes of Metal
Transfer in GMAW
Low
Amperage (Wire Feed Speed) High
Figure 4.14GMAW Metal Transfer100% CO2 Shielding Gas
94

Short-Circuiting Transfer (see Figures 4.15 and 4.16)
Also referred to as short arc or dip transfer
Occurs in the low WFS, low voltage range
Metal transfer occurs only when the electrode touches or dips in to the
weld poola short circuit occurs (no arc) and the current goes to a high
value to pinch off the molten droplet
Short-circuiting can lead to lack of fusion problems on thicker materials

(see Figure 4.16).
WFS
Figure 4.15Short-Circuiting Transfer
Figure 4.16Short-Circuiting Transfer on 3/8 in. Plate
95

Globular Transfer (see Figure 4.17)
Occurs in the low WFS, high-voltage range with high argon shielding
gases
Occur at higher WFSs with high CO2 content in the shielding gas (does not
spray with >20% CO2 )
Metal transfer occurs with large droplets (typically larger than the wire
diameter) and can be seen visually
Generally associated with high spatter levels
WFS
Figure 4.17Globular Transfer
Spray Transfer (see Figures 4.18 and 4.19)
Occurs in the high WFS and high voltage range
Characterized by a stream of fine droplets (not visible) that are smaller than
the wire diameter
Spatter is minimal
WFS
Figure 4.18Spray Transfer
96

Figure 4.19Spray Transfer on 3/8 in. Plate
Dip-Spray Transfer (see Figure 4.20)
A variation of spray transfer using a shorter arc length (lower voltage)
Metal transfer occurs with smaller droplets, but the short arc length
allows some short circuiting, which results in higher spatter levels than
with spray
V
WFS
Figure 4.20Dip-Spray Transfer
The change from short circuiting to spray or dip spray occurs over a
small range of welding current, or transition current. This value is important,
because it allows the welder to quickly set the mode of metal transfer (see
Figure 4.21).
Applications
Each mode of metal transfer has characteristics that make it ideal for particular
applications. Short-circuiting provides the lowest level of heat, which makes it
ideal for thin materials. On the other hand, spray transfer is very hot and works
best on thicker materials (see Figure 4.22).
97

Rate of Transfer (drops/sec)
300
200
Transition Current
100
1/16 in. Mild Steel
Argon + 1% Oxygen
RPDC 1/4 in. Long Arc
0
0
100
200
300
400
Current (Amperes)
500
600
Spray
Figure 4.21Transition Current (after Lesnewich)
Dip-Spray
ShortCircuiting
Heat
Generated
Mode of Transfer
Figure 4.22Heat Generated by Mode of Transfer
98

Typical applications for each mode of transfer are shown in Figure 4.23.
Application
Mode of Transfer Required

Root pass on pipe
Short Circuiting
open root
Thin Materials
Short Circuiting
14 gauge
Dip Spray
3/16 in.
Thick Materials
Spray
1/2 in.
Figure 4.23Applications and Modes of Transfer
NOTE: The secret to the successful application of GMAW is to select

the right mode for each application, and then to correctly set the parameters for the mode of metal transfer to be used.
Wire and Base

Metal Melting
An electric light bulb circuit is similar to a welding circuit. Electricity from a

battery or power source is used to generate heat and light (see Figure 4.24).
An electric arc is also an energy conversion device that converts electrical
energy into heat to melt the base metal and burn off the wire (see Figure 4.25).
99

VOLT
MET
ER
ba
TER
MME
tte
ry
Figure 4.24The Electric Circuit for a Light Bulb

Generates Heat and Light
ELECTRICITY
HEAT
ELECTRICITY
Figure 4.25The Electric Arc is an

Energy Conversion Device
An important characteristic of the GMAW process is that arc heating is not the
only type of heating that occurs. Because a high current flows through the electrode extension, the electrode becomes very hot due to resistance heating
effects. This electrode extension is sometimes referred to as the electrical
stickout (ESO) (see Figures 4.26 and 4.27). For practical welding applications
the contact tube to work distance (CTTWD) is most often stipulated, because it
is an easier dimension to measure.
Total heating and melting of the wire results from both resistance heating and
arc heating (see Figure 4.28).
100

Arc heating (Anode)

contributes to wire
melting
Resistance heating
contributes to wire
melting
Arc heating melts

base metal
Figure 4.26Electrical Stickout (ESO)
Figure 4.27Current Flowing through a Wire

Generates Considerable Heat
ARC
HEATING
Current
(amps)
RESISTANCE
HEATING
TOTAL
BURN-OFF
RATE
- Current (amps)
- Wire diameter
- Electrode
extension (CTTWD)
- Current (amps)
- Wire diameter
- Electrode
extension (CTTWD)
Figure 4.28Arc Heating + Resistance Heating = Total Burnoff Rate
101

As shown in Figure 4.29, the levels of resistance heating and arc heating are
determined from experimental analysis. In many GMAW situations, resistance
heating actually melts more of the wire than arc heating.
1/16 dia. mild steel

1 in. ESO
Electrode Melting Rate (In./Min.)
1000
800
Resistance melting
600
Total melting
400
200
Arc melting
0
0
after Lesnewich
200
400
600
800
Welding Current (Amperes)
Figure 4.29Determining the Level of

Resistance Heating and Arc Heating
Resistance heating increases by:
Increasing the amperage
Increasing the electrode extension past the contact tip
Using smaller diameter wires
Longer CTTWDs will reduce the welding amperage since resistance heating
effects are increased. If the WFS is set to a particular value, the resulting
amperage depends on the electrode CTTWD as shown in Figure 4.30.
Compared to large diameter wires, small diameter wires provide a higher resistance heating component, which results in a lower welding amperage. Figure
4.31 shows that for the same deposit area, a larger diameter electrode produces
a greater fused area.
102

350
ESO
7/8 3/4
5/8
1/2
1/16 in. DIA

300
WFS
(ipm)
250
200
150
300
350
400
450
500
550
Amperage
Figure 4.30WFS vs. Amperage
Large diameter wire
Small diameter wire
High current
Low current
same deposit area
fused area
Figure 4.31Effect of Wire Diameter
NOTE: Resistance heating does not contribute to base metal melting.

Only arc heating melts the base metal.
103

Wire Burnoff and

Arc Length
When a welder sets the wire feed speed, the welding power source provides a
specific amperage to burn off the wire. For a stable arc, the wire burnoff rate
must match the wire feed speed (see Figure 4.32).
Wire Feed Speed
Under stable
conditions, wire
feed and burn-off
are balanced
Wire Burn-Off Rate
Figure 4.32Wire Feed Speed and Wire Burnoff Rates
A constant voltage (CV) power source provides this stability, because the
amperage automatically adjusts to give a stable arc (see Figure 4.33).
Wire Feed Speed
Volts
Wire Burn-Off
High
WFS
Low
WFS
Amperage automatically
adjusts burn-off rate to
match wire feed speed
Amperage
Figure 4.33Low vs. High WFS
The arc length is determined by the WFS set at the wire feeder and the voltage
set at the power source (see Figure 4.34).
104

35
1/4 in. arc length
34
33
32
Voltage
31
1/8 in. arc length
30
29
28
1/4 in. Fillet Welds

90% Ar10% CO 2
0.045, ER70S - 6
27
26
25
24
300
400
500
600
700
800
Wire Feed Speed
Figure 4.34Arc Length Depends on Both Voltage and Wire Feed Speed
An instability or an unbalance can still occur with a CV power source, because

burnback or stubbing results when wire feed speed fluctuates. Inconsistent
wire feeding results in large arc length variations. Proper setup of the wire
feeding system is important to the GMAW process (see Figure 4.35).
Burn
Back
Stubbing
Figure 4.35Burnback and Stubbing
GMAW Essential
Welding Variables
The GMAW process is controlled by eight essential welding variables that are
set by the welder (see Figure 4.36). The GMAW essential welding variables
control welding speed, bead appearance, penetration, and spatter. Knowledge
and control of these variables are important to consistently achieve high
productivity rates and quality welds.
105

Wire Feed Speed (WFS)
Travel Angle of Gun
Voltage
Transverse Angle of Gun
Travel Speed
Electrode Position
Contact Tube to Work Distance
Inductance
50
10
Figure 4.36The Eight Essential Welding Variables for GMAW
Understand how the essential welding variables affect the mode of metal
transfer
Know how to set the essential welding variables for different welding
applications
Understand how the essential welding variables affect bead shape, penetration, and spatter
106

Wire Feed Speed

Effect of Wire Feed Speed on Transfer Mode
High
As discussed earlier in this chapter, wire feed speed (WFS) and voltage are
used to set the transfer mode. The transfer mode is set either above or below
the transition WFS. Thicker materials require a spray type metal transfer and
thinner materials require a short circuiting type transfer. Globular transfer is
not often used because of high spatter levels (see Figure 4.37).
Transition range
Voltage
Spray
Globular
Dip-S
ShortCircuiting
pray
ing
Stubb
Low
Stubbin
Low
High
Amperage (Wire Feed Speed)
Figure 4.37Types of GMAW Metal Transfer
Typical transition WFSs are shown in Table 4.1. The importance of increasing
wire diameter with material thickness is also demonstrated here. When in spray
transfer, the larger wire ensures a higher current level.
Table 4.1Typical Transition WFSs
Wire Diameter
Transition WFS*
Transition Amps*
0.035
325
175
0.045
250
225
0.052
200
275
0.062
175
325
*Exact value will depend on shielding gas and CTTWD.
Two types of heating that occur in GMAW are arc heating and resistance heating, both of which depend on the welding current. Welding current provides
heat to melt both the wire and the base metal (see Figure 4.38).
107

Resistance heating
contributes to wire
melting
Arc heating (Anode)

contributes to wire
melting
Arc heating melts

base metal
Figure 4.38Arc and Resistance Heating

Both Depend on Welding Current
Penetration of the base metal is dependent primarily on the welding current, as

measured by the amperage (see Figures 4.39 and 4.40).
Penetration (mm)
penetration
0.9 and 1.2 mm dia.

Various conditions
98% Ar2% O2
shielding gas
150
200
250
Amperage
300
350
Figure 4.39Penetration Depends on

Welding Current as Measured by Amperage
108

If Welding Current is so Important

Where is the Amperage Knob?
200
100
20
40
0
0
Figure 4.40Amperage Control
Effect of Wire Feed Speed on Fusion and Penetration

Although there is no amperage control in GMAW, there is a direct relationship
between WFS and welding current. Increasing the WFS increases the welding
current as shown in Figure 4.41.
700
7/8 in. CTTWD
600
5/8 in. CTTWD
Wire Feed Speed (ipm)
500
400
300
200
100
100
200
300
400
500
Welding Current (amps)1.2 mm (0.045 in.) O
Figure 4.41Relationship between WFS and Welding Current
109

A minimum WFS is necessary to provide adequate penetration and depends on

the wire diameter, CTTWD, and shielding gas. Experimental results for
0.035 in. diameter wire are shown in Figure 4.42. This figure indicates that
100 ipm per 1/16 in. of material thickness is required for the root of the weld to
reach the root of the joint (for safety, add 50 ipm or more). This type of information should only be used as a starting point for procedure development.
600
500
size
400
size
300
Minimum required WFS
200
0.035 in. dia
1/2 in. CTTWD
CO2 shielding gas
100
1/16
1/8
3/16
1/4
5/16
3/8
Thickness (in.)
Figure 4.42Minimum Required WFS
Increasing WFS increases penetration (arc heating) and fill as shown in Figure
4.43.
greater fill
Increasing WFS
greater penetration
and fusion
Figure 4.43Increasing WFS will Increase Penetration and Fill
110

Effect of Wire Feed Speed on Travel Speed

WFS has a primary effect on travel speed, and travel speed significantly affects
welding productivity; therefore, selecting and maintaining the WFS is important to the GMAW process. Figure 4.44 shows the effect of increasing the
WFS for a 1/4 in. (6 mm) fillet weld. The travel speed increase is proportional
to the wire feed speed increase.
WFS = 245 ipm
10 in./min.
WFS = 367 ipm
16 in./min.
WFS = 490 ipm
20 in./min.
Figure 4.44Effect of Increasing WFS
111

Voltage
Effect of Voltage on Transfer Mode
As discussed previously, voltage plays an important role in determining the
mode of transfer. For any particular mode of transfer, the voltage must be set
within a specific range. Compared to short circuiting, spray arc metal transfer
requires a relatively high voltage. Results for a 95% Ar/5% O2 shielding gas
using 0.045 diameter wire on 1/4 in. (6 mm) plate are shown in Table 4.2.
Table 4.2Effect of Voltage on Transfer Mode
Wire Feed
Speed
Voltage
Transfer
Characteristics
260
21
Excessive stubbing
Excessive spatter
Poor bead shape
260
23
Dip-spray transfer
Little spatter
Good looking bead
260
27
True spray transfer with

excessively long arc
Excessive undercut
Comments
The voltage at the power source, or machine voltage, is the voltage that the
welder reads and sets. The voltage at the arc, or arc voltage, is less depending
on the voltage drop between the power source and arc. Although cable size and
length have some effect, these voltages go up and down proportionately; therefore, for this discussion the effect of voltage is the same.
Effect of Voltage on Bead Shape
Voltage controls arc length. Increasing the voltage increases the arc length and
arc width (see Figure 4.45).
Arc Length
Arc width
Figure 4.45Increasing Voltage Increases Arc Length and Width
112

Voltage determines the amount of radiated heat, which in turn, provides a surface heating effect (see Figure 4.46). Bead width and arc length also increases,
caused by an increasing voltage (see Figure 4.47).
Increasing voltage
Increasing surface heat
Figure 4.46Voltage Determines the Amount

of Radiated Heat for a Given WFS
Increasing voltage
Figure 4.47Effect of Voltage on Bead Shape
Effect of Voltage on Undercut and Penetration

Voltage has a major effect on heat input to the plate surface. Voltage also
affects the amount of radiated heat, therefore, longer arcs seem much hotter to
the welder. Voltage also has a significant effect on shape and undercut (see
Figure 4.48).
113

NOTE: A longer arc is also wider, which makes it more likely to cause
undercut in a fillet weld.
Arc length too short
Correct arc length
Arc length too long
Figure 4.48Effect of Voltage on Bead Shape

and Undercut for a Fillet Weld
The effect of voltage in a groove weld is shown in Figure 4.49.
Voltage
too high
Voltage
too low
Figure 4.49Effect of Voltage in a Groove Weld
114

Once the correct arc length is set for a given weld, it should be kept constant
even when the WFS is increased or decreased. As shown in Figure 4.50, it
is necessary to change voltage along with WFS to maintain a constant arc
length.
40
Voltage
35
30
WFS
As you turn up the

WFS, the voltage must
also be increased to
keep the arc length
constant.
Constant arc length

(e.g., 1/8 in.)
25
20
240
Voltage
26.0
100 200 300 400 500 600

Wire Feed Speed (in./min.)
Figure 4.50Changing Voltage and WFS

to Maintain a Constant Arc Length
Voltage can be thought of as surface heating, however, it can have an effect in

determining penetration when the wrong transfer mode is used. For example, if
the arc length is too short, high WFS can cause excessive stubbing or shortcircuiting and dramatically reduce the heat input.
On thinner materials, voltage must be kept low enough to avoid burnthrough or
undercut. On thicker materials, voltage must be set high enough to obtain spray
transfer. Therefore, use dip-spray instead of spray arc transfer on thinner materials and use spray arc transfer instead of dip-spray on thicker material.
Effect of Voltage on Spatter
Voltage plays a major role on the amount of spatter produced. The effect of
voltage on short-circuiting conditions is shown in Figure 4.51. To low a voltage causes stubbing and too high a voltage puts the metal transfer in globular
mode. Both situations cause excessive spatter. At the optimum voltage, spatter
is minimal and the arc has a distinctive frying bacon sound that results from
the high short circuit frequency. Short circuit frequency is the number of short
circuits that occur per second.
NOTE: With short-circuiting transfer, spatter is reduced by turning the
voltage down.
115
higher

150
Globular
Transfer
Stubbing
100
Short
Circuit
Frequency
(per sec)
50
Colder
Weld
Higher
Spatter
Optimum
voltage
-Lowest Spatter
Arc Voltage
higher
Figure 4.51Effect of Voltage on Short-Circuiting Conditions
For spray arc welding, voltage determines whether we are working in the
true spray or dip-spray region. Associated spatter levels are shown in Figure
4.52.
Arc Length
higher
Arc too
long
Intermittent
short circuits
(harsh crackle)
Optimum voltage
-shortest arc
with no spatter
Arc Voltage
higher
Figure 4.52Spatter Levels for Spray Arc Welding
116

NOTE: With spray or dip-spray type metal transfer, spatter is reduced by

turning up the voltage.
Figure 4.53 shows that voltage plays a major role in controlling spatter levels
for all types of metal transfer. However, to control bead shape or undercut,
spatter may be unavoidable in some situations.
Short Circuiting
Spatter
Lower voltage
to reduce spatter
Spray
Raise voltage
to reduce spatter
VOLTAGE
Figure 4.53Voltage Plays a Major Role in Controlling Spatter Levels
NOTE: In the dip-spray region, spatter at low voltage levels is

relatively fine and does not stick as much as the spatter at higher voltage
levels.
Travel Speed
Travel Speed and Productivity
Travel speed has a major effect on welding productivity. The faster the
speed, the less time it takes to make a weld. Most welders never measure
their travel speeds, because they generally have a good feel for how slow
or fast the travel speed is. It is difficult to manually travel above 30 ipm in
the horizontal position. Examples of travel speed ranges are shown in Figure
4.54.
117

Undercut on hot rolled

Too slow
Ideal
larger
fillets
10
Humping phenomena*
20
smaller
fillets
30
40
50
60
Travel Speed (ipm)

*Humping phenomena occurs when the travel speed is so fast that the welding arc
skips across the surface of the metal without making a continuous weld.
Figure 4.54Travel Speed Affects Welding Productivity
Effect of Travel Speed on Penetration

A general pattern emerges as travel speed is decreased:
Heat input per inch is increased
More filler metal is applied per inch, which results in a larger weld
Because the metal spreads out, penetration is increased in a bead-on-plate

test (see Figure 4.55)
Bead-on-plate results only
More fill
Decreasing travel speed
Figure 4.55Penetration Can Increase in a Bead-On-Plate Test
Bead-on-plate welds are generally not made, and when the puddle is allowed to
build up in a groove or fillet weld, penetration can be significantly decreased
when welding speed is too slow (see Figure 4.56).
Avoid weaving with the GMAW process. A good rule of thumb is to never
make a bead in a groove weld larger than that of an equivalent 5/16 in. (8 mm)
fillet weld for 0.045 in. (1.2 mm) diameter wire (see Figure 4.57).
118

A slow travel speed makes it difficult for

pool. Also, excessive surface heating
causes undercut.
Faster travel speed produces less fill

and less depth of weld pool, allowing
better arc penetration.
Figure 4.56The Effects of Travel Speed
ld not exceed a 5
/16
hou
s
fille
ss
a
p
t
h
ac
3
2
1
5/16 in.
Figure 4.57Maximum Size Bead for a Groove Weld
119

When considering travel speed and productivity, remember to:
Weld hot and fast
Keep the arc at the front of the pool
Use stringer beads

NOTE: Stringer beads are preferred over weaving beads because they
require less skill and promote a higher travel speed. With weaving, the
potential to get lack of fusion is much higher and with the slower travel
speed there is a tendency to get more oversized welds. Refer to the wire
position later in this chapter.
Contact Tube to Work Distance (CTTWD)

Throughout most of the welding circuit, heavy copper cables are used to carry
the welding current, which can be as high as 500 amps in GMAW. However,
once past the contact tube, the current is forced to flow through a small steel
wire, which is a poor conductor of electricity. This extension of the wire electrode becomes very hot and, in effect, becomes preheated before it reaches the
arc. The extension of the wire past the contact tip is the electrical stickout (see
Figure 4.58). The CTTWD is the electrical stickout plus the arc length (see
Figure 4.59).
Contact tip
Figure 4.58Electrical Stickout
When a WFS setting is made, the melting heat is a combination of both arc
heating and resistance heating: wire melting = melting from resistance heating
+ melting from arc heating (see Figure 4.60).
120

Electrical
Stickout
Contact Tip
To Work Distance
Arc Length
Figure 4.59CTTWD is the Stickout Plus the Arc Length
Same wire
speed feed
Total heating or melting

of wire (in./min.)
Arc
Heating
C Lo
TT ng
W
D
C Sh
TT or
W t
D
Resistance
Heating
Figure 4.60Arc and Resistance Heating
When the CTTWD is changed, the ratio of arc heating to resistance heating is
also changed. With small diameter wires and long CTTWD, high resistance
heating of the electrode extension can cause burnoff of the wire, even when the
amperage is relatively low.
121

Effect of CTTWD on Welding Amperage

Changing CTTWD changes the welding amperage as shown in Figure 4.61.
Constant wire
feed speed
Normal
stickout
Normal
Cold
Hot
V = machine voltage (constant) ~ total voltage across wire and arc

I = welding current
Figure 4.61Changing CTTWD Changes Amperage
As the wire CTTWD is increased, less current is needed to melt the wire,
because there is more preheat from the electrode extension. Less current
means less heat into the work and, therefore, less penetration. The opposite
occurs when the CTTWD is reduced in length. It is important to keep the
CTTWD constant at the correct value. Some typical settings are shown in
Table 4.3.
Table 4.3Typical CTTWD Settings
Wire
Short Circuiting
Spray
0.035 in. (0.9 mm)
3/16 to 1/2 in.
3/8 to 5/8 in.
0.045 in. (1.2 mm)
1/4 to 5/8 in.
1/2 to 3/4 in.
1/16 in. (1.6 mm)
N/A
5/8 to 1 in.
The setting of the contact tube relative to the shielding gas cup has an effect on
the electrical stickout and should be set according to the mode of metal transfer
and welding parameters used (see Figure 4.62).
122

03/16 in.
for spray
1/16 in.
for short
circuiting
Figure 4.62Typical Settings of the Contact Tube
Travel Angle of Welding Gun

The wire forms an angle with the workpiece in a plane parallel to the direction
of travel, which is the travel angle. The travel angle has a significant effect on
the weld bead, in terms of a push or a drag. The effect of travel angle on
bead shape and penetration is shown in Figure 4.63.
Push
Drag
Travel
Travel
Figure 4.63Affect of Travel Angle on Bead Shape
In welding processes that produce a slag, a drag angle typically is used to

prevent the slag from rolling in front of the weld pool (see Figure 4.64).
Because GMAW does not have a slag, a push or drag angle can be used. Some
of the advantages and disadvantages of each are shown in Table 4.4.
123

Contact Tube
Solidifed Slag
Molten Slag
Weld Pool
Weld Pool
Parent Metal
Parent Metal
Figure 4.64Proper Drag Angle Prevents Slag

from Rolling in Front of the Weld Pool for FCAW
Table 4.4Effect of Travel Angle

Feature
Push
Drag
Bead shape
Flatter
More convex
Travel speed
Faster
Slower
Spatter
More
Less
Penetration
Slightly less
Slightly more
With the GMAW process, a slight push angle is used to provide a flatter bead
shape as shown in Figure 4.65. On heavier materials, a drag angle is used to
enhance penetration.
An excessive push angle reduces penetration and increases spatter (see Figure
4.66).
Transverse Angle of Welding Gun

The wire forms an angle with the workpiece in a plane perpendicular to the to
the direction of travel, which is the transverse angle. This angle affects bead
shape, penetration, and undercut (see Figure 4.67).
124

10 20
Figure 4.65A Slight Push Angle is Typically Used to

Provide a Flatter Bead Shape for Thinner Materials
Travel
Figure 4.66An Excessive Push Angle Can

Reduce Penetration and Increase Spatter
Correct
Angle
Angle
Too High
4045
Angle
Too Low
Figure 4.67Transverse Angle of Welding Gun
125

Wire Position
The position of the wire in the joint is an important factor in making a quality
weld. Even if all the other operating variables are correctly set, incorrect wire
position in the joint results in poor quality welds (see Figure 4.68).
Acceptable
Unacceptable
(electrode position
too far from
root, vertically)
Unacceptable
(electrode position
too far from
root, horizontally)
Figure 4.68The Position of the Electrode in the Joint

is an Important Factor in Making a Quality Weld
With manual and semiautomatic applications, the welder positions the wire so
that the weld pool is in the right location and the exact position of the wire is
not a concern (see Figure 4.69).
Figure 4.69Welder Guiding by Sight
With mechanized or automated welding, the welder must position the wire in
the correct location before starting. For a horizontal fillet weld, a slight offset
is often used to obtain an equal leg fillet weld (see Figure 4.70).
126

Fillet Size
5 mm or less
6 mm or greater
Offset
0
11.5 wire O
Offset
Figure 4.70Fillet Size Offset
For circumferential joints under rotation, the position of the wire relative to top
dead center has a major effect on bead shape (see Figure 4.71).
Wire Position
Convex
Wire Position
Flat
Wire
Position
Concave
Figure 4.71For Circumferential Joints Under Rotation,

Wire Position Affects Bead Shape
Wire position is used to describe various electrode manipulations used in

GMAW (see Table 4.5).
127

Table 4.5Basic Motions for Electrode Manipulation in GMAW

Motion
Description
Used
Pros and Cons
Stringer
Bead
Provides fast travel speeds and

good penetration, since the arc
is kept at the front of the weld
pool.
Whipping
Provides very good penetration,

since the arc is used to preheat
the metal ahead. Used for:
Extra penetration
Zinc coated steel (to burn the
zinc off)
Lap joints (to control the top
edge)
Appearance (nice ripples)
Not recommended for small
welds, as it will slow you down.
Oscillation
Small oscillations can help flatten the bead and provide a

broader penetration profile.
Not used with GMAW due to risk

of lack of fusion. Too slow to provide good penetration, and does
not allow the arc to be kept at
the front of the pool.
1/8
Weaving
Inductance
50
10
The inductance setting controls spatter and bead appearance in the shortcircuiting mode of metal transfer. In this type of metal transfer, the arc cycles
on and off for specific periods of time as shown in Figure 4.72. The inductance
setting is an electrical feature of the equipment that can change the shape of
this current vs. time curve.
The short-circuit time between t1 and t2 is expanded in Figure 4.73. It can be
seen that increasing the inductance reduces spatter, but if the inductance is set
too high stubbing can occur. Increasing the inductance reduces the rate of
current rise during the short circuit portion of the cycle and therefore limits the
128

to
t1
t2
Short-circuit
time
Arcing time
Current
Arcing time
t3
Time
Arc shortens
Short circuit
Arc reignition
Arc shortens
Figure 4.72Current vs. Time in

Short-Circuiting Metal Transfer
1000
Min. Inductance
CurrentA
SPATTER
Working range
500
Max. Inductance
STUBBING
0
0
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
Time (sec)
Figure 4.73Increasing Inductance Reduces Spatter
(After Smith)
129
0.05

current and spatter when the arc reignites. Increasing the inductance also
increases the arc-on time which tends to give a smoother bead. Note that not all
GMAW equipment has an inductance control but most GMAW power sources
can be operated in the short-circuiting mode of metal transfer.
Summary of the
Eight Essential
Welding Variables
Remember the eight essential welding variables. They are the key to productivity and quality in GMAW (see Figure 4.74).
Travel Speed
Contact Tube
to Work
Distance
Travel Angle
of Gun
Transverse
Angle
of Gun
Voltage
Electrode
Position
Wire Feed
Speed (WFS)
Inductance
50
Remember the eight

They are the key to productivity and quality in GMAW.
Figure 4.74Remember the Eight Welding Variables
Equipment for
GMAW
Equipment for GMAW is shown in Figure 4.75.
130
10

Flowmeter
Gas regulator
30
25
20
Cylinder valve
15
200
10
100
300
ONTRO
TC
L
JE
Cylinder of
shielding gas
Voltage control
WFS control
0.00
0.00
Wire feeder
Process
selection
Feed rollers
POWER SO
URCE
on
off
On/Off
switch
Welding gun
Figure 4.75Equipment for GMAW
131

Find Out More
The following publications are referenced in this chapter:

1. CO2 Welding of Steel, A. A. Smith. The Welding Institute (TWI)
Comment: This is one of the most authoritative works available on the shortcircuiting mode of metal transfer.
2. Welding Steels Without Hydrogen Cracking. F. R. Coe. The Welding
Institute (TWI).
Comment: A very comprehensive book on the hydrogen cracking problem
that covers a wide variety of steels.
3. Control of Melting Rate and Metal Transfer in Gas Shielded Arc Welding,
Part I and Part II. A. Lesnewich. AWS Welding Journal, August and
September, 1958
Comment: These two papers are considered classics in the field of welding
research. These papers provide the first real understanding of how the process works in a highly quantitative approach. They are a treasure of information on the GMAW process.
Reference
The AWS Welding Handbook, Volume 2, Welding Processes, Chapter 4.
Exercises
1. Which of the following is an advantage of the GMAW process?
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
Resistant to porosity formation

Easy to use in the vertical-up position
Fume generation rate is low
Produces high hydrogen levels
A and B
2. Which of the following determines the mode of metal transfer in

GMAW?
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
Travel speed
Voltage
Wire feed speed (WFS)
Travel angle
B and C
132

3. The transition range in GMAW is the reference current between:

A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
Short-circuiting and globular

Spray and dip-spray
Short-circuiting and spray
Low voltage and high voltage
None of the above
4. Which of the following produces the highest heat input and penetration?
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
Spray transfer
Dip-spray transfer
Globular transfer
Short-circuiting transfer
High voltages and low wire feed speed
5. Which of the following produces the lowest spatter levels?

A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
Spray transfer
Dip-spray transfer
Globular transfer
6. Which of the following is best for sheet metal?

A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
Spray transfer
Dip-spray transfer
Globular transfer
7. True or False?
A larger diameter wire will generally produce better penetration characteristics than a smaller diameter wire. True False
8. What are the main problems when using GMAW on hot rolled steel?
__________________________________________________________
9. Name the eight Essential Welding Variables in GMAW
(1) ________________________________________________________
(2) ________________________________________________________
(3) ________________________________________________________
133

(4) ________________________________________________________
(5) ________________________________________________________
(6) ________________________________________________________
(7) ________________________________________________________
(8) ________________________________________________________
10. For a given wire diameter, which of the following determines the welding
amperage in GMAW?
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
Type of wire
Shielding gas
Wire feed speed (WFS)
Travel angle
Wire feed speed and contact tip to work distance
11. Turning the voltage up or down:

A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
Changes welding amperage

Changes arc length
Changes surface heating
Requires a change in shielding gas flow rate
B and C
12. Which of the following affects the amount of spatter?

A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
Voltage setting
Excessive push angle
Hot rolled or cold rolled base metal
Amount of CO2 in the shielding gas
All of the above
13. Which of the following should change if your Wire Feed Speed (WFS) is
too low and your arc is too long?
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
Increase voltage setting

Lower WFS only
Increase WFS and lower voltage
Lower WFS and increase voltage
Increase CTTWD
134

14. In the semiautomatic mode of GMAW, if you want to obtain spray transfer with an Argon-CO2 shielding gas mixture, what should be the maximum CO2 content?
A. 8%
B. 15%
C. 20%
D. 25%
E. 30%
15. True or False?
You can maximize your current when welding by increasing the contact
tip-to-work distance. True False
16. How you would adjust the voltage for reducing excessive spatter in each
of the following cases?
Short circuiting transfer _______________________________________
Spray transfer _______________________________________________
17. When welding with GMAW, you should adjust your travel speed so that:
A. the weld pool rolls in front of the arc
B. the arc is at the back of the weld pool
C. spatter is maximized
D. the arc is at the front of the weld pool
E. the slowest possible speed is obtained to maximize penetration
18. Give three reasons for undercut occurring in a weld on cold rolled steel.
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
19. If you are making a fillet weld and you want to increase the travel speed
by 30%, which welding variables do you need to adjust and how do you
need to adjust them?
135

Answers
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
C
E
C
A
A
D
True
Spatter, poor bead shape, possible porosity
(1) WFS
(2) Voltage
(3) Travel Speed
(4) Contact tip to work distance
(5) Travel angle
(6) Transverse angle
(7) Wire position
(8) Inductance
E
E
E
C
C
False
Short-circuitingturn down; Sprayturn up
D
Voltage too high, travel speed too slow, travel speed erratic
Turn WFS up 30% and turn voltage up to maintain same arc length
136

Chapter 5Flux Cored Arc Welding Applied to Mild Steels
Chapter 5FLUX CORED ARC WELDING APPLIED TO MILD STEELS

Introduction
Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW) has numerous advantages that make it the
preferred welding process for many applications. In the past, utilization of the
process was impeded by consumables that deposited welds with properties that
were inferior to other welding processes. However, in recent years consumable
manufacturers have made significant improvements in both weld metal and
diffusible hydrogen propertiesto the point that FCAW is now considered
equivalent in these respects to other welding processes.
To obtain the benefits of FCAW, welders must understand the process and its
correct application. The FCAW welder must have a good understanding of the
process variables and how to control them. Therefore, the main purpose of this
training program is to enhance the welding skills of those who use the process.
Both the gas-shielded and self-shielded versions are included in this chapter.
Chapter
Objectives
What is Flux Cored

Arc Welding?
After successfully completing this chapter the supervisor should be able to:
List the advantages and limitations of the FCAW process
Understand the FCAW consumable classification system
Select wires sizes for different applications
Understand the effect of different shielding gases
Use the seven essential welding variables to control weld productivity and
quality
Understand the relationship between wire feed speed, voltage, and arc
length
Read and understand FCAW procedures
Avoid commonly encountered FCAW defects
FCAW is a welding process that uses an electric arc to generate the heat for
welding. The electric arc is maintained between a consumable wire electrode
and the work. The electrode is a tubular wire filled with a powdered flux. The
wire electrode is fed continuously into the weld pool and becomes the weld
deposit as the wire is burned off. The welding power source provides arc
137

stability so that the rate of burn-off matches the rate of wire feed. The process
can be used with or without external gas shielding.
In the gas-shielded version of FCAW, a stream of gas delivered through the
welding gun protects the electrode and molten weld pool from contamination
with air (see Figure 5.1).
Gas nozzle
Flux cored
electrode
Current carrying
contact tube
Gas shielding
Solidified
slag
Powdered
flux
Molten
slag
Weld pool
Figure 5.1Example of the Gas-Shielded FCAW Process
A self-shielding version of FCAW is also used where contamination is controlled by flux ingredients that provide some gaseous protection and specific
chemical additions (see Figure 5.2).
Advantages of FCAW
Can be applied to many commercially important metals, such as:

Mild Steels
Alloy Steels
Stainless Steels
138

Flux cored
electrode
Current carrying
contact tube
Arc shield from
vaporized flux
Solidified
slag
Powdered
flux
Molten
slag
Weld pool
Figure 5.2Example of the Self-Shielding FCAW Process
FCAW has high productivity compared to the SMAW process. FCAW has
similar welding productivity to GMAW and as shown in Figures 5.3 and
5.4 has a much higher deposition rate than SMAW.
25
Deposition rate lb./hr.
20
15
FCAW 1/16 in. @ 0.75 in.

CTTWD & CO 2 shielding gas
10
Typical SMAW for range

of sizes and classifications
0
0
200
400
600
Welding current, A
Figure 5.3Comparison of Deposition Rates
139

1/4
12 ft
in 1 hr.
SMAW @ 1.5 lb./man-hr.
1/4
24 ft
in 1 hr.
FCAW @ 3.1 lb./man-hr.
Figure 5.4SMAW vs. FCAW Welding Traveling Speeds
With gas shielding, FCAW is less sensitive to changes in the operating variables than other welding processes. FCAW typically has a broader range of
parameters that deposit acceptable welds than with GMAW. Lack of fusion
is a problem that can occur with GMAW when the process is not properly
applied. Because FCAW does not change the mode of metal transfer over
a large current range, it is less sensitive to this problem. The process also
provides a broader penetration profile than GMAW, which enhances the
penetration characteristics of FCAW. Refer to Figures 5.55.7.
FCAW has good out-of-position welding capability and smaller wires

work well in all positions (see Figure 5.8).
FCAW has good deposition efficiency. For example, 85% or more of each
pound of wire becomes deposited weld metal as opposed to SMAW, where
only about 60% is deposited (see Figure 5.9).
FCAW handles mill scale much better than GMAW. The slag formed during FCAW helps to form a smooth bead with minimal spatter, even with
heavier mill scale. This makes the process ideal for thicker materials (see
Figure 5.10).
140

FCAW
e
tabl
cep
c
a
ble
Un
epta
Acc
Voltage
GMAW
Figure 5.5Operating Windows That Give

Ranges of Parameters for Acceptable Welds
400
350
Fine globular
300
Fine globular
250
200
Fine globular
150
100
Useable Range
50
100
200
300
400
Welding Current (amps) 1/16 in. O
Figure 5.6FCAW Typically Has a Fine Globular Metal

Transfer Over a Relatively Large Current Range
141

FCAW CO 2 shielding
GMAW 95% Ar, 5% O 2 shielding
Figure 5.7Comparison Between FCAW and GMAW Shielding
NOTE: With FCAW, the metal transfer occurs from the periphery of the
wire, which provides a broader penetration profile than GMAW.
Figure 5.8FCAW Has Good Out-of-Position Capability
142

1 lb. Wire
0.85 lb. Weld metal
Figure 5.9Example of Good Deposition Efficiency
Mill scale
FCAW
GMAW
Figure 5.10Effect of Mill Scale
Disadvantages of FCAW
Fume generation is higher than other processes. Self-shielding wires have

a particularly high fume generation rate and are used mainly in outdoor
applications (see Figure 5.11).
Deslagging or cleaning is required between passes (see Figure 5.12).
FCAW is generally considered to be a low hydrogen welding process (see

Figure 5.13). Most FCAW wires are classified as having up to 16 ml H 2 /
100 g of deposit (H16). Although this is not necessarily low hydrogen,
most wires contain significantly less than this level; however, not low
enough to be classified as an H8. Not all FCAW classifications are available in the H16 or lower diffusible hydrogen levels; therefore, the use of
FCAW in very thick or alloyed materials needs careful consideration. Most
manufacturers offer lower hydrogen wires for these applications. Hydrogen
content is important to prevent cracking. See Chapter 7, Steel Welding
Metallurgy, for more information.
143
higher

FCAW
(self shielded)
SMAW
FCAW (CO2)
Particulate
fume
generation
rate (g/min)
GMA (CO2)
GMA (argon)
higher
Increasing current
Figure 5.11Fume Generation Rates
Figure 5.12Chipping Hammer Used for Slag Removal
Low
Hydrogen
Very Low
Hydrogen
Non-hydrogen
SAW
FCAW
Basic Electrodes
GMAW
10
15
20
25

144
30

Air drafts can disturb the shielding gas and cause porosity when using the
gas- shielded version of FCAW (see Figure 5.14).
Figure 5.14Air Drafts
Process
Fundamentals
Because it is easy to change the chemistry of the core ingredients, different

FCAW wires can be economically produced for different base metals or types
of applications. The supervisor should know the different types of wires and
shielding gases available and understand the important characteristics of the
process.
Objectives
The objectives of this section are to:
Manufacture of
FCAW Wires
Understand how FCAW wires are manufactured
Understand the AWS classification systems for FCAW consumables
Know how wire size effects operating characteristics
Know how to select shielding gases for different applications
Understand the effects of resistance heating on wire burn-off
Understand how the process melts the base metal and wire differently.
The FCAW process uses a continuous tubular electrode of mild steel and a flux
core mixture of various powdered ingredients (see Figure 5.15).
A manufacturing system for FCAW is shown in Figure 5.16.
145

Deoxidizers
Alloying elements
Arc stabilizers
Slag formers
Gas formers
Fluxing agents
Flux core
Figure 5.15FCAW Uses a Flux Core Mixture

of Various Powdered Ingredients
Strip reel
Flux hopper
Flux poured at
this point
Die
"U" Forming rolls
"U" Closing rolls
Reel with formed

electrode
Figure 5.16Manufacturing System for FCAW
Different methods are used for joining the tube edges. The butt, overlap, and
folded seams are shown in Figure 5.17. A macrosection of five different types
of 1/16 in. (1.6 mm) diameter wires commonly used in industry is shown in
Figure 5.18.
146

Butt
Overlap
Folded
Figure 5.17Different Methods Used for Joint Tube Edges
Metal
cored
Solid
Rutile
Basic
(GMAW)
(T-1)
(T-5)
Self
shielding
Figure 5.18Macrosection of Different Types of Wires
Classification of
Filler Metals for
FCAW of Mild Steel
Filler metals for FCAW of carbon steels are classified according to their
operating characteristics and mechanical properties (see Figure 5.19).
Wires for Flux Cored Arc Welding of mild steel

are classified according to:
AWS A5.20
American Welding Society
CSA W48-01
Canadian Standards Association
Figure 5.19Filler Metals for FCAW Welding of Mild Steel
147

In the U.S., AWS A5.20, Specification for Carbon Steel Electrodes for Flux
Cored Arc Welding, covers FCAW filler metals. The classification system is
E X X T - X M
H Z
Optional H2
designator
Electrode
7580% Ar
Slag system
current, polarity,
shielding gas
Minimum tensile
strength
6 = 60 ksi
7 = 70 ksi
Tubular wire
Welding positions:
0 = horizontal and flat
1 = all positions
Example:
E
7
0
T
5
=
=
=
=
=
E70T-5
Electrode
70 ksi minimum tensile strength
Horizontal and flat positions
Flux cored electrode
Basic flux to be used with
shielding gas
Figure 5.20AWS A5.20 Classification System
Electrode Size
A large range of electrode sizes is available for the semiautomatic mode of

FCAW, ranging from 0.035 in. (0.9 mm) to 3/32 in. (2.4 mm). The electrode
diameter selected must be suitable for the intended application.
Typically, electrode diameters for the gas-shielded process are classified as allposition wires for diameters 1/16 in. (1.6 mm) and less (see Figure 5.21).
It is important to understand the effect of wire diameter on base metal fusion,
because the resistance heating of the wire extension is a major contributor to
the melting of the wire (see Figure 5.22). Smaller diameter wires (for the same
deposition rate) need less welding current, therefore, they produce less penetration into the base metal. In addition, the welding amperage for a given wire
diameter will not increase proportionally with the wire feed speed (WFS). Both
of these effects are discussed later in this chapter.
148

Typically all positions
.030
.045
5/64
1/16
3/32
Typically flat and horizontal
Figure 5.21Electrode Diameters for Different Positions
Large diameter wire
Small diameter wire
High current
Low current
Same deposit area
Fused area
Figure 5.22Effect of Wire Diameter on Base Metal Fusion
The practical result is that the wire diameter used should increase with the
material thickness as shown in Figure 5.23.
149
Wire diameter

Thickness
Base metal thickness
Figure 5.23Wire Diameter Used

Should Increase with Material Thickness
Effect of Shielding
Gases
A variety of shielding gases are available for the FCAW process, therefore, it
is important to make the correct gas selection for a particular application.
The most important function of the shielding gas is to protect the transferred
molten droplets and weld pool from contamination with air (see Figure 5.24).
Air
Shielding
gas
Figure 5.24Effect of Shielding Gas
Some gas is produced by the core ingredients of self-shielding wires, however,

that alone is not totally effective in providing shielding (see Figure 5.25).
Therefore, self-shielding wires use other means to handle the nitrogen and
oxygen that enter the weld pool. These wires produce excellent results without
draft protection.
150

Air
Shielding gas
Figure 5.25The Gas Produced by Self-Shielding Wires is

Not Totally Effective in Shielding the Weld Pool
One method commonly used with self-shielded wires is to add aluminum to the
weld pool (see Figure 5.26). Aluminum reacts preferentially with contaminants
to eliminate porosity. The amount of aluminum transferred across the arc
depends on the voltage. Too high a voltage burns off most of the aluminum
before it reaches the weld pool.
Al
Air
Al + N2 > Denitriding
Al + O2 > Deoxidizing
Figure 5.26Aluminum Additions are Effective in

Reducing Porosity with Self-Shielded Wires
For gas-shielded FCAW, the carbon dioxide (CO2) content of the shielding gas
has a major effect on penetration and fusion characteristics. As shown in
Figure 5.27, 100% CO2 provides a better penetration profile than an Ar-CO2
mixture, which ensures better side-wall fusion.
151

FCAW 75% Ar, 25% CO 2 shielding
FCAW CO 2 shielding
Fused base metal area (mm2)
14.3
97% Ar 3% O2
Fused area of
base metal
22.0
75% Ar 25% CO2

100% CO 2
28.2
Figure 5.27100% CO2 Provides a Better Penetration

Profile than an Ar-CO2 Mixture
The CO2 content also has an effect on the amount of fume. Shielding gases
higher in argon content produce less fume (see Figure 5.28).
30
25
20
15
200
10
100
300
1.04 g/min
ONTRO
TC
L
JE
100%
CO 2
30
25
20
15
200
10
100
300
0.75 g/min
ONTRO
TC
L
JE
Ar +
25% CO 2
Welding Parameters
E70T-9 1/16 in. dia.

275 amps
28 volts
Figure 5.28Shielding Gases Higher in Argon Produce Less Fume
152

A summary of shielding gas effects is shown in Figure 5.29.
30
25
20
15
200
10
100
300
ONTRO
TC
L
JE
100% CO2
Most widely used

Least expensive
100%
CO 2
Best fusion and penetration
30
25
20
15
200
10
100
300
ONTRO
TC
L
JE
Argon CO2 mixes
Smoother arc
Less spatter
Ar +
1540%CO 2
Excellent appearance
Lower fume
Figure 5.29Summary of Shielding Gas Effects
Electrode and
Base Metal Melting
An electric light bulb circuit is much like a welding circuit, because electricity
from a battery or power source is used to generate heat and light (see Figure
5.30).
VOLT
MET
ba
TER
E
AMM
tte
ER
ry
Figure 5.30An Electric Light Bulb Circuit

is Very Much Like a Welding Circuit
153

An electric arc is also an energy conversion device that converts electrical

energy into heat to melt the base metal and to burn off the wire (see Figure 5.31).
ELECTRICITY
HEAT
ELECTRICITY
Figure 5.31An Electric Arc is also an Energy Conversion Device
An important characteristic of the FCAW process is that arc heating is not the
only type of heating that occurs. A high current flows through the electrode
extension, which becomes very hot due to resistance heating effects (see
Figures 5.32 and 5.33).
Resistance heating
contributes to wire
melting
Arc heating (Anode)

contributes to wire
melting
Arc heating melts

base metal
Figure 5.32Resistance Heating Contributes to Wire Melting
154

Figure 5.33Current Flowing Through a Wire Generates Considerable Heat
Total heating and melting of the electrode results from both resistance heating
and arc heating (see Figure 5.34).
ARC
HEATING
RESISTANCE
HEATING
Current
(amps)
- Current (amps)
- Wire diameter
- Electrode
extension (CTTWD)
TOTAL
BURN-OFF
RATE
- Current (amps)
- Wire diameter
- Electrode
extension (CTTWD)
Figure 5.34Arc Heating + Resistance Heating = Total Burn-Off Rate
Resistance heating increases by:
Increasing amperage
Increasing electrode extension (stickout) past the contact tube
Using smaller diameter electrodes
Longer CTTWDs reduce the welding amperage, because resistance heating

effects are increased. When the wire feed speed (WFS) is set to a particular
value, the resulting amperage depends on the CTTWD as shown in Figure
5.35. CTTWD is the contact tube to work distance.
With gas-shielded FCAW, the deposition rate (wire melting) does not depend
significantly on the electrode type or manufacturer for the commonly used
E7XT-1 and E7XT-9 classifications. However, for self-shielding FCAW,
the electrode type has a major impact on the deposition rate. Even electrodes
of the same classification can have different deposition rate characteristics.
Therefore, careful selection of these types of electrodes is necessary to ensure
optimum welding productivity (see Figure 5.36).
155

400
350
1 in. CTTWD
300
250
200
3/4 in. CTTWD
150
100
50
100
200
300
400
Welding Current (amps) 1/16 in. O, E71T-9
Figure 5.35WFS vs. Amperage
15.0
12.5
E70T-7
5/64 in. dia.

self-shielding
wires
10.0
7.5
E71T-8
5.0
E71T-8
2.5
0
0
200
300
400
Welding current, A

(5/64 in. Diameter Self-Shielding Wires)
156

NOTE: Base metal melting depends only on amperage or arc heating;

wire melting depends both on arc heating and also on resistance heating
FCAW Essential
Welding Variables
The FCAW process is controlled by seven essential welding variables that are
set by the welder (see Figure 5.37).
Travel Angle of Gun
Voltage
Transverse Angle of Gun
Travel Speed
Electrode Position
Contact Tube to
Work Distance
Figure 5.37The Essential Welding Variables for FCAW
The FCAW essential welding variables control welding speed, bead appearance, penetration, and spatter. These essential variables are the key settings
that make a weld what it is. A welders knowledge and control of these variables are important to consistently achieve high productivity rates and quality
welds.
157

Understand how the essential welding variables affect weld quality and
productivity
Know how to set the essential welding variables for different welding
applications
Understand how the essential welding variables affect bead shape, penetration and spatter
Know how to avoid common FCAW defects

1. Effect of Wire Feed Speed on Base Metal Fusion and Penetration
As discussed earlier in this chapter, there is a direct relationship between WFS
and welding current. Increasing the WFS increases the welding current, as
Welding current provides heat to melt the electrode and base metal. Increasing
welding current increases both arc heating and resistance heating (see Figure
5.39).
Increasing WFS increases penetration (arc heating) and fill (electrode melting)
as shown in Figure 5.40. A minimum WFS is required to obtain adequate
penetration depending on the thickness of the material. Essentially, a given
material thickness requires a minimum amperage to achieve adequate penetration in a T-joint (see Figure 5.41).
2. Effect of Wire Feed Speed on Travel Speed

Travel speed is predominately determined by the WFS setting. Keeping
in mind that welding productivity is significantly affected by travel
speed, then selecting and maintaining the WFS is very important with FCAW.
Figure 5.42 shows the effect of increasing the WFS for a 5/16 in. (8 mm) fillet
weld.
158

400
350
3/4 in. CTTWD
300
250
200
150
100
50
100
200
300
400
Welding Current (amps) 1/16 in. O, E71T- 9
Figure 5.38Increasing the WFS Increases the Welding Current
Welding current
resistance heating
to melt the wire
Electrode extension
Welding current
affects arc heating
to melt the base metal
Welding current
affects arc heating
to melt the wire
Figure 5.39Increasing the Welding Current Increases

Both Arc Heating and Resistance Heating
159

Greater fill
Greater penetration
and fusion
Increasing WFS
Figure 5.40Increasing the WFS Increases Penetration and Fill
size
size
Minimum required WFS

1/16 in. dia.
3/4 in. CTTWD
CO2 shielding gas
Thickness
Figure 5.41Material Thickness Requires Minimum Amperage

to Achieve Adequate Penetration in a T-Joint
NOTE: Penetration and fusion for self-shielded FCAW electrodes can be

less than for gas-shielded FCAW. This is because of the use of electrode
negative polarity for some wires (typically out-of-position) and other
characteristics of the self-shielding version (such as longer CTTWDs for
some electrodes).
160

WFS = 200 pm
Weld size = 5/16 in. fillet

Wire size = 1/16 in. dia.
7.5 ipm
WFS = 300 pm
12 in./min
Figure 5.42Travel Speed is Determined by the WFS Setting
The effect of WFS on travel speed for different fillet sizes is shown in Figure
5.43 for a 1/16 in. E71T-9 electrode.
NOTE: WFS has a major impact on both quality (fusion and penetration)
and productivity.
Note that the polarity for self-shielding FCAW electrodes depends on the
electrode classification being used. Some electrodes (e.g., E70T-4) operate on
electrode positive (DCEP) and others (e.g., E70T-8) operate on electrode negative (DCEN). Ensure that you have the correct polarity for the electrode being
used.
Most gas-shielded electrodes operate on electrode positive (DCEP).
161

400
5/16 in.
3/8 in.
350
300
1/4 in.
250
200
size
150
size
100
5.0
10.0
15.0
20.0
25.0
Travel Speed (ipm)
Figure 5.43WFS vs. Travel Speed (FCAW E71T-9 1/16 in. Dia.)
for Different Fillet Weld Size
Voltage
1. Effect of Voltage on Bead Shape
Voltage controls arc length (see Figure 5.44). Increasing the voltage increases
the arc length and arc width. Bead width also increases as arc length increases
(see Figure 5.45).
The voltage at the power source, or the machine voltage, is the voltage that the
welder reads and sets. The voltage at the arc, or arc voltage, is less dependent
on the voltage drop between the power source and arc. The difference depends
on cable size and length as well as welding amperage, but these voltages go up
and down proportionately; therefore, for this discussion the effect of voltage is
the same.
162

Arc length
Arc width
Figure 5.44Increasing Voltage Increases Arc Length and Arc Width
Increasing voltage
Figure 5.45Bead Width Increases as Arc Length Increases
Once the correct arc length is set for a given weld, it should be kept constant
even when WFS is increased or decreased. As shown in Figure 5.46, it is
necessary to change voltage along with WFS to maintain a constant arc length.
2. Effect of Voltage on Undercut and Penetration
Voltage has a major effect on heat input to the plate surface. Voltage also
affects the amount of radiated heat, therefore, longer arcs seem much hotter to
the welder. As a result of this surface heating effect, the voltage also has a
significant impact on bead shape and undercut (see Figure 5.47). In multipass
welds, undercut or poor bead shape can trap slag, leading to slag inclusions in
the complete weld.
Because a longer arc is also wider, it is more likely to cause undercut in a fillet
weld (see Figure 5.48).
163

40
Voltage
35
240
WFS
30
As you turn up the

WFS, the voltage must
also be increased to
keep the arc length
constant
Constant arc length

(e.g., 1/8 in.)
25
20
26.0
Voltage
100 200 300 400 500 600

Wire Feed Speed (in./min)
Figure 5.46Both Voltage and WFS Need to Change

to Maintain a Constant Arc Length
Possible slag
entrapment
Possible slag
entrapment
Voltage
too high
Voltage
too low
Figure 5.47Voltage Has a Significant Impact

on Bead Shape and Undercut
Correct arc length
Arc length too short
Figure 5.48Effect of Arc Length
164
Arc length too long

3. Effect of Voltage on Spatter

Spatter is minimal with gas-shielded FCAW wires of the E7XT-1 or E7XT-9
classifications. However, very low or high voltages can increase spatter levels.
The E7XT-5 classification produces considerable spatter with CO2 shielding
gas. Some improvement with this classification can be made with the use of
argon mixtures and pulsed arc power sources.
4. Effect of Voltage for Self-Shielding Wires
Because the voltage setting determines the amount of aluminum transferred,
too high a voltage setting results in excessive porosity with self-shielding wires
(see Figure 5.49).
Porosity
Voltage too high
Voltage correct
Voltage too low
Figure 5.49Effect of Voltage for Self-Shielding Wires
NOTE: Voltage has a major impact on surface heating, which affects

bead shape and undercut. In the case of self-shielding wires, voltage also
affects porosity levels.
Travel Speed
1. Travel Speed and Productivity
Travel speed has a major effect on welding productivity. The faster the speed,
the less time it takes to make a weld. Most welders never measure their travel
speeds, because they generally have a good feel for how slow or fast the travel
165

speed is. It is difficult to manually travel above 30 ipm in the horizontal position.
Examples of travel speed ranges are shown in Figure 5.50 for fillet welding.
Ideal
Too slow
larger
fillets
10
Mechanized welding
smaller
fillets
20
30
40
50
60
Figure 5.50Travel Speed Ranges
2. Effect of Travel Speed on Penetration

A general pattern emerges as travel speed is decreased:
Heat input per inch is increased
More filler metal is applied per inch and consequently, the weld is larger
Penetration increases in a bead-on-plate test as shown in Figure 5.51,

because the metal spreads out.
More fill
Bead-on-plate results only
Decreasing travel speed
Figure 5.51Effects of Decreasing Travel Speed

in a Bead-on-Plate Weld
Bead-on-plate welds are generally not made, and when the puddle is allowed to
build up in a groove or fillet weld, penetration decreases if the welding speed is
too slow (see Figure 5.52).
166

A slow travel speed makes it difficult for

pool. Also, excessive surface heating
causes undercut.
Faster travel speed produces less fill

and less depth of weld pool allowing
better arc penetration.
Figure 5.52Penetration Can Decrease

When Welding Speed is Too Slow
NOTE: Always keep the arc at the front of the pool.
Contact Tube to Work Distance (CTTWD)

Throughout most of the welding circuit, heavy copper cables carry the welding
current, which can be as high as 500 amps in FCAW. However, once past the
contact tube, the current is forced to flow through a small steel wire, which is a
poor conductor of electricity (see Figure 5.53). This extension of the wire electrode is very hot and, in effect, becomes preheated before it reaches the arc.
The length of the wire past the contact tip is called the electrical stickout (see
Figure 5.54). The CTTWD is the electrical stickout plus the arc length.
167

Contact tip
Figure 5.53Electrical Extension
Electrical
stickout
Contact tip
to work distance
Figure 5.54Electrical Stickout
When a wire feed speed setting is made, the heat needed to melt the wire off is
a combination of both arc heating and resistance heating (see Figure 5.55).
When the CTTWD is changed, the ratio of arc heating to resistance heating is
also changed. With small diameter wires and long CTTWDs, high resistance
heating of the electrode extension can cause burnoff of the wireeven when
the amperage is relatively low.
168

Same wire
speed feed
Total heating or melting

of wire (in./min.)
Arc
heating
Resistance
heating
Short
CTTWD
Long
CTTWD
Figure 5.55Wire Melting = Melting from

Resistance Heating + Melting from Arc Heating
1. Effect of CTTWD on Welding Current

Changing the CTTWD changes the welding amperage as shown in Figure
5.56.
As the wire CTTWD is increased, less current is needed to melt the wire,
because there is more preheat in the electrode extension. Less current means
less heat into the work, and therefore, less penetration. The opposite occurs
when the CTTWD is reduced in length. The CTTWD is important and should
be held constant at the correct value.
Some typical settings are shown in Table 5.1. The CTTWD is typically greater
with larger diameter wires. Some self-shielding FCAW wires are designed for
very long CTTWDs.
169

Constant wire
feed speed
Normal
stickout
Normal
Cold
Hot
V = machine voltage (constant) ~ total voltage across wire and arc

I = welding current
Figure 5.56Changing the CTTWD Changes Welding Current
Table 5.1Contact Tube to Work Distance

Wire
in. (mm)
Shielding
CTTWD
0.45 (1.2)
Gas-shielded
3/85/8
1/16 (1.6)
Gas-shielded
1/27/8
3/32 (2.4)
Gas-shielded
3/41-1/8
0.068 (1.7)
Self-shielded E71T-8
1/23/4
3/32 (2.4)
Self-shielded E70T-4
2-1/23
Travel Angle of Welding Gun

The wire forms an angle in a plane parallel to the direction of travel, which is
the travel angle. In terms of a push or drag, the travel angle has a significant effect on the weld bead. The effect of travel angle on bead shape and
penetration is shown in Figure 5.57.
With the FCAW process, a drag angle typically is used to avoid pushing slag
ahead of the arc. Slag can be trapped between passes and is a particular
problem at slower travel speeds (see Figure 5.58).
A drag angle helps push the slag back from the front of the pool and also
provides increased penetration (see Figure 5.59).
170

Push
Drag
Travel
Travel
Figure 5.57Effect of Travel Angle on Bead Shape
Contact tube
Molten slag
Molten slag
Solidifed slag
Parent
Parent
metalMetal
Weld Pool
Weld
pool
Figure 5.58A Push Angle Can Push Slag Ahead of the Arc

Solidifed slag
Contact tube
Molten slag
Parent Parent
metal Metal
WeldPool
pool
Weld
Figure 5.59A Drag Angle Helps Push the Slag Back

from the Front of the Pool
171

A drag angle from 10 to 20 is typically used with the FCAW process (see
Figure 5.60).
10 20
Figure 5.60A Drag Angle of 1020 is Typical of the FCAW Process
Transverse Angle of Welding Gun

The electrode forms an angle with the workpiece in a plane perpendicular to
the to the direction of travel, which is the transverse angle (see Figure 5.61).
This angle can affect bead shape, penetration, and undercut. Excessive transverse angle also can cause incomplete fusion.
Correct
angle
Angle
too high
4045
Angle
too low
Figure 5.61Transverse Angle of Welding Gun
Electrode Position
The position of the electrode in the joint is an important factor in making a
quality weld (see Figure 5.62). Even if all the other operating variables are
correctly set, incorrect electrode position in the joint results in poor quality
welds.
172

Acceptable
Unacceptable
(electrode position
too far from root,
vertically)
Unacceptable
(electrode position
too far from root,
horizontally)
Figure 5.62Electrode Positions
With semiautomatic applications, the welder usually positions the electrode so

that the weld pool is in the right location and the exact position of the electrode
is not a concern (see Figure 5.63).
Figure 5.63Welder Guiding by Sight
With mechanized or automated welding, the welder must position the electrode
in the correct location before starting. For a horizontal fillet weld a slight offset
is often used to obtain an equal leg fillet weld (see Figure 5.64).
For circumferential joints under rotation, the position of the electrode relative
to top dead center has a major effect on bead shape. The bead shape can be
convex, flat, or concave as shown in Figure 5.65.
173

Offset
Fillet size
5 mm or less
6 mm or greater
Offset
0
11.5 wire O
Figure 5.64A Slight Offset is Often Used to

Obtain an Equal Leg Fillet Weld
Convex
Flat
Concave
Figure 5.65Types of Bead Shapes When Welding

a Circumferential Joint Under Rotation
174

Summary of the
Seven Essential
Welding Variables
Remember the seven essential welding variables. They are the key to making
quality welds with the FCAW Process (refer to Figure 5.66).
Remember the seven

They are the key to productivity and quality in FCAW.
Figure 5.66Remember the Seven Essential Welding Variables
FCAW Equipment
Typical FCAW Equipment is shown in Figure 5.67.
175

Flowmeter
Gas regulator
30
25
20
15
200
10
100
300
ONTRO
TC
L
JE
Voltage control
WFS control
0.00
0.00
Process
selection
POWER SO
URCE
on
off
On/Off
switch
Figure 5.67Typical FCAW Equipment
176

Welding
Techniques
Crater Filling
A properly filled crater is important to ensure full throat thickness for the
complete length of the weld. Two different crater filling techniques are shown
in Figures 5.68 and 5.69.
Travel
Normal wire position
Move wire to back of puddle

when ready to crater fill
Hold position to fill crater

and then release trigger
Figure 5.68Crater Filling Method 1
177

Normal wire position
Travel
Move wire back when

ready to crater fill
Trigger gun on/off twice

to fill crater
Figure 5.69Crater Filling Method 2
178

Stop-Starts
To ensure good fusion and root penetration at a stop-start location, a proper
technique is required as shown in Figure 5.70.
Weld stop/start
Arc start
Stop weld without crater fill
Start arc 1/2 in. to 3/4 in. ahead

of weld start position and quickly
move back to weld start position
1/2 in. to 3/4 in.
Move back far enough to cover

crater and weld forward at
normal speed
Travel
Figure 5.70Stop/Start Technique
179

Reference
The AWS Welding Handbook, Volume 2, Welding Processes, Chapter 5.
Exercises
To obtain maximum benefit from this chapter it is recommended that you follow this guide and complete the exercises. It is important that you thoroughly
1. The electrode wire for FCAW is:
A.
B.
C.
D.
Solid
Tubular and filled with flux
Tubular and filled with metal powder
Flux coated
2. The range of WFS and voltage for FCAW to produce acceptable welds is:
A. Less than GMAW
B. Same as GMAW
C. Greater than GMAW
3. Which of the following welding processes has the best deposition rate?
A. SMAW
B. FCAW
C. GTAW
4. The deposition efficiency of FCAW is approximately:
A.
B.
C.
D.
50%
25%
85%
100%
5. For the classification E71T-1, the 71 stands for:

A.
B.
C.
D.
71,000 lb. tensile strength

70,000 lb. tensile strength and all positions
70,000 lb. tensile strength and flat and horizontal positions
70,000 lb. Tensile strength and low hydrogen
6. Which of the following is an advantage of an Argon/CO2 shielding gas

mixture?
A.
B.
C.
D.
Less expensive than CO2

Better penetration
Lower fume level
Can use a longer contact tip to work distance
180

7. True or False?
Self-shielding wires produce insufficient gases to protect the weld pool
from contamination. True False
8. True or False?
Melting of the base metal (penetration) depends mainly on the amperage.
True False
9. True or False?
For self-shielding FCAW, the wire type for the same diameter does not
effect the deposition rate. True False
10. Amperage in FCAW depends mainly on:
A.
B.
C.
D.
Voltage
Wire feed speed
Travel speed
Wire feed speed and contact tip to work distance
11. List the seven essential welding variables for the FCAW process:
(1) ________________________________________________________
(2) ________________________________________________________
(3) ________________________________________________________
(4) ________________________________________________________
(5) ________________________________________________________
(6) ________________________________________________________
(7) ________________________________________________________
12. When increasing WFS or amperage with FCAW, which of the following
will occur?
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
G.
Higher voltage
More porosity
Greater penetration
Less penetration
Greater deposition rate
More spatter
C and E
181

13. Too high voltage in a multipass weld leads to which of the following?
A.
B.
C.
D.
Slag inclusions
Undercut
Smaller weld sizes
A and B
14. True or False?

A push travel angle tends to produce more of a concave bead.
True False
15. When making a horizontal fillet weld with the FCAW process, the transverse gun angle should be:
A.
B.
C.
D.
15 to 20
40 to 45
60 to 65
90 to 95
16. Increasing arc voltage will increase which of the following?

A.
B.
C.
D.
Bead width
Penetration
Contact tip to work distance
Weld reinforcement
17. With gas-shielded FCAW, the electrode is connected DCEP. What does
this mean?
A.
B.
C.
D.
The welding gun is connected positive and the work lead is negative
The welding gun is connected negative and the work lead is positive
Alternating current is used
None of the above
18. With self-shielded FCAW, too high a voltage leads to which of the
following?
A. Narrow bead width
B. Convex bead
C. Porosity
D. None of the above
182

19. True or False?

Increasing the contact tip to work distance will increase the current.
True False
20. For 1/16 in. diameter FCAW (E71T-9), at a CTTWD of 3/4 in., what wire
feed speed is necessary to obtain approximately 300 amps?
___________________________________________________________
183

Answers
1.
2.
3.
4
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
B
C
B
C
B
C
True
True
False
D
(1) WFS
(2) Voltage
(3) Travel Speed
(4) Contact tip to work distance
(5) Travel angle
(6) Transverse angle
(7) Wire position
G
D
True
B
A
A
C
False
275
184

Chapter 6The Submerged Arc Welding Process
Chapter 6THE SUBMERGED ARC WELDING PROCESS

Introduction
This chapter will provide an overview of the Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)
process, with particular emphasis on the advantages of using this process in
specific applications. Special considerations in using the process, such as joint
tracking requirements, will also be discussed.
NOTE: Although the scope of this section does not allow a thorough
description of all aspects of the SAW process, it will focus on the important
advantages that make SAW the preferred process for specific applications.
The SAW process differs from other arc welding processes in that the arc is
shielded beneath a blanket of granulated flux as shown in Figure 6.1. Since the
arc is not visible, the weld is produced without the associated radiation, fume,
and spatter that characterize open arc processes.
Flux recovery
Contact tube
Flux feed
Consumable
electrode
Granulated
flux blanket
Slag
Parent metal
Weld pool
Figure 6.1Submerged Arc Welding Process
The SAW process is usually applied with mechanized equipment, because

a flux feeding system and a means of tracking or guiding the consumable
electrode in the joint is needed. However, the process can also be successfully
applied in the semiautomatic mode.
Advantages of
SAW
In addition to the absence of both arc radiation and fume, some less obvious
but still important advantages of SAW are as follows:
185

1. The ability to achieve high deposition rates and productivity. Since the
SAW process allows the use of relatively high welding currents, high
deposition rates can be achieved as compared with other welding processes
(see Figure 6.2). Furthermore, since the SAW process is applied with
mechanized equipment, high operating factors and productivity can also be
attained, which generally makes SAW the preferred process for welding
thick materials.
25
20
SAW - DCRP (5/32 0 )
15
10
Typical SMAW for range

of sizes and classifications
0
0
200
400
600
800
Welding current, A
2. The ability to produce welds that are generally sound and free from
fusion-type defects. Because the SAW process employs relatively large
wire diameters, resistance heating effects from the electrode extension are
proportionately less than with other welding processes. For the same size
deposit of filler metal, therefore, the total fused area of SAW typically will
be greater than that obtained with other welding processes (see Figure 6.3).
This ability not only provides a decreased susceptibility to fusion-type
defects, but it also allows square groove welds to be welded to greater
thicknesses. In heavy plate fabrication, this advantage also makes the
SAW process well suited to narrow gap applications.
3. The ability to provide a low hydrogen deposit. This advantage of SAW
makes the process ideal in situations where hydrogen cracking is a possibility, such as when welding heavier materials. A precautionary note: the
high productivity rates of SAW can actually increase the risk of cracking,
due to relatively short interlayer times. Circumferential seams in thick
cylindrical components are at particular risk.
186

Large diameter wire
Small diameter wire
High current
Low current
Same deposit area
Fused area
Figure 6.3Effect of Wire Diameter
4. The ability to be unaffected by wind or drafts when performed outdoors. This advantage makes the SAW process well suited to many
construction welding situations. The best example is welding horizontal
seams on tanks and vessels. The problem of the flux preventing SAW from
being used in the horizontal position is easily overcome by the use of
suitable flux support devices. Figure 6.4 shows a typical arrangement of
equipment for horizontal or 3 oclock welding in the field.
Joint Tracking
Methods
With manual and semiautomatic open arc welding processes, the welder
tracks the arc by guiding the torch manually relative to the joint. With SAW,
because the arc and joint are submerged under a flux, alternate means are
needed to provide joint tracking. Selecting the right joint tracking system for a
particular application and ensuring that the system is correctly set up and
maintained is critical to successful SAW. The SAW operator needs to be very
knowledgeable in this area. When compared with other welding processes, the
SAW process, in general, requires the operator to have a higher level of
knowledge skills.
187

Parent
metal
Flux supply
Consumable
electrode
feed
Contact tip
Flux
Rubber support belt
Metal
pulley
Figure 6.4Horizontal SAW
The most commonly used joint tracking methods for SAW are as follows:
1. Mechanical guidance systems. These systems are designed to cope with a
wide range of industrial seam tracking situations. Their low cost, simplicity, and robust nature make them the preferred method whenever the application of mechanical systems is suitable. SAW portable tractors are most
commonly guided using a mechanical system (see Figure 6.5). Another
mechanical system employs a guide wheel running in the joint to center the
electrode is shown in Figure 6.6.
2. Tactile probes. Electromechanical systems can also provide effective joint
tracking. The probe runs in the joint and electrically feeds back to horizontal and vertical cross-slides to move the wire feeding system for accurate
placement of the electrode (see Figure 6.7).
3. Guide lights. Figure 6.8 shows how a guide light is used for joint tracking.
The guide light is attached to the welding head and is set to line up with the
electrode so that the point of impingement of the light in the joint represents the position of the electrode underneath the flux. The light impingement point is kept just ahead of the flux and allows the welding operator to
make an accurate assessment of bead placement. This method is commonly
used for welding circumferential and longitudinal seams on vessels. When
guide lights are not available, welding operators will often use a bent wire
that runs just above the joint to provide a similar, but less accurate, effect.
188

Photograph courtesy of ESAB Canada
Figure 6.5SAW Portable Tractor
Figure 6.6Mechanical Tracking System
4. Other methods. A variety of other joint tracking methods are also used
with SAW. Through-the-arc sensing and laser vision systems, although
used less frequently, offer alternatives to the methods described above.
Evolution of the
Welded Joint
Methods and techniques for joining materials using arc welding processes have
evolved over the years. The butt joint, in particular, is worth examining since it
189

Electromechanical
Tracker
Figure 6.7Electromechanical Tracking System
Guide Light
Figure 6.8Guide Light Tracking System
represents one of the most commonly used connections in industry. Circumferential and longitudinal butt joints in cylindrical components are typical examples. Figure 6.9 indicates the general procedural changes that have occurred
over the years in welding of the butt joint. The progression represents increasing productivity and cost reduction but also requires an increasing level of
sophistication of methods and techniques and capital investment.
The one pass single-sided weld, in fact, represents the highest level of productivity in welding. Further improvements are obtained only by increasing the
joining rate (travel speed) or by eliminating the seam itself. Several industries
have successfully employed single-sided welding, most notably the ship building industry. Multipass welds still have widespread use in situations where the
volume of work may not justify the capital expenditure required for singlesided systems.
190

INCREASING PRODUCTIVITY
Multipass
+GTSM*
One pass
each side
+GTSM*
One pass
each side
One pass
single-sided
*Ground To Sound Metal
Figure 6.9Evolution of the Welded Joint
The SAW process plays a significant role in one pass single-sided welding,
because it offers the following three advantages:
Using SAW in multiwire systems, an operator can weld up to 16 mm thickness in one pass using a square groove preparation. Single wire GMAW
and FCAW processes are generally limited to about 6 mm.
Using SAW with an appropriate copper-flux backing system, an operator

can provide a superior back bead. In fact, it is sometimes difficult to distinguish the top side from the back side of the weld.
Using SAW with an appropriate procedure, a relatively large fused area

can be provided (as described previously), which allows for greater tolerances to fitup conditions.
Applications
Typical applications of SAW are shown in Figures 6.106.14.
SAW Fluxes
SAW fluxes are used to provide a variety of functions, such as:
to shield the weld pool from the atmosphere
to provide mechanical support to the weld bead
to provide arc stabilizers
to alter the chemistry of the weld deposit through slag-metal reactions
A typical SAW flux contains seven or more components, including metal

oxides and silica, which are ideal for providing the previously mentioned functions. Originally, fluxes were manufactured by grinding up the individual
components and mechanically mixing them together. However, the components
in these early flux mixtures could separate into a nonuniform composition that
produced erratic results.
191

Figure 6.10Using a Lightweight Portable SAW Tractor

to Weld the Corner Joint in a Box Column
Backup Bar
Magnetic
Clamps
Figure 6.11Tandem SAW Used for One-Sided Welding of Large Panels

(the Copper Backing Bar and Magnetic Clamps Used for Achieving
Good Fitup Conditions are Shown in the Photograph)
This problem was overcome by the following methods.

1. Fused fluxes. To produce a fused flux particle, components are first melted
together to form a uniform mixture. The melt is then poured onto a chilling
block, crushed, and screened to obtain a specific range of particle sizes.
Each flux particle and any fines (fines are fine sizes of the larger flux
particle as shown in Figure 6.15) are identical.
Due to their glasslike composition, fused fluxes provide good chemical
uniformity and resistance to moisture absorption. The main disadvantage is
that the high temperatures associated with the manufacturing process of
fused fluxes make adding deoxidizers and ferroalloys difficult.
192

Three
oclock
Welder
Figure 6.12Using a 3 OClock Welder in the Field to

Join the Horizontal Seam on a 3 in. Thick Vessel
Shell
Stiffener
Figure 6.13Using a Lightweight Portable SAW Tractor to

Weld the Stiffener to Shell Joints on a Vessel in the Field
2. Bonded and agglomerated fluxes. In this process, the flux components

are ground to a very fine particle size and then bonded together by adding a
binder material in a wet mix. After bonding, the mix is pelletized, heated to
a relatively low temperature, and then each pellet is ground to particle size.
Each resulting particle is identical and contains many individual components (see Figure 6.16).
The advantage of this manufacturing method is that deoxidizers can be
added because of the low temperatures used. Deoxidizers aid in reducing
porosity when welding over dirty or rusty plate. Ferroalloys can also be
added to the flux as a means of adding alloying elements to the weld.
193

Figure 6.14Multiple Electrodes SAWTandem SAW (Two Heads)

with Parallel Electrodes (Twin Electrodes) in Each Head
Fused flux particle

Flux components are melted together
to make a uniform particle
A small piece broken off will

have the same composition
as the main particle
Figure 6.15Fused Flux Particle
Bonded and agglomerated flux particle

Flux components are bonded together
with a binder
A small piece broken off may

not have the same composition
as the main particle
Figure 6.16Bonded and Agglomerated Flux Particle
Hence, alloy deposits can be obtained with a plain carbon steel electrode.
Flux consumption will usually be less than with fused fluxes. These fluxes
can absorb moisture if not properly stored and changes in the flux composition are possible due to segregation or removal of fine particles.
194

Handling of SAW Fluxes

From a supervisor standpoint, the handling of fluxes has some similarities to
that of flux coated shielded metal arc electrodes. As is the case with both types
of flux, moisture is the concern. Some points to keep in mind when handling
SAW flux are:
SAW Essential
Welding Variables
for Single Wire
Applications
Keep flux in the original hermetically sealed undamaged bags until ready
to use. If bags become damaged and vapor seal is broken, remove flux and
place in flux oven.
During use, all flux that is not converted to slag during the welding may be
reused immediately provided the welding surface is not wet (rain or snow)
nor has any contaminates such as grease or oil.
No flux should be left in submerged arc equipment; when equipment is not

in use, the flux should be placed into a flux oven.
Fluxes that have become wet due to either rain or snow should be discarded.
All flux not in use and not in original storage bags should be placed in flux
ovens.
The SAW process in a single wire application is controlled by eight (8) essential welding variables that are set by the operator (see Figure 6.17).
NOTE: There are many different process variations that use SAW. Parallel
electrodes and tandem electrodes, for example, will include additional SAW
essential variables; however, these will not be covered in this program.
Because the SAW process is typically mechanized, all of the variables are
machine settings and some settings cannot be changed once welding commences. This emphasizes the importance of proper machine setup prior to
welding. Careful and meticulous adjustment of the eight essential variables and
the joint tracking system settings are key to successful SAW. The SAW process requires little manipulative skill of the operator but requires considerable
knowledge skills in these areas.
The SAW essential welding variables control bead shape, appearance, penetration, and weld quality. These essential variables are the key settings that
make it possible to consistently obtain high productivity rates and quality
welds.
195

Wire Feed Speed/

Amperage
Contact Tube to
Work Distance
Polarity
Travel Angle
Voltage
Transverse Angle
Travel Speed
Electrode Position
Figure 6.17SAW Essential Welding Variables
Effect and Control

of SAW Essential
Welding Variables
Effect of Wire Feed Speed (WFS)/Amperage Dial

The SAW process can be run with either a constant voltage power source (CV)
or constant current power source (CC). In the case of CV, the wire feed speed
is set in inches per minute. For CC, the current is adjusted as an amperage setting. CV is preferred for smaller diameter wires and CC for larger diameters
although they can be used interchangeably.
1. Increasing Wire Feeder/Amperage Dial will:
Increase wire feed speed rate; therefore, permitting increased weld size
or permit an increase in the welding travel speed
Increase amperage
Increase electrode melt-off rate
Increase penetration and reinforcement of bead

196

2. Decreasing Wire Feeder/Amperage Dial will:
Decrease wire feed speed rate; therefore, permitting decreased weld

size or require a decrease in welding travel speed
Decrease amperage
Decrease electrode melt-off rate
Decrease penetration and reinforcement of bead
Effect of Polarity
1. Direct Current, Electrode Positive (DCEP):
Lowers deposition rate
Increases the penetration for better fusion characteristics
2. Direct Current, Electrode Negative (DCEN):
Increases deposition rate for faster welding
Decreases the penetration
Effect of Voltage Control Dial

1. Increasing dial (greater number) increases welding arc length and voltage:
Increases the width of the weld bead and flattens the weld bead in
appearance
Decreases the penetration
2. Decreasing dial (lower number) decreases welding arc length and voltage:
Decreases the width of the weld bead and increases weld bead height at
the center, i.e., more convex
Increases the penetration
3. Voltage can have a significant effect on slag detachability. Excessively

concave or convex beads can make the slag difficult to detach. Higher
voltages also have higher flux consumption.
197

Effect of Travel Speed

1. Increasing the travel speed dial will:
Increase the speed of the torch across the surface of the base metal
Decrease the width of the weld bead
Typically decrease the penetration of the weld
2. Decreasing the travel speed dial will:
Decrease the speed of the torch across the surface of the base metal
Increase the width of the weld bead
Typically increase the penetration of the weld bead but if speed is set
too low, the weld pool can flow ahead of the arc and reduce penetration
and trap slag
Effect of Contact Tube to Work Distance (CTTWD)

1. Increasing CTTWD will:
Decrease amperage.
Decrease penetration of the base metal.
2. Decreasing CTTWD will:
Increase amperage.
Increase penetration of the base metal.
Effect of Travel Angle

1. Push Travel Angle will:
Flatten bead
Decrease penetration into the base metal
2. Drag Travel Angle will:
Produce a more convex bead
Increase penetration into the base metal

198

Effect of Transverse Angle for a Fillet Weld
The correct transverse angle for a single pass fillet weld is about 40 from
the horizontal.
Increasing transverse angle will deposit a larger or taller vertical leg.
Decreasing the transverse angle will deposit a longer horizontal leg.
Effect of Wire Position on a Fillet Weld
Effect of Other
Variables in SAW
For small fillets, set the wire on the joint centerline. For larger fillets, bring
the wire out from the joint horizontally about 1/2 to 1 wire diameter.
Moving away from the joint horizontally will deposit a larger horizontal
leg.
Moving away from the joint vertically will deposit a larger vertical leg.
Other variables that have an impact on the SAW process are:

Effect of Butt JointSquare Groove
A tight butt joint decreases penetration
A gaped butt joint allows for increased penetration
A backup bar will support thin butt welds to prevent burnthrough
Maximum penetration in square butt joints without backup is 60% to 80%
Effect of Deep-Groove Welds
Slag is more difficult to remove when the weld bead shape in the deepgroove is full width and concave
Narrow and deep weld root beads are more prone to cracking; amperage on
root pass should not exceed 100 amps per 10 of bevel for a single wire
application
Slag is easier to remove when the weld bead shape in the deep-groove is
convex and less than full width of the weld joint
199

Opening up the included angle in a deep-groove weld can prevent cracking

in the root bead
Narrow and deep backgouging can lead to cracking, weld beads should be
wider than they are deep
Effect of Fillet Welds
A 3/8 in. leg is the largest single-pass fillet weld that can be made in the
horizontal position with a single electrode
A 1/2 in. leg is the largest single-pass fillet weld that can be made in the
horizontal position with a multiple electrodes
Effect of Circumferential Welds

1. Positioning of the arc on the circumference of the joint determines bead
shape and flux cover as follows:
With excessive displacement ahead of vertical center, the weld will

produce a shallow, concave bead
With inadequate displacement after or past the vertical center, the weld
will produce a narrow, humped bead
2. Positioning of the arc on the inside diameter of the joint determines bead
shape and flux cover as follows:
With inadequate displacement after or past the vertical center, the weld
will produce a shallow, concave bead
With excessive displacement ahead of the vertical, the weld will

produce a narrow, humped bead
Effect of Submerged Arc Flux

1. Inadequate flux cover causes:
Arc flashing
Incomplete slag cover, which results in defects such as porosity, brittleness, and reduced weld strength
200

2. Excessive flux cover causes:
Narrow, rough bead shape
Pockmarking of the bead surface
Reference
The AWS Welding Handbook, Volume 2Welding Processes, Chapter 6.
Guides and
Exercises
To obtain maximum benefit from this program it is recommended that you

follow this guide and complete the exercises. It is important that you thoroughly study each section carefully before moving to the next section. The
exercises are designed to give you an indication of whether you understand the
material presented. If you get a question wrong go back and read that section
again.
1. Which of the following is not an advantage of the SAW process?
A.
B.
C.
D.
High deposition rates

Joint tracking is simple, compared with other processes
Low hydrogen deposit
Not affected by wind or drafts
2. Which of the following type of SAW flux does not require a binder during
manufacture?
A.
B.
C.
D.
Fused
Bonded
Agglomerated
Iron powder
3. Which of the following welding processes has the highest deposition rate?
A.
B.
C.
D.
SMAW
SAW
GTAW
GMAW
4. On a constant current system (CC), increasing the amperage increases the:

A.
B.
C.
D.
Bead width
Voltage
Flux depth
Penetration
201

5. An increase in voltage produces the following effect:

A.
B.
C.
D.
Increases flux consumption

Reduces flux consumption
Produces narrow beads
Reduces arc length
6. An increase in CTTWD on a constant voltage (CV) system with the same

wire feed speed will:
A.
B.
C
D.
Increase amperage
Increase deposition rate
Increase the machine voltage
Reduce amperage
7. True or False?
DCEN will give a higher deposition rate but DCEP will increase
penetration. True False
202

Answers
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
B
A
B
D
A
D
True
203

Notes
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204

Chapter 7Steel Metallurgy
Chapter 7STEEL METALLURGY

Introduction
Steel is a very versatile material. It is relatively inexpensive and is produced in

a wide variety of shapes, sizes, and mechanical properties. About 850 million
metric tons of steel were produced in the world in 2000, far exceeding any
other metal. Hence, it is not surprising that steel is the most commonly welded
material.
Steelmakers use a variety of methods to achieve specific properties of steel
products. When welded, steels undergo metallurgical transformations that can
lead to the loss of these properties, cracking, or other detrimental effects. It is
vital that the welding supervisor has a basic knowledge of steel metallurgy in
order to properly apply welding procedures and practices.
Steelmaking
The modern age of steelmaking began in the middle of the 19th century in
England when Henry Bessemer developed a converter process to produce
carbon steels in large quantities. Modern steel works use a modified version of
the converter process called the Basic Oxygen Furnace (BOF). In this process,
oxygen is used to reduce undesirable levels of carbon and other elements (see
Figure 7.1).
O2
Oxygen Lance
Bath Level
Molten Metal
Figure 7.1Basic Oxygen Furnace (BOF)
205

Wrought iron is soft because it contains almost no carbon and cast iron is
brittle because it contains too much. Intermediate carbon levels provide the
best combination of strength, ductility, and toughness (see Figure 7.2).
Carbon steel
(strong, tougher)
High carbon
Very low carbon

Wrought iron
(soft)
Cast iron
(brittle)
Figure 7.2Carbon Triangle
Chemical
Reactions in
Steelmaking
The blast furnace reduces iron ore (iron oxide) to form iron by using the reducing agents of carbon monoxide and carbon. A sample reaction is shown in
Equation 7.1.
FeO + CO Fe + CO2
(Eq. 7.1)
The resulting iron is brittle because of excessive carbon and other elements.
Steelmaking lowers carbon (C), silicon (Si), and phosphorous (P) levels by
combining these elements with oxygen (O2) to form compounds that are
removed with the slag (see Figure 7.3).
O2
Slag
Si
Figure 7.3Oxidation in Steelmaking
206

At this point the steel will contain about 0.20% O2 , which can make the steel
brittle or cause the evolution of gas when the oxygen combines with carbon.
This extra oxygen must be removed by adding deoxidizers such as manganese
(Mn), silicon (Si), and aluminum (Al) just before casting. These elements
combine with the oxygen, and the resulting compound is removed through the
slag (see Figure 7.4).
Si
Slag
SiO2
Molten Steel
Figure 7.4Deoxidation in Steel Making
The degree of steel deoxidation is described below.

1. Rimmed Steelsare only slightly deoxidized. Carbon monoxide gas is
produced, which leaves the outer layer or rim almost free of carbon. The
low carbon surface layer of rimmed steel is very ductile and suited to sheet
steel for cold forming and for applications where the quality of the surface
condition is important.
2. Killed Steelsare strongly deoxidized and have a high degree of uniformity in chemical composition and properties. The low oxygen content
provides good mechanical properties, especially toughness.
3. Semikilled Steelshave an intermediate level of deoxidation between
rimmed and killed steels.
Important
Elements in Plain
Carbon Steels
Based on the previous discussion, it is evident that certain elements are important in determining the properties of plain carbon steels. Most steel specifications will specify at least the range of chemical composition for the elements
shown in Tables 7.1 and 7.2.
Table 7.1Important Elements in Plain Carbon Steels
Carbon
Manganese
Mn
Silicon
Si
Sulfur
Phosphorous
207

Table 7.2Typical Mill Test Report for Heat Analysis (% by weight)

C
Mn
Si
0.15
1.2
0.25
0.015
0.009
Aluminum is another element often specified in mill test reports. Aluminum is

used to control grain size and provide deoxidation. Aluminum killed steels
have a higher level of fracture toughness. Typical aluminum content for carbon
steels, when used, is in the range of 0.02%0.05%.
Some steel mills use scrap steel as their source of material. This scrap can contain small amounts of elements called residuals, including Cr, Ni, and Cu,
which have a negative effect on weldability, and need to be controlled by the
steelmaker. Some steel specifications have been designed to take advantage
of controlled residuals like copper. For example, ASTM A 992 specifies steel
to be strengthened with copper as a precipitation hardening agent. This specification is restrictive on other elements such as carbon, allowing for good
weldability.
Iron has the special characteristic of existing in different arrangements of
atoms as a solid. Depending on the temperature, it can have either a body
centered cubic (bcc) or a face centered cubic (fcc) crystallographic structure
(see Figure 7.5).
body centered cubic (bcc)
liquid
Expansion
Carbon in Iron
face centered cubic (fcc)
Temperature
Figure 7.5Arrangement of Atoms Depends on Temperature
Another important characteristic of iron is the difference in the solubility of

carbon between the bcc structure and the fcc structure. This difference depends
on the space between the iron atoms as shown in Table 7.3.
208

Table 7.3Solubility of Carbon in Iron

bcc Iron
fcc Iron
Radius of space between Fe atoms (A)
0.19
0.51
Radius of carbon atoms (A)
0.90
0.90
Maximum solubility of carbon in iron (wt%)
0.02
1.70
The characteristics shown in Table 7.3 provide steel with some unique metallurgical properties that are best explained using the iron-carbon phase diagram.
The phase diagram shown in Figure 7.6 shows the phases that are present at
various temperatures for the complete range of compositions of steel under the
conditions of slow heating and cooling. Fcc iron (austenite) has a much greater
solubility for carbon than bcc iron (ferrite). Hence, at lower temperatures steel
exists as two phases, and at higher temperatures as a single phase.
1500
Liquid
Liquid +austenite
Austenite (fcc)
Temperature (C)
1000
500
Ferrite
Ferrite + cementite
1.0%
2.0%
3.0%
Weight percent of carbon
Figure 7.6Iron-Carbon Phase Diagram
209
4.0%

During slow cooling, the carbon cannot be accommodated in the ferrite phase
(bcc); therefore, a second phase is formed called cementite (Fe3C), which is a
very hard carbide. At 0.8% carbon, this carbide and ferrite form simultaneously from austenite (fcc) to a microstructure called pearlite (see Figure 7.7).
Temperature
austenite (carbon in solution)
Austenite (fcc)
cementite layer
ferrite layer
Ferrite (bcc)
pearlite (lamellar mixture

of ferrite and carbide)
0.8%
Figure 7.7Formation of 100% Pearlite at 0.8% Carbon
At 0.20% carbon, the resulting metallurgical structure is a combination of

ferrite grains and pearlite grains (see Figure 7.8).
Cementite is very hard and brittle as compared with ferrite. However, the
cementite in pearlite is surrounded by soft ferrite and the combination provides
good strength and ductility in the lower carbon range. Increasing the carbon
above 0.8% (100% pearlite) does not increase the strength of steel as shown in
Figure 7.9.
Strengthening
Methods
The steel metallurgist has a variety of methods for increasing the strength of
steel. Depending on the steel alloy, the steel producer uses different strengthening methods. The method selected depends on the intended application for the
material and the desired mechanical properties. When steel is heated and
cooled during the welding operation, these properties may change. To understand these changes and control the welding procedure to minimize any detrimental effects, the welding supervisor should have a basic understanding of
strengthening methods and how the steel is affected by welding.
210

Temperature
austenite (carbon in solution)
Austenite (fcc)
ferrite
Ferrite (bcc)
0.2%
pearlite (lamellar mixture

of ferrite and carbide)
Figure 7.8With Carbon Content Less than 0.8%, the Resulting

Structure is a Combination of Ferrite and Pearlite
1000
Ultimate tensile strength
Strength (MPa)
800
600
400
Yield strength
200
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
Weight % carbon
Figure 7.9Effect of Carbon on Strength
Many methods to increase the strength of steel rely on preventing movement in

the atomic structure of each grain of steel. This movement, called slip, occurs
in the crystal pattern of atoms as shown in Figure 7.10.
211

Making movement of atoms relative to each other

harder to do will increase the strength of steel.
Figure 7.10Slip within a Grain of Steel
Other methods use second phases that are much harder than the surrounding
matrix to increase strength. The role of cementite as described above is an
example of this method.
Alloying
For structural applications, most metals are not used in their pure form. For
example, we can change the properties of iron by adding other elements to
form alloys. Solid solutions are mixtures of the atoms of two or more different
elements in the solid state. There are two different types of solid solutions as
shown in Figure 7.11. The alloy distorts the crystallographic structure, which
makes slip more difficult and thereby increases strength.
Substitutional solid solution where some of the

atoms in the regular atomic array are replaced
by atoms of another element.
Interstitial solid solution where small

atoms of one element are located in
the spaces between the atoms of
the main element.
(A) Substitutional Solid Solution (e.g.,

Manganese, Silicon, Chromium)
(B) Interstitial Solid Solution (e.g.,

Carbon, Nitrogen Boron, Hydrogen)
Figure 7.11Substitutional vs. Interstitial Solid Solution
Carbides
Another very useful feature of alloy additions is that some alloys tend to form
carbides (see Figure 7.12) rather than go into solid solution. Different alloys
have different tendencies to go into solid solution or form carbides as shown
in Figure 7.13. We will discuss the effect of carbides later under Strengthening by Precipitation Hardening.
212

Carbides
Figure 7.12Carbides
Tendency to Form
Alloy
Solid Solution
Both
Carbide
P
Si
Al
Ni
Cu
Co
Mn
Cr
W
Mo
V
Nb (Cb)
Ti
Figure 7.13Tendency to Form Carbides
213

Effects of
Manganese
and Sulfur
Certain elements combine with iron to form brittle compounds and need to be
controlled. For example, sulfur can react with iron to form iron sulfide, as
shown in Equation 7.2.
Fe + S = FeS (Brittle)
(Eq. 7.2)
FeS forms at grain boundaries, making low manganese steel brittle. Because
FeS melts at low temperatures, welding can cause the sulfides to melt at the
grain boundaries, which makes the steel weak. Weldable steels have sulfur
levels at less than 0.05%.
With manganese in the steel, sulfur tends to form manganese sulfide, which is
present as globules distributed throughout the grains, rather than at grain
boundaries. MnS is one of the main nonmetallic inclusions in steel and is not
detrimental in the rolling direction when uniformly distributed. Manganese
additions are important for deoxidation during steelmaking and increase
strength though solid solution effects.
Strengthening by
Solid Solution
Because aluminum is strongly attracted to oxygen, it can further decrease the

level of dissolved oxygen beyond that obtained with just silicon alone. Aluminum also lowers the soluble nitrogen content and forms aluminum nitride,
which is beneficial in retarding grain growth during subsequent heating operations such as normalizing (see Equations 7.3 and 7.4).
Al + O2 = Deoxidizing
(Eq. 7.3)
Al + N2 = Denitriding
(Eq. 7.4)
The strengthening effect of carbon compared with other alloying elements is

Change in yield strength (MPa)
Effects of
Aluminum
+300
Carbon and Nitrogen

Phosphorus
Silicon
+200
+100
Copper
Manganese
+0
Molybdenum
Nickel
Chromium
100
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
Weight percent of alloy element
Figure 7.14Effect of Various Alloy Elements on the Strength of Ferrite
214

In actual results, the elements may have other effects in addition to simple solid
solution strengthening, therefore, the strength increase may be different from that
shown in Figure 7.14. For example, carbon also forms pearlite, which has a good
combination of strength and ductility. Increasing the carbon content increases the
amount of pearlite and therefore the strength, as we have shown previously.
Carbon and nitrogen also provide a distinct yield point in steel as shown in Figure 7.15. The yield stress is the load at this point divided by the area of the test
specimen.
Fracture
Upper
yield
Stress
Ultimate
tensile strength
Lower
yield
Elongation
Figure 7.15Stress Strain Curve
However, increasing the carbon content has a negative effect on ductility as

measured by the reduction in area of a test specimen (see Figure 7.16).
100
Reduction in area %
80
60
The effect of carbon content on

ductility in plain carbon steels.
40
20
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
Weight % carbon
Figure 7.16Effect of Carbon Content on Ductility in Plain Carbon Steels
215

Furthermore, increasing carbon levels raises the risk of certain types of weld
cracking so that weldability is reduced. Some typical carbon steels are shown
in Table 7.4.
Table 7.4Typical Carbon Steels
Wire (less than 0.15 C), e.g., nails, wire fence
Structural Steel (Typ. 0.2 C), e.g., ASTM A 36
C
Mn
Si
S
P
0.25 max.
0.801.20
0.15 typ.
0.04 max.
0.05 max.
Machinery Steel (Typ. 0.45 C), e.g., AISI 1045
C
Mn
Si
S
P
0.430.50
0.600.920
0.15 typ.
0.05 max.
0.04 max.
Crane Rail (Typ. 0.75 C)
C
Mn
Si
S
P
0.670.82
0.701.0
0.100.30
0.05 max.
0.04 max.
Summary SheetCarbon Steels
Strengthening by
Precipitation
Hardening
Strengthening
Method
Use of carbon to increase pearlite content
Advantages
Very effective and relatively inexpensive
Disadvantages
Increasing carbon lowers ductility, toughness, and

weldability
In the precipitation hardening method, small additions (microalloying) of elements like vanadium and columbium (niobium) are added to steel to increase
strength. We have seen previously that second phases in steels like cementite can
be useful in increasing strength. Microalloying is somewhat different in that the
elements form second phases or precipitates that are embedded within the atomic
structure, as shown in Figure 7.17. Typically the precipitates are carbides.
This method is more effective than solid solution strengthening, because the
precipitate helps prevent movement of the atoms in the grains of steel. This
method also allows a reduction in carbon content, which improves weldability.
ASTM A 441 and A 572 are typical examples of steels that use this method.
ASTM A 992 is a relatively new grade, which is strengthened with copper as a
precipitation hardening agent.
216

Carbides at grain boundaries
Carbides within atomic structure
Figure 7.17Carbides are the Typical Precipitates
Summary SheetMicroalloyed Steels

Strengthening
Method
Use of microalloy additions like vanadium to provide

a precipate that strengthens steel
Advantages
Effective and relatively inexpensive
Disadvantages
By itself, will lower toughness, but if combined with

lower carbon, adequate results can be obtained
Some microalloyed steels such as A 656 Type 1
exhibit poor heat-affected zone (HAZ) toughness
Grain Size
Strengthening
Grain refinement is a powerful tool for the steel metallurgist. Smaller grains
increase strength since grain boundaries provide an obstacle to slip within the
atomic structure. The smaller the grain size, the greater the number of grain
boundaries.
The other significant feature of grain refinement is that it is the only method
that simultaneously improves strength and toughness. Toughness is the ability
of a material to resist a load (or absorb energy) without fracturing. Most other
methods of increasing strength cause a reduction in the toughness of steel,
therefore, grain size control has become an important feature of modern steels.
The effects of various strengthening methods on strength and toughness is
217

Increase in yield strength (MPa)

40
Carbon
30
Dislocations
20
Precipitation
Grain refinement
10
+30 +20 +10

0 10 20 30
Change in impact transition temperature oC
Figure 7.18Effects of Various Strengthening Methods

on Strength and Toughness
The grain size of steel can be reduced by a normalizing heat treatment (see
Figure 7.19). Normalizing involves heating steel with a carbon content of
about 0.20% to a temperature of 1600F (900C) followed by an air cool.
1000
Normalizing
900
Temperature oC
Normalizing
800
Full annealing
and hardening
Ac3
Ac1
700
Spheroidizing anneal
600
Stress relief
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
Weight% carbon
Figure 7.19Normalizing Heat Treatment
Because significant improvements in toughness can be realized, this heat treatment is commonly used for pressure vessel steels like A 516-70 (see Figure
7.20). However, heating to high temperatures is expensive and this has led
steelmakers to use other methods of grain refinement where possible.
218
Ft-lb. energy absorbed

70
60
50
Normalized
1 in. to 2 in.
Improvement in
toughness by a
normalizing heat
treatment.
40
As rolled
1 in. to 2 in.
30
20
10
Temperature oF
60
40
20
20
40
60
Range of expected Charpy V-notch (long) impact properties A 516 Gr 70
Courtesy of Stelco Inc., Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
Figure 7.20Normalizing Heat Treatment Can Improve Toughness
Fine-Grained
Microalloyed
Steels
The application of fine-grained microalloyed steels was initially developed by

the pipeline industry to reduce the weight and cost of welding steel by welding
thinner but higher strength material. Today, these modern steels are used in
many other applications such as bridges and offshore drilling rigs.
These steels use vanadium and/or niobium carbides to provide increased
strength by precipitation hardening and increased toughness by minimizing
grain growth during hot rolling (see Figure 7.21).
A comparison of the toughness levels achieved through different methods is
Fine-grained microalloyed steels are particularly sensitive to the loss of
mechanical properties by improper fabrication operations. For example, overheating the material by the careless use of heating torches can cause an
increase in grain size, thereby damaging the metallurgical structure.
219

Original austenite grains
Austenite grains deformed

during hot rolling
When rolling is finished at high

temperature, grains recrystallize
and grow again.
If rolling is finished at lower temperature,

tendancy to regrow is reduced.
If rolling is finished at low temperature

and recrystallization is retarded by
niobium, small size will be retained.
Figure 7.21Controlled Rolling
Normalized-killed fine grain
As-rolled-killed fine grain

As-rolled
semi-killed
Increasing thickness
Figure 7.22Comparison of Toughness Levels

Achieved through Different Methods
220
Decreasing ferrite grain size
Increasing impact energy
Controlled rolled-killed fine grain

Summary SheetFine-Grained Steels

Strengthening
Method
Use of normalizing or controlled rolling to reduce

grain size
Use of carbides to retard grain growth during rolling
Advantages
Both strength and toughness are improved

Carbon can be kept relatively low to improve
weldability
Disadvantages
Normalizing can be expensive

Controlled rolling is less expensive but maximum
plates thickness are limited due to power required to
roll plate at lower temperatures
Careful control of fabrication operations such as
torch heating is required
Strengthening by
Heat Treating
We have seen previously that when steel is heated to the austenitic phase, all
the carbon atoms will be in solid solution. For example, a 0.15% carbon steel
heated to 900C (1660F) will be fully austenitic. The phase diagrams show
the results when the steel is cooled slowly, i.e., the austenite (fcc) transforms to
ferrite (bcc) plus cementite (see Equation 7.5).
Austenite Ferrite + Fe3C
(Eq. 7.5)
If rapid cooling occurs, the austenite (fcc) transformation to ferrite (bcc) still
takes place; however, the carbon atoms now become trapped within the bcc
structure because there is no time for the carbon to diffuse out. The resulting
structure, martensite, is a supersaturated solid solution of carbon in bcc iron.
Normally, bcc iron cannot accommodate much carbon in solid solution. This
limited solubility distorts the atomic structure, which causes an increase in
volume along with a significant increase in hardness and strength. These steels
are hardened by the use of relatively fast cooling rates.
Effect of Alloy
Additions
In Figure 7.23, the cooling time from 900C (1660F) should be about 1 second to obtain the martensite structure. While this fast cooling rate may occur
on the surface of a steel plate it is not likely in the middle thickness regions
(see Figure 7.24).
When alloys are present, the transformation to martensite occurs at a much
slower cooling rate (see Figure 7.25). The movement of substitutional alloys
such as chromium from one position in the austenitic phase to another site in
221

Temperature (C)
700
Slow cool
500
Ferrite + Pealite
Fast cool
300
100
Martensite
1.0
10
100
Time (sec) Log. Scale
1000
Figure 7.23Martensite Formation in a Steel with Little Alloy Content
Fast cooling
Slow cooling
Figure 7.24Fast vs. Slow Cooling
222

Temperature (C)
700
Slow cool
At this cooling rate,

alloy additions required
to obtain martensite.
500
Fast cool
300
100
Martensite
1.0
10
100
1000
Figure 7.25Comparison of Martensite Formation at Different Cooling Rates
the martensite phase is much slower than the movement of carbon atoms. The
net effect of this movement is that martensite is formed at much slower cooling
rates, which allows thicker materials to be through-hardened more effectively.
The relative ability of a steel to form martensite when quenched is hardenability. Alloy additions such as Mn, Cr, and Mo are very effective in increasing
hardenability. This is an important concept to remember when weld cracking is
discussed in a subsequent section.
Because martensite is too brittle to be used as a structural material, it is often
tempered (softened) by heating to an appropriate temperature to obtain desired
strength levels (see subsequent example for AISI 4140).
Alloy additions and heat treating are an effective technique for making strong
steels; however, it reduces weldability because the use of preheat or large
passes to reduce cooling rates has little effect on reducing hardness. In effect,
the heat-affected zone (HAZ) of the weld is hard no matter what preheat or
heat input is used for welding. In such cases, thermal stress relief after welding
may be necessary to temper or soften the HAZ.
223

Caution should be used when heating quenched and tempered materials to high
temperatures, because the material can be damaged if the tempering temperature is exceeded. For example, when stress relief is needed it should be kept
about 50F below the tempering temperature to avoid loss of strength. The use
of flame heating for shape correction should be avoided, because torch heating
can be difficult to control (see Figure 7.26).
Figure 7.26Use Caution when Heating to High Temperatures
It should also be noted that with alloy steels, the formation of martensite can be
depressed to relatively low temperatures. As shown in Figure 7.27, martensite
will form over a range of temperatures and the start (Ms) and finish (Mf)
temperatures can be defined. Whether the preheat, interpass, and postheat
temperatures are above or below the Ms is important, and will be discussed
further in the next section.
Temperature (C)
700
500
Austenite
Austenite + Martensite
300
Martensite start (Ms)
Martensite finish (Mf)

100
1.0
10
100
1000
Figure 7.27Martensite will Form Over a Range of Temperatures
224

Alloy additions do not have a significant effect on the hardness of the martensite, which is mainly determined by the carbon content (see Figure 7.28).
1000
Alloy
martensites
Hardness Hv
800
Retained
austenite
600
400
Plain carbon
martensite
200
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
Weight % carbon
Figure 7.28How Carbon Content Affects Martensite Hardness
Because martensite is relatively hard and brittle, it must be softened or tempered to obtain the best combination of strength and toughness. The effect of
tempering temperature is shown in Figure 7.29.
Summary SheetHeat Treatable Steels

Strengthening
Method
Quenching to form martensite and then tempering to

the required strength
Advantages
Very high strengths can be obtained

Versatile as a given alloy can provide a range of
strength depending on tempering temperature
Disadvantages
Steels with relatively high carbon levels are very

demanding to weld because of their sensitivity to
hydrogen cracking
Can be expensive due to the higher alloy content and
heat treating procedures required
225

Composition
C
Mn
Si
P
S
Ni
Cr
Mo
Heat Treatment
0.41
0.85
0.20
0.024
0.031
0.12
1.01
0.24
Normalize at 1600F
Reheat to 1550F
Quench in oil
Temper at 100F intervals as shown in Figure 7.29
Tempering of AISI 4140
250,000
600
ile
ns
Te
200,000
Hardness (HB)
th
ng oint
re
P
St
eld
Yi
Strength (psi)
Tempering of AISI 4140
150,000
500
400
70%
100,000
n of Area
Reductio
60%
50%
40%
300
30%
20%
Elongation
10%
400 500 600
700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300
400 500 600
Tempering Temperature F
(A) Strength
700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300

Tempering Temperature F
(B) Hardness
Figure 7.29Effect of Tempering
Mechanical
Testing of
Base Metals
Steel base metals are tested by the steel mill to ensure that all the requirements
of the steel specification are met. In addition to the chemical analysis, the mill
test report provides the results of the various mechanical tests, including:
Tensile strength
Yield strength
Elongation
226

The tensile and yield strengths are shown in Figure 7.30. They are calculated
by taking the load at the point of interest and dividing by the area of the test
specimen taken from the base material.
Fracture
Upper
yield
Stress
Ultimate
tensile strength
Lower
yield
Elongation
Figure 7.30Tensile and Yield Strengths
Elongation is the measure of materials ability to stretch without breaking, or

ductility. The elongation is determined from the tensile specimen (see Figure
7.31). After the tensile specimen breaks, the two halves are put together and
the distance between gage marks applied before testing is measured. The percent elongation is given in Equation 7.6.
% Elongation = Increase in length 100
Initial length
Gage Length
Figure 7.31Tensile Specimen
227
(Eq. 7.6)

Weld Testing
It is important that the weld provides matching mechanical properties to the

base metal (see Figure 7.32).
Weld Metal
Unaffected
Base Metal
Heat-Affected Zone
Figure 7.32Parts of a Weld
For example, if the weld has insufficient strength, failure of the weld joint can
occur. Some welding codes ensure matching properties by specifying the electrode strength level, joint details, and welding details, which are prequalified
conditions. In such cases, mechanical testing of the welding procedure may not
be necessary.
In other situations, where mechanical testing of the welding procedure is
required, the weld properties should at least match those of the base metal. The
test is also a demonstration that the fabricator can perform satisfactory welding
(see Figure 7.33).
A typical procedure qualification test plate is shown in Figure 7.34. The location of the tensile specimens and bend specimens is indicated.
Tensile Test
The tensile test is used to determine the ultimate tensile strength (UTS) of the
joint. The maximum load is divided by the area (prior to testing) of the reduced
section (see Equation 7.7).
UTS = Load/Area
(Eq. 7.7)
For weld testing, the yield point and elongation usually are not measured. To
pass, the tensile strength shall be no less than the minimum of the specified
tensile strength range of the base metal used.
228

Figure 7.33The Procedure Test is a Demonstration

of a Fabricators Capability
Tensile specimen
Bend specimens
Tensile specimen
Figure 7.34Typical Procedure Qualification Test Plate
Bend Test
The bend test is a measure of both the ductility of the joint and the soundness
of the weld. For acceptance, the surface on the tension side must not contain
discontinuities exceeding certain dimensions. A dimension of 1/8 in. is often
specified in welding standards. Bend tests can be either side, root, or
229

face. With the root or face bend the corresponding location of the weld is the
tension side. With a side bend the complete thickness of the joint is put into
tension (see Figure 7.35).
Side Bend
Root Bend
Plate
Thickness
Plate
Thickness
Face Bend
Plate
Thickness
Figure 7.35Bend Specimens
Charpy Test
The Charpy test is a measure of toughness at a specified temperature. Toughness is the ability of a material to avoid a fracture (or absorb the energy) from
an impact load. If a specimen fractures at a relatively high temperature with
low absorbed energy, it is described as being brittle. Brittle fractures are
dangerous because they can occur without warning. The fracture can extend
through the thickness of the material and propagate for long lengthsleading
to catastrophic failure.
The Charpy test measures the energy absorbed in a small test specimen that
contains a notch (see Figure 7.36). A typical Charpy impact testing machine is
shown in Figure 7.37. The difference in the initial height of the hammer and
the height obtained after striking the specimen is a measure of the energy
absorbed by the specimen.
The specimen is cooled to the temperature of interest. The energy value is
recorded in ft-lbs or joules. The higher the value the better the result. The test
can be done in the base metal, weld metal, or HAZ. Most specifications require
a minimum value of 15 ft-lbs or 20 ft-lbs.
230

0.394 in.
(10 mm)
0.315 in.
(8 mm)
L/2
0.394 in.
(10 mm)
2.165 in.
(55 mm)
STRIKING EDGE
SPECIMEN
0.039 in. RAD

(1 mm)
80o + 2o
CENTER OF
STRIKE
ANVIL
1.574 in. (40 mm)
Figure 7.36Charpy Test Specimen
(A) Initial Position of Hammer
(B) Strike Position of Hammer
Figure 7.37Charpy Testing Apparatus
231

Welding
Metallurgy of
Steels
In the first section of this chapter, we examined the metallurgy of steel base
metals. In this section, we will consider the metallurgy of the weld itself, which
includes both the weld metal and adjacent HAZ. Having a good understanding
of welding metallurgy is important for the supervisor to ensure that the weld
matches the base metal in terms of mechanical properties and that the welding
operation does not introduce injurious defects into the joint.
Therefore, the objectives of this section are to:
Mechanical
Properties of
Welds
Understand the welding procedural variables so as to ensure adequate

mechanical properties.
Understand how to minimize the risk of hydrogen cracking in steels
Understand how to avoid solidification cracking in steel.
Weld Metal
The mechanical properties of importance for the weld metal are strength and
toughness. The most obvious factor here is to ensure the use of the correct electrode. The specified electrode classification will be indicated in the welding
procedures such as a welding procedure specification or similar document. It is
critical that the welding supervisor be very familiar with these procedures and
the base metals being welded so that the correct electrode is used in every joint.
Refer to the Chapter 9, Welding Instructions, for further information.
It is of interest to note that the solidified weld metal will have a microstructure
that is much different from the base metal. The base metal goes through a
slowly cooled casting process plus a complex heating and rolling sequence.
The weld metal on the other hand is a rapidly cooled casting and its properties
will depend on its microstructure and composition. Table 7.5 shows a base
metal and weld metal of equal strength. However, the chemistry will be different with the carbon content usually much lower in the weld metal.
Table 7.5Comparison of Base Metal and Weld Metal of Similar Strength
C
Mn
Si
ASTM A 516
0.24
0.9
0.22
0.017
0.011
E7018
0.04
1.1
0.35
0.014
0.015
Weld metal is actually a mixture of melted electrode and melted base metal
(see Figure 7.38). Its composition depends on three things:
1. Chemical composition of the electrode or filler metal
232

2. Chemical composition of the base metal

3. Chemical reactions between the weld metal, shielding gas, or flux
Fil
Metler
al
Base
Metal
Weld metal
cocktail
Figure 7.38Weld Metal Cocktail
Dilution is the relative proportion of the base metal in the weld. Dilution can be
calculated from a weld cross section using the formula shown in Figure 7.39.
% Dilution =
area of base metal melted 100

area of total metal melted
Total area melted
Base metal melted

(below dotted line)
Figure 7.39Dilution Calculations
Typical dilution values for some commonly welded joints are shown in Figure
7.40.
The welding process itself can have a major effect with SMAW having a
relatively low dilution and SAW having a relatively high dilution (see Figure
7.41).
233

Weld Metal Composition

80% filler metal
20% base metal
Fillet Welds
60% filler metal

40% base metal
Single-V Groove Welds
(depends on groove angle)
20% filler metal

80% base metal
Square Groove Weld
Figure 7.40Typical Dilution of Various Welds
Low dilution
High dilution
Figure 7.41Comparison of Dilution
The Heat-Affected Zone (HAZ)

The essential welding variables also need to be included when considering the
mechanical properties of welds. Although heat input does not have a significant effect on strength, it can change the toughness of both the weld metal and
the HAZ. As shown in Figure 7.42, the HAZ lies adjacent to the fused weld
metal and is typically less than 1/8 in. wide, although it can exceed this width
in high heat input processes. Initially, the HAZ is base metal that has not been
melted. However, the HAZ can be heated high enough and can be cooled fast
enough to cause changes in the mechanical properties of this region.
234

Weld Beads
Weld Interface
< 1/8
Unaffected Base Metal
Heat-Affected Zone
Figure 7.42The Heat-Affected Zone (HAZ)
The heat from the arc raises the temperature of the base metal on either side of
the weld. The HAZ reaches the highest temperatures with the maximum temperature at the fusion boundary, or weld interface (see Figure 7.43).
1000 oF
500 oF
200 oF
HAZ
Figure 7.43Heating of the Base Metal
Within the HAZ region adjacent to the bond line, the temperature is high
enough to form austenite, which may transform to a variety of structures on
cooling. In Region 1 shown in Figure 7.44, the grain size will be relatively
large because of the high temperatures obtained. Region 2 is also austenitized,
but the temperature is too low to promote significant grain growth resulting in
a fine grain size. Next to this area is Region 3, where partial transformation to
austenite occurs. No austenite forms in Region 4 and no major changes to the
microstructure occur; however, secondary effects such as changing of the ferrite structure and tempering of the martensite, if present, may take place.
235

Figure 7.44Approximate Relationships Between the Peak Temperature,

the Distance from Weld Interface, and the Iron-Carbon Phase Diagram
Heat Input
The resulting microstructure in both the weld metal and the HAZ depend significantly on the heat input used in making the weld. Heat input is important
because it determines the cooling rate in the weld.
In a 100 watt light bulb, the total energy output is 100 watts, most of which is
heat. If the bulb is plugged into a 110 volt outlet the resulting current will be about
0.9 amps. The light bulb converts electricity into heat and light (see Figure 7.45).
Similarly, the electric arc converts electricity into heat that melts the base
metal. Measuring the amount of heat input is important and can be quantified
using the concept of heat input per unit length (see Figure 7.46).
The rate at which energy is developed in the arc, as with the light bulb, is:
Joules per second (watts) = measured arc voltage measured current
In arc welding, however, the arc is moved along the joint at a constant speed.
Under these conditions, the heat input per unit length provides us with the
amount of heat exposure for each unit length of weld. The formulas shown in
Equations 7.8 and 7.9 are for both U.S. Customary and metric (SI) units.
236

Watts = amps volts

100 = 0.91 110
110 volts
Current = 0.91 amps
ETER
AMM
100 watts
Figure 7.45Ammeter
ELECTRICITY
HEAT
ELECTRICITY
Figure 7.46Heat and Electricity
U.S. Customary
Energy input/in. (kJ/in.) =
where:
kJ/in. = kilojoules/in.
travel speed = in./min.
237
voltage amperage 60
travel speed 1000
(Eq. 7.8)

Metric (SI)
Energy input/mm (kJ/mm) =
voltage amperage
travel speed 1000
(Eq. 7.9)
where:
kJ/mm = kilojoules/mm
travel speed = mm/sec
Heat input has a major effect on cooling rate. Larger welds tend to cool at a
slower rate than smaller welds because there is greater heat to dissipate. This is
an important point to remember for understanding weld cracking (see Figure
7.47).
Fast Cooling
Slow Cooling
A relatively large weld (high heat input)

will cool more slowly than a small weld.
Figure 7.47How Heat Input Affects Cooling Rate
Cooling rates can be measured and plotted against heat input and material
thickness (see Figure 7.48).
As mentioned previously, heat input has an important effect on the resulting
mechanical properties of both the weld metal and the HAZ, which primarily is
due to the effect of heat input on grain size and cooling rate. As shown in Figure 7.49, the relationship between the maximum austenite grain size in the
HAZ and the heat input is linear when plotted on a log scale. A similar effect
occurs in the weld metal, which results in toughness that decreases
significantly with relatively high heat inputs (see Figure 7.50). When toughness is a specified material property, control of heat input may be required.
238
Cooling Rate (C/sec @ 540C)

100
3/16 Fillet
90
80
SMAW
70
60
50
40
5/16 Fillet
30
20
10
0.25
0.50
0.75
1.0
1.25
1.50
Plate Thickness "t" (in.)
Figure 7.48Cooling Rate vs. Plate Thickness (SMAW)
ASTM Grain Size Number
3
Smaller grain size
number = larger
grain size
5
after Graville
6
10.0
20.0
50.0
100.0
200.0
500.0
Heat Input (kJ/in)
Figure 7.49Effect of Heat Input on Grain Size
239

150
Absorbed Energy (J)
125
E7018 weld metal
at 40C
100
75
50
25
3
4
Heat Input (kJ/mm)
Figure 7.50Effect of Heat Input on Weld Metal Toughness
In the HAZ, hardness affects both toughness and cracking. Figure 7.51 shows a
typical hardening curve for a plain carbon steel. The HAZ hardness changes
depending on the cooling rate. Fast cooling rates produce a harder HAZ that is
prone to cracking; slow cooling rates can cause a loss of toughness.
Maximum hardness
Hardness
Faster
Cooling Rate
Slower
Figure 7.51Typical Hardening Curve for a

Plain Carbon Steel (After Graville)
240

Heat input is proportional to the area of the deposited metal for a given welding process and welding conditions. The relationship between heat input and
fillet size for SMAW is shown in Figure 7.52. As expected, small welds have a
low heat input and large welds have a high heat input.
Fillet leg Length (in.)
1/2
7/16
3/8
5/16
1/4
3/16
1/8
20
40
60
80
100
Heat Input (kJ/in.)
Figure 7.52Fillet Size vs. Heat Input for SMAW (After Graville)
Hydrogen
Cracking
Hydrogen cracking can be a major problem when welding steels. Although

hydrogen is always involved, other factors also contribute to the problem.
Hydrogen cracking, or cold cracking, only occurs after the weld has cooled
downtypically within 24 hours after welding, although longer periods have
been recorded. This is significant in terms of determining when inspection is to
be done. Typical locations of hydrogen cracking are shown in Figure 7.53. Figure 7.54 shows a HAZ hydrogen crack at the toe of the horizontal leg of a
three-pass fillet weld.
Some important features of hydrogen are as follows:
It is the lightest of all elements
It is highly flammable
It is used as a fuel in missiles and fuel cells
It embrittles steel
241

Toe crack (HAZ)
Transverse crack
Root crack
Underbead crack (HAZ)
Figure 7.53Typical Locations of Hydrogen Cracking
Figure 7.54HAZ Hydrogen Crack at Weld Toe
It is this latter property that is of concern in the welding of steels. There are
four factors necessary for hydrogen cracking to occur:
1. The presence of hydrogen present in the weld zone
2. Stress or strain will always be present in the weld
3. Susceptible (hard) microstructure
4. Temperaturecracking does not usually occur above 200F
242

Stress or strain will always be present due to the localized heating effects of
welding, and generally we cannot change the material thickness or joint details.
Furthermore, welds always cool to ambient temperatures at some point. Therefore, the prevention of hydrogen cracking centers on controlling the amount of
hydrogen in the weld and the hardness of the weld HAZ (see Figure 7.55).
Control of hydrogen level

Prevention of Hydrogen Cracking
Control of HAZ hardness
Figure 7.55Prevention of Hydrogen Cracking
Controlling the
Hydrogen Content
in the Weld
Hydrogen in the weld is determined by the following factors:
Welding process
Electrode type
Cleanliness of the base materials and electrode
Storage of electrodes
Level of preheat
Procedural details, such as interlayer delay time and postheating
The effect of welding process and electrode type is summarized in Figure 7.56.
Hydrogen levels are measured and reported in ml/100g of deposited weld
metal, which is the volume of hydrogen (ml) per weight (100 grams) of the
weld metal. A standard test is described in AWS A4.3, Standard Methods for
Determination of the Diffusible Hydrogen Content of Martensitic, Bainitic,
and Ferritic Steel Weld Metal Produced by Arc Welding. For example, an electrode classified as an H8 has a hydrogen content of 8 ml/100g of deposited
weld metal or less when tested. One classification of relative hydrogen levels is
shown in Table 7.6.
Shown in Figure 7.57 are potential sources of hydrogen that can enter the weld
zone. It is important to keep the electrodes clean and to control their exposure
to ambient conditions. AWS D1.1 covers these issues in subclause 5.3 of the
code. Because SMAW electrodes pick up high levels of moisture in the first
few hours of exposure, most standards limit the exposure of low hydrogen of
standard E7018 electrodes to four hours. Moisture-resistant electrodes are also
available that allow extended exposure times (see Figure 7.58).
243

Low
Hydrogen
Very Low
Hydrogen
Non-hydrogen
SAW
FCAW
Basic Electrodes
GMAW
10
15
20
25

Table 7.6Classification of Diffusible Hydrogen Levels

Class
Hydrogen (ml/100 g)
High
H > 16
16 H > 8
Medium
8H>4
Low
H4
Very Low
H
2
H2
H
2
Moisture in coating or
grease/rust on wire
Water vapor in air or

shielding gas
Paint, grease, oil

on plate
H2
Figure 7.57Potential Sources of Hydrogen
244
30

Weight Percent Moisture
4.0
Improperly stored at
76F and 90% humidity
3.0
Improperly stored at
76F and 60% humidity
2.0
1.0
Properly stored at
250F in holding oven
0
50
100
150
200
Exposure TimeHours
Figure 7.58Effect of Storage Conditions on Moisture

in SMAW Electrodes (After Interrante)
Preheating
It is important to start with processes and materials that introduce the least
amount of hydrogen into the weld pool. However, that may not be enough to
control the amount of hydrogen in the weld, especially when the materials are
relatively thick. This is where preheat plays an important role (see Figure
7.59).
Figure 7.59Preheating Plays an Important Role
The rate at which hydrogen is removed from the solidified weld (diffusivity of
hydrogen) depends on the temperature. As shown in Figure 7.60, allowing the
weld to stay at a higher temperature for a longer period of time greatly aids in
the removal of hydrogen. Increasing the weld temperature from 20C (room
temperature) to 150C increases the diffusivity of hydrogen by a factor of up to
10,000. In addition, for certain types of steels, a high preheat temperature can
help to reduce HAZ hardness by slowing the cooling rate. Using preheat is an
important technique to avoid hydrogen cracking in both the weld metal and the
HAZ.
245
Overall Hydrogen Diffusivity Coefficient

10 4
Range of measured values
10 5
10 6
Ferritic
materials
10 7
10
Austenitic
materials
after Coe
10 9
10
100
200
300
500
Temperature (C)
Figure 7.60Diffusivity of Hydrogen in Steel
Also note that hydrogen diffuses much more slowly in austenite than in ferrite.
This is important because if the preheat or interpass temperature is high
enough to retain austenite in the weld, then the preheat will have a lesser effect.
This could occur if the preheat is above the Ms temperature. Too high a preheat
temperature can actually hinder getting the hydrogen out. Some approximate
Ms and Mf temperatures are shown in Table 7.7. For plain carbon steels, the
Ms is relatively high and the preheat and interpass temperatures are typically
lower. However, for alloy steels, the Ms temperature can be low, therefore,
excessive temperatures should be avoided to obtain effective hydrogen
diffusion.
Table 7.7Approximate Martensite Start and Finish Temperatures
Ms (F)
Mf (F)
ASTM A 516
775
560
AISI 1045
660
475
AISI 4140
615
375
246

When welding susceptible materials such as quenched and tempered steels

(A514) or other heat treatable steels (AISI 4140), preheat alone may not be
adequate. For some quenched and tempered steels, the steel manufacturer may
place a limit on the preheat, heat input, and interpass temperature to prevent
deterioration in the mechanical properties of the HAZ as a result of too slow a
cooling rate or excessive grain growth. This limits the ability of the preheat
temperature to remove hydrogen. In this case, a valuable technique is to use an
interlayer delay time prior to the next layer. Before depositing the next layer,
let the weld sit at the preheat temperature for a specified period of timeranging from 10 to 30 minutes. This allows the hydrogen to diffuse out, which is a
powerful technique because the hydrogen does not have to travel very far to
diffuse from the weld. It is particularly useful where weld lengths are short and
the material is relatively thick. Figure 7.61 shows the process of preheating.
Photograph courtesy of Walters Inc., Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
Figure 7.61The Process of Preheating
Postheating
Postheating is another technique for hydrogen removal. It is done at the completion of welding where the weld area is heated to a specific temperature for a
period of time. Compared with preheat, higher temperatures can be used
because there is no effect on cooling rates or grain size. On high alloy materials
the weld should first be cooled to below the Mf temperature to ensure that all
austenite has transformed before the postheat is performed.
Postheating may not be as effective as interlayer delay times because diffusion
times increase greatly with thickness, however, it has limited effect on welding
productivity when the correct heating equipment is used. Even wrapping a
247

completed weld with insulation to effect a slow low temperature cooling rate is
extremely beneficial and can be imperative when welding in cold temperatures
(see Figure 7.62).
Photograph courtesy of Walters Inc., Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
Figure 7.62Wrap Completed Weld

in Insulation for a Slow Cool
Controlling the
Hardness of the
Weld Zone
The type of microstructure that forms in the HAZ, its hardness and the risk of
cracking depends on the following:
The hardenability of the steel
The weld cooling rate
A measure of the hardenability is given by the carbon equivalent (CE) formula

shown in the following two equations. The first, Equation 7.10, is the widely
used IIW (International Institute of Welding) carbon equivalent. The second formula shown in Equation 7.11 includes the effect of silicon, which is supported by
some data in the literature and is also included in the Annex XI of AWS D1.1.
CE (IIW) = C +
CE = C +
Mn Cr + Mo + V Ni + Cu
+
+
6
5
15
Mn + Si Cr + Mo + V Ni + Cu
+
+
6
5
15
248
(Eq. 7.10)
(Eq. 7.11)

These formulas provide a rough indication of the risk of cracking in the HAZ.
A value greater than 0.5 is more difficult to weld and a value less than 0.42 has
relatively low susceptibility to hydrogen cracking. However, the actual conditions necessary to cause cracking are more complex, because hydrogen levels
and residual stress also play important roles. The formula is useful as a comparison of one steel to another. The formula also provides some insight about the
effect of different elements on cracking susceptibility and indicates that carbon
content has a major impact. As we discussed in the steel metallurgy section
under Effect of Alloy Additions, the carbon content has a primary effect on
the hardness of martensite. Also previously noted was that the actual hardness
obtained depends on the cooling rate. At fast cooling rates, a hard martensitic
structure forms; at relatively slow cooling rates, a softer HAZ results.
Most structural welding standards have requirements for minimum fillet weld
sizes that ensure that small welds are not deposited on relatively thick material.
Minimum fillet weld sizes control cooling rates to minimize the risk of cracking. Table 7.8 is taken from AWS D1.1, Table 5.8.
Table 7.8Minimum Fillet Sizes for Structural Welding*
Base Metal
Thickness (in.)
Minimum size of
Single Pass Fillet (in.)
t 1/4
(1)1/8(1)
1/4 < t 1/2
3/16
1/2 < t 3/4
1/4
3/4 < t
5/16
*Required to avoid cracking.

(1) The minimum size of cyclically loaded structures is 3/16 in.
The hardness of the HAZ can be measured and correlated with the risk of
cracking. Generally, a HAZ hardness less than 350 Hv (Vickers hardness
number) is not sensitive to hydrogen cracking, even with higher hydrogen levels. For relatively low hydrogen levels, a hardness of 400 Hv may be tolerated.
For some steels, maximum hardness is obtained by controlling the cooling rate,
and for others, the cooling rate has little effect. A useful diagram, originally
proposed by Graville, which indicates whether the HAZ hardness can be
limited by controlling the cooling rate is shown in Figure 7.63.
The three zones in Figure 7.63 are described as follows:
Zone 1. This area defines carbon and low alloy steels with a carbon content of
0.10% or less. These steels have a low carbon content and will not produce
hard HAZs (>350 Hv) susceptible to cracking under normal circumstances.
These steels include microalloyed fine grain steels developed for pipeline
applications and some high strength structural steels. The weld metal is more
likely to crack, especially at higher strength levels, and this should be the focus
of cracking prevention (see Figure 7.64).
249

General Note: CE = C + (Mn + Si)/6 + (Cr + Mo + V)/5 + (Ni + Cu)/15.
Figure 7.63Zone Classification of Steels (After Graville)
350 Hv
Crack free
Hardness
Faster
Cooling Rate
Slower
Increasing heat input
Figure 7.64Fine-Grained Microalloyed Steel
250

Zone II. This area includes many steels that are used for structural and pressure vessel applications, e.g., A516. A hard HAZ can be avoided by controlling
the cooling rate, or alternately, cracking can be prevented by controlling
hydrogen. With Zone II steels, preheat reduces hydrogen levels and also helps
reduce HAZ hardness although relatively high preheat levels are needed to
have a major effect on the latter (see Figure 7.65).
Possible cracking
350 Hv
Crack free
Hardness
Faster
Cooling Rate
Slower
Figure 7.65Carbon Steel Hardness vs. Cooling Rate
Zone III. This area includes both alloyed steels with typically more than
0.10% carbon, and also some quenched and tempered steels, such as A514.
Hardness cannot be controlled by cooling rate, because the HAZ will be hard
no matter which heat input is used (see Figure 7.66). Additionally, a relatively
fast cooling rate is often desirable to ensure good HAZ toughness. Hydrogen
control must be used to prevent cracking.
AISI 4140 also falls into this zone. With these types of high carbon alloyed
steels, the HAZ is so hard that brittle fracture can occur under loadeven if
hydrogen cracking is avoided. These steels often require thermal stress relief
after welding to temper or soften the HAZ.
251

Possible cracking
350 Hv
Hardness
Faster
Cooling Rate
Slower
Figure 7.66Alloy Steel Hardness vs. Cooling Rate
Weld Metal
Cracking
Weld metal hydrogen cracking can occur either transversely or longitudinally

to the weld direction, depending on the presence of gaps and notches and the
direction of the maximum residual stress. In heavy multipass welds, cracking
often occurs in the transverse direction, either perpendicular to the direction of
travel or at an angle of 45 (chevron cracking). Generally, the susceptibility to
weld metal hydrogen cracking increases with the strength of the weld metal,
although hardness has not proved to be a reliable indicator of the risk. Also,
with weld metal hydrogen cracking, hydrogen diffusion control plays a more
important role than microstructural control. The hydrogen control methodologies used for HAZ cracking also assist in preventing weld metal cracking,
however, as previously mentioned, this may not be the case for Zone 1 steels.
For Zone III steels, there is an obvious benefit to undermatch or use low
strength weld metal where permitted by design.
Solidification
Cracking
Cracks in the weld metal are either hydrogen-related or form during solidification. This latter type is solidification cracking or hot cracking. Solidification
cracks are evident right after solidification while the weld is still hot. It was
previously discussed that weld metal is like a casting. Crystals begin to form at
the outside edge of the pool because of the lower temperatures, and grow in
towards the center of the pool. When the crystals grow towards each other, liquid can become trapped between them. As the weld shrinks, a crack can form
as shown in Figure 7.67. A characteristic of solidification cracking is a crack
located at the weld centerline, assuming symmetrical heat conduction on both
sides. Because solidification cracks do not always come to the surface, they
may be invisible to the welder.
252

Last liquid to solidify
Thermal strain
from contraction
The wider the solidification temperature range, the

greater the risk of cracking, since total contraction
will increase from a larger temperature difference.
Figure 7.67Solidification Cracking
It can be observed that welds made at higher travel speeds tend to have elongated ripples on the weld surface. This is a result of an elongated weld pool
which has a greater tendency for crystal growth that can trap liquid weld metal
as shown in Figure 7.68. Higher travel speeds tend to be more susceptible to
this problem.
Fast travel speed
Slow travel speed
Figure 7.68Fast Travel Speed vs. Low Travel Speed
Bead shape also can influence crystal growth patterns. Deep narrow beads tend
to trap liquid weld metal, which increases the risk of solidification cracking
(see Figure 7.69). A rule of thumb often used in SAW is that the amperage
for the root pass should not exceed 10 times the groove angle for V-grooves
and bevel grooves. For example, for a 60 included groove angle, the current
should not exceed 600 amps for the root pass.
AWS D1.1, subclause 3.7.2, requires that the depth of any weld pass shall not
exceed the depth (see Figure 7.70).
253

Deep narrow grooves are

more likely to crack
Wide grooves are

less likely to crack
Figure 7.69Deep, Narrow Grooves are

More Likely to Crack than Wide Grooves
Figure 7.70Weld Bead in which Depth and Width

Exceed the Width of the Weld Face
254

Concave welds are more susceptible to solidification cracking, because

no weld metal is available to fill a potential crack (see Figure 7.71). Craters
of welds should always be filled to avoid a concave shape at the end of a
weld.
No metal
available to heal crack
Concave bead
Excess metal
is available to heal crack
Convex
Figure 7.71Effect of Bead Shape on Crater Cracking
Another influence on solidification cracking is thermal strains that take place

during welding. Any movement that opens up the weld bead during solidification increases the risk. For example, long welds on thinner material tend to
cause the joint to open up as the weld progresses because the heat is applied to
an edge. This cracking often occurs near the end of a weld, however, using
proper tack welds and fixturing can help to avoid the problem.
Solidification Cracking in SAW
Although solidification cracking can occur with any arc welding process, SAW
is particularly susceptible because it produces a penetration profile that is relatively deep and narrow. SAW also produces beads that have a pronounced flare
in their shape.
SAW passes made with high voltages tend to produce a bay area near the surface of the bead. The longer arc widens the bead near the surface, but has less
effect near the root. The bay region of the bead stays at a high temperature for
255

the longest time period; as a result, HAZ and weld metal grains are coarser in
this region. Also, the junction between the two parts of the weld bead locally
delays heat extraction and increases the risk of solidification cracking.
Although solidification cracking in SAW often focuses on the centerline area,
it is well documented that cracking in the weld metal near the bay region can
also occur.
These two types of solidification cracks are shown in Figure 7.72. Both types
of cracking are affected by the shape of the bead and weld metal chemistry.
Higher heat inputs also can increase the risk of solidification cracks.
Typical location of
solidification defects
Bay area
Figure 7.72Solidification Defects in SAW Weld Metal
Carbon content plays a major role in increasing the risk of solidification cracking. The British Standard for structural steel welding uses a formula for Units
of Crack Susceptibility (UCS) relative to SAW weld metal chemistry as shown
in Table 7.9.
Table 7.9Influence of Compositional Variables
on Solidification Cracking in SAW
UCS = 230 C + 190 S + 75 P + 45 Nb 12.3 Si 5.4 Mn 1
UCS 10 = Low Risk
UCS 30 = High Risk
Because SAW has a relatively high dilution rate, higher weld metal carbon
contents are possible with this process. The presence of sulfur is also significant, because high sulfur levels lower the melting temperature of steel, which
increases the risk of solidification cracking.
Note that the formula in Table 7.9 considers only the compositional effects on
solidification cracking. Other factors, such as bead shape, also play a role.
However, with high UCS numbers, cracking is possible even with favorable
bead shapes. Some early research into the development of this formula by
Bailey can be reviewed in reference (3).
256

Tandem SAW has some unique benefits in terms of minimizing the risk of
solidification cracking. The lead wire can be used to achieve relatively deep
penetration and the trail wire(s) can be used to control bead shape.
Find Out More
The following publications are referenced in this chapter:

1. Cold Cracking Control, B. A. Graville. 1975.
Comment: This book is a milestone in the understanding on the hydrogen
cracking problem. One of the most comprehensive works published on this
subject but unfortunately is now out of print.
2. Welding Steels Without Hydrogen Cracking. F. R. Coe. The Welding
Institute (TWI).
Comment: A very comprehensive book on the hydrogen cracking problem
that covers a wide variety of steels.
3. Effect of Wire Composition and Flux Type on Solidification Cracking
when Submerged Arc Welding C-Mn Steels. N. Bailey. TWI 3350/13.74.
Comment: Presents some of the early research in the development of the
UCS formula which has become a very valuable tool for understanding the
solidification cracking problem.
4. A Survey Review of Weld Metal Hydrogen Cracking. B. A. Graville.
Doc. IIS/IIW-851-86.
Comment: An excellent review of the weld metal hydrogen cracking problem.
Reference
The AWS Welding Handbook, Volume 4Materials and Applications Part 2,

Chapter 1.
Exercises
257

1. The blast furnace:

A.
B.
C.
D.
Reduces iron ore into iron

Lowers the carbon content of the iron
Increases the carbon content of the iron
A and C
2. The BOF:
A. Uses argon to reduce the carbon content of the iron
B. Uses oxygen to increase the carbon content of the steel
C. Uses oxygen to decrease the carbon content of the steel
3. True or False?
The unique features of steel are a result of the difference in the solubility
of carbon between the bcc iron and fcc iron. True False
4. What is the typical maximum sulfur level for a weldable steel
A.
B.
C.
D.
0.15%
0.10%
0.001%
0.05%
5. What effect does increasing the carbon content in a steel have?

A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
Increases ductility
Lowers ductility
Lowers weldability
Increases toughness
B and C
6. True or False?
Grain refinement is the only method that increases both strength and
toughness. True False
7. For a 0.20% carbon steel, normalizing involves heating to a temperature of:
A.
B.
C.
D.
1000F
1600F
800F
2000F
8. Which of the following steels is typically normalized?

A. A572
B. A36
C. A516 when over 1.5 in. in thickness
258

9. True or False?
Fine-grained microalloyed steels use vanadium and/or niobium carbides
to provide increased strength by precipitation hardening and increased
toughness by minimizing grain growth during hot rolling.
True False
10. Which of the following elements have a large effect on the hardenability
of steel?
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
C
Cr
S
Mo
B and D
B, C, and D
11. Which of the following alloy additions have a large effect on the hardness
of steel?
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
C
Cr
Ni
Mo
B and D
12. What should the tempering temperature of AISI 4140 be to obtain a

tensile strength of 130,000 psi?
A.
B.
C.
D.
1000F
1100F
800F
1200F
13. True or False?

It is usually important that the weld provides matching mechanical
properties to the base metal. True False
14. Toughness as determined in the Charpy Test is the measure of a materials:
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
Tensile strength
Ductility
Ability to absorb an impact load at a specific temperature
Tensile strength at low temperatures
Corrosion resistance
259

15. True or False?

Weld metals typically have less carbon content than base metals.
True False
16. Dilution is defined as:
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
Relative proportion of base metal in the weld

Relative proportion of weld metal in the weld
Relative proportion of HAZ in the weld cross section
Relative proportion of HAZ in the weld
None of the above
17. The heat-affected zone (HAZ) is a region that:

A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
Has been heated above 1600F across its total width

Has been heated to a range of temperatures across its width
Has been heated below 1200F across its total width
Is always greater than 1/8 in. wide
None of the above
18. Excessively high heat inputs can:

A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
Reduce the toughness of the HAZ

Increase the toughness of the HAZ
Has no effect on the HAZ
Increase the width of the HAZ
A and D
B and D
19. Hydrogen cracking occurs:

A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
Only in the base metal

Only in the HAZ
Only in the weld metal
In both HAZ and weld metal
Only above 200F
20. True or False?

Controlling the exposure of low hydrogen SMAW electrodes is not
important. True False
21. True or False?
Hydrogen diffuses faster in austenite than in ferrite.
260
True False

22. Using the IIW CE formula, what is the carbon equivalent of the following
material?
Mill Test Report for Heat Analysis (% by Weight)
C
Mn
Si
Cr
Cu
0.15
1.2
0.25
0.015
0.009
0.14
0.10
23. True or False?

Hardness is a good criteria for determining the susceptibility of weld
metal to hydrogen cracking. True False
24. True or False?
Higher strength weld metals are more susceptible to weld metal hydrogen
cracking. True False
25. Which of the following can affect the risk of solidification cracking?
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
Bead shape
Dilution of the base metal
Travel speed
Chemistry of the weld metal
All of the above
261

Answers
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
D
C
True
D
E
True
B
C
True
E
A
D
True
C
True
A
B
E
D
False
False
0.38
False
True
E
262

Chapter 8Welding Symbols
Chapter 8WELDING SYMBOLS

Introduction
Effective communication between designers, estimators, welders, supervisors,

and inspectors is essential to produce a quality welded product (see Figure
8.1). The most important communication link is between the designer who
determines the weld design and the welder who must produce the weld as specified. The use of welding symbols is the most effective way to communicate
the welding requirements for a particular joint.
Designer
Inspector
Welder
Figure 8.1Effective Communication is Essential
Welding symbols provide a visual means of communicating information in

a standard format that results in a clear and very specific end result. When
welding symbols are properly applied, the welding requirements mean the
same to all those involved and the final weld is independent of who makes or
inspects the weld.
Welding symbols can describe:
Type of weld
Location of the weld
Size of weld
263

Length of weld
Joint preparation
Sequence of operations
Surface finishing
Reference to a welding procedure
Shop or field welding
Inspection requirements
Welding symbols used in North America are defined by the American Welding
Society in AWS A2.4, Standard Symbols for Welding, Brazing, and Nondestructive Examination.
NOTE: Some aspects of European welding symbols are significantly
different from AWS A2.4, so users should be aware of these differences
when working with European drawings.
Objectives
Types of Joints
and Types of
Welds
This chapter has the following objectives:
Be familiar with the terms and definitions commonly referred to in welding

symbols
Read and understand welding symbols in order to prepare and fit welded
joints
Read and understand welding symbols for correct weld application
Before a detailed discussion of welding symbols, it is important to define the

types of joints and welds used in industry. There are five basic type of joints
used in welding:
1. Butt joint
2. T-joint
3. Lap joint
4. Corner joint
5. Edge joint
Each of these is shown in Figure 8.2 with a specific location for the actual
joint, which is essentially the area or line of contact between the two adjacent
base metals.
264

Joint
Butt joint
Joint
Tee joint
Lap joint
Joint
Joint
Corner joint
Edge joint
Joint
Figure 8.2Types of Joints
Types of welds are shown in Figure 8.3. For groove welds, the weld type is
defined by the shape of the base metals prior to welding.
Some of the shapes require that the base metal be prepared by cutting or burning prior to fitting or welding. Burners or others involved in plate preparation
should also be skilled in reading welding symbols (see Figure 8.4).
Supervisors need to be especially careful when using welding terms to describe
joints or welds and not to intermix these terms. Too often when these terms are
interchanged in a conversation the listener or a welder receiving instructions
can be mislead. Some examples of commonly misused words are to describe a
butt weld or square joint. As shown in this chapter, neither of these terms
is correct and could lead to confusion or to the use of the wrong type of joint or
incorrect type of weld. Supervisors should always strive to use joint and weld
terms correctly at all times and to see that the welders under their supervision
are also properly instructed to do the same.
265

Type of Shape
Weld
Application in a Butt Joint

Single
Double
Square
Bevel
Vee
Groove
Welds
"J"
"U"
Flare
Bevel
Flare
Vee
Fillet
Welds
Plug,
Slot
Welds
Plug
Slot
Figure 8.3Types of Welds
Figure 8.4Base Metal Preparation Requires

Knowledge of Welding Symbols
266

Components of a
Welding Symbol
The basic components of a welding symbolthe arrow, reference line, and

tailare shown in Figure 8.5.
Reference line
Arrow
Tail
Figure 8.5Basic Components of a Welding Symbol
The upper and lower side of the reference line define the arrow side and
other side of the joint. Anything shown below the reference line is to be done
on the arrow side of the joint. Anything shown above the reference line is to be
done on the other side (or opposite to the arrow side) of the joint (see Figure
8.6).
Other side
Arrow side
Other
Side
Joint
Arrow
Side
Figure 8.6Upper and Lower Side of the Reference Line
Each arrow points to a joint which always has an arrow and other side [see
Figures 8.7(A) and (B)].
Welding symbols look through a joint and never through solid metal (see
Figure 8.8).
The welding symbol can be shown in any view on the drawing (see Figure
8.9).
267

Other side
Arrow side
(A)
Other side
Arrow side
Arrow side
Other side
Other side
Arrow side
Other side
Arrow side
(B)
Figure 8.7Arrow and Other Side of Joint
Other side
Arrow side
Other side
Arrow side
No significance
No significance
Note: Look through the
joint to see the other
side. Do not look
through solid metal
Figure 8.8The Welding Symbol has No Significance Through Solid Metal
268

The Welding symbol

can be placed on any
one of the orthographic
views
Top view
Side view
Front view
Desired Weld
Figure 8.9Different Placements of the Welding Symbol
In welding symbol terminology, it is important to understand the difference

between the following types of symbols:
Weld symbols
Supplementary symbols
Welding symbols (see Figure 8.10).
+
Reference
Line
+
Weld
Symbol
Supplementary
Symbol
Desired Weld
Figure 8.10Types of Symbols
269
Welding
Symbol

Weld Symbols and

Supplementary
Symbols
Weld symbols provide the type of weld to be used in a given joint. The weld
symbol information is placed on the reference line as shown below. The shape
of the weld symbol is very similar to the actual shape of the weld (see Figure
8.11).
Weld
Symbol
Figure 8.11The Weld Symbol is Similar to the Shape of the Weld
Weld size and/or bevel depth is placed on the left hand side of the weld
symbol. Weld length is placed on the right side (see Figure 8.12).
Size
Weld
Symbol
Length
or
Spacing
Figure 8.12Weld Size and Length
Supplementary symbols provide additional information. A summary of weld

symbols and supplementary symbols is shown in Figure 8.13.
270

WELD SYMBOLS
GROOVE
SQUARE
FILLET
SCARF
PLUG
OR
SLOT
STUD
BEVEL
SPOT
OR
SEAM
PROJECTION
FLARE-V
BACK
OR
SURFACING
BACKING
FLARE-BEVEL
FLANGE
EDGE
CORNER
SUPPLEMENTARY SYMBOLS
WELD ALL
AROUND
FIELD WELD
CONTOUR
CONSUMABLE BACKING OR
MELT
INSERT
SPACER
FLUSH
OR
THROUGH
CONVEX CONCAVE
(SQUARE) (RECTANGLE)
FLAT
Figure 8.13Weld Symbols and Supplementary Symbols
Groove Welds
Weld symbols for groove welds can contain a variety of important details
including:
Root opening
Included groove angle
Contour of finished bead
Finishing method:
G
C
M
R
Grind
Chip
Machine
Roll
Each of these groove details is shown in a specific order as described in Figure

8.14.
ExampleSingle V-groove weld with the correct order of groove details (see
Figure 8.15).
271

Finishing Method
Weld
Symbol
Included Angle
Contour
Root Opening (gap)

Included Angle
Contour
Finishing Method
Root Opening
Figure 8.14Order of Groove Details
0o
60
G
60
Figure 8.15Single V-Groove Weld
The depth of bevel is shown on the left side of the weld symbol (see Figure
8.16). Note that the root face is determined by subtracting the bevel depth from
the material thickness.
Depth of
Bevel
Weld
Symbol
Depth of
Bevel
1/4
1/4
Root Face*
*NOTE: Root face dimension can only be
determined by subtracting bevel depth
from material thickness t.
Figure 8.16Depth of Bevel
272

Some typical groove weld applications are shown in the following examples.
ExampleSingle V-groove, welded one side, complete penetration pipe weld
with melt-through (see Figure 8.17).
37-1/2
1/2
1/2
75o
75o
1/2
Figure 8.17Single V-Groove, Welded One Side
ExampleSingle V-groove, welded both sides, complete penetration (see

Figure 8.18).
30
3/8
1/2
3/8
Side 1
3/8
1/2
0
60o
GTSM*
*Gouge to
Sound Metal
Side 1
Side 1
Figure 8.18Single V-Groove, Welded Both Sides
ExampleSquare groove, welded both sides, complete joint penetration (see

Figure 8.19).
273

Desired Weld
Welding Symbol
Figure 8.19Square Groove, Welded Both Sides
Partial Penetration
Welds
With partial penetration welds, it is important that they be clearly identified as

being partial. Similarly, it is important that complete joint penetration welds be
clearly identified as being complete. The welding symbol shown in Figure 8.20
appears to indicate a partial penetration weld as only one side is welded.
3/8
3/8
0
60o
1/2
Figure 8.20Partial Penetration Weld
A double V-groove can also be a partial penetration weld even though it is

welded both sides. The intent of the design is not clear in the first case below,
but it is in the second [see Figures 8.21(A) and (B)].
It is recommended that partial and complete joint penetration welds be differentiated by adding additional information in the tail of the welding symbol. In
most cases this determines whether the welder needs to gouge to sound metal
or not. Several alternatives are as follows:
1. Use GTSM (Gouge To Sound Metal) when complete penetration is
required by gouging.
2. Use CJP (Complete Joint Penetration) or PJP (Partial Joint Penetration).
This indirectly tells the welder whether gouging is required or not.
3. Use of the groove weld size in parenthesis in front of the weld symbol to
specify weld throat. Clearly, if the weld size is less than the thickness of the
material it is a partial penetration weld.
274

(A)
PJP*
*Partial Joint Penetration
(B)
Figure 8.21Double V-Groove Partial Penetration Weld
For welds with a prepared groove it is important to specify the depth of preparation and groove weld size separately. This done by the use of parenthesis as
shown below. Note that the throat of a groove weld is now considered a nonstandard term for groove weld size (see Figure 8.22).
1/2 (3/8)
3/8
1/2
Figure 8.22Depth of Preparation and Groove Weld Size
For welds without a prepared groove, the groove weld size must be indicated in
parenthesis. The welding symbol is meaningless unless the groove weld size is
clearly indicated (see Figure 8.23). In this example of a skewed connection the
weld size is indicated by t. The dimension w provides a way of measuring
the weld size.
275

(t)
w
< 60
Figure 8.23Groove Weld Size Clearly Indicated
ExampleFlare bevel groove weld with a groove weld size equal to 5/16 in.
(see Figure 8.24).
3/4 R
3/4 (5/16)
5/16
Figure 8.24Flare Bevel Groove Weld
ExampleSquare groove, welded one side, partial penetration with a groove

weld size of 1/8 in. (see Figure 8.25).
(1/8)
1/8
1/8
1/8
Desired Weld
Welding Symbol
Figure 8.25Square Groove, Welded One Side
Fillet Welds
For fillet welds, weld size is specified as the leg size (see Figure 8.26).
Keep in mind that leg size can only be measured when the fillet is flat or convex in shape. For concave fillet welds the weld throat must be measured using
a throat gage (see Figure 8.27).
276

Leg Size
Leg Size
1/4
1/4
1/4
1/4
1/4
1/4
Figure 8.26Leg Size
For CONVEX or FLAT fillet weld

use gauge to measure leg length
For CONCAVE fillet welds use

gauge to measure the throat
Figure 8.27Proper Use of a Weld Gage
Fillet weld length is specified on the right side of the fillet weld symbol (see
Figure 8.28).
277

Leg
Size
Length
1/4
10
Figure 8.28Fillet Weld Length
When weld length is not specified it is assumed that the welding symbol
applies to the full length of joint where no change in weld direction occurs (see
Figure 8.29(A).
A welding symbol or arrow is required for each change in the direction of
welding as shown in Figures 8.29(B) and (C).
1/4
(A)
Points of change in direction of welding
(B)
1/4
(C)
Figure 8.29Use of Single and Multiple Arrow Lines
278

Fillet welds are not always continuous in length. Intermittent welds (stitch
weld is a nonstandard term) are often used to reduce welding times and distortion. For intermittent welds, the weld length and pitch are specified on the right
side of the weld symbol (see Figure 8.30).
Size
L = Length
P = Pitch =
LP
to C spacing
1/4
LP
NOTE: The distance between the ends of

the welds can be calculated by subtracting
length from the pitch (P L).
PL
Figure 8.30Intermittent Welds
The ends of a joint should not be left unwelded. It is general practice to have
the intermittent welds at both ends of the joint. Hence, it may be necessary to
have a different spacing or weld length at one end of the joint (see Figure
8.31).
NOTE: A weld must always be placed at the ends of a joint.
Some typical fillet weld applications are shown in the following examples.
ExampleSingle sided fillet weld with the all-around supplementary symbol
(see Figure 8.32).
ExampleSingle sided intermittent fillet weld (see Figure 8.33).
279

Figure 8.31Ends of a Joint Should be Welded
Figure 8.32Single Sided Fillet Weld
Symbol
9
1/4
39
Figure 8.33Single Sided Intermittent Fillet Weld
280

ExampleChain intermittent fillet weld (see Figure 8.34).
Symbol
9
39
39
Figure 8.34Chain Intermittent Fillet Weld
ExampleStaggered intermittent fillet weld (see Figure 8.35).
Symbol
5
10
1/4 3 10
1/4 3 10
Figure 8.35Staggered Intermittent Fillet Weld
Combined Weld
Symbols
In Tee and corner joints it is common for the designer to ask for a fillet weld on
top of a groove weld. This helps provide a smooth weld transition between the
two base metals (see Figure 8.36).
or
Figure 8.36Combined Weld Symbols
Other Welding
Symbol
Conventions
Various conventions are used in industry that are not necessarily covered in
AWS A2.4. Some may be covered in specific welding codes and standards.
Others may be general industry conventions that are adopted by a specific
company and detailed in their own standards. Some examples follow.
281

Fillet welds deposited on the opposite sides of a common plane of contact shall
not be continuous at the corner common to both welds. If welds must be continuous for purposes of sealing, then the drawing should indicate such requirements. This is specified in AWS D1.1 (see Figure 8.37).
Do not tie welds

together here
Figure 8.37Code Requirements for Fillet Welds

on a Common Plane of Contact
When duplicate material such as stiffeners, web angles or gussets occurs on the
far side of a web, gusset or member, then the welding shown on the near side
shall be repeated on the far side even though no specific weld symbol is shown
on the far side (see Figure 8.38).
2-ma
indicates
Tee
5/16
5/16
2
5
2
5
5/16
5/16
5/16
5/16
indicates
2-sa
3/16
3/16
3-9
3-9
C-8
2-ga
3/16
5/16
1/4
W8
4
6
3/16
3/16
3-9
3-9
3/16
5/16
4
6
indicates
1/4
Figure 8.38Detailing Conventions
282

When a detailed piece occurs in several places on a member, the welding symbol only needs to appear in one place, usually where the piece is detailed in
full. At other places, the piece mark, which identifies the piece, also implies
repetition of the welding (see Figure 8.39).
5 6
PL 16
8 - pa
pa
pa
pa
3
51
4
1 11
4 2
Figure 8.39Detailing Conventions
When a bevel or J-groove symbol is used (i.e., only one of the two members to
be joined is prepared) a break in the arrow is used to point to the member that
is to be prepared (Figure 8.40).
Figure 8.40Break in Arrow
Plug and Slot

Welds
Plug and slot welds are other types of welds that can be readily be made with
arc welding processes. Both plug and slot welds have common rules for welding symbol applications. For example, both use a rectangle for the weld symbol. A typical plug weld application is shown in Figure 8.41.
Other features of plug welds such as size, spacing etc. are kept in line with that
previously described for other welds (see Figure 8.42). For slot welds a length
is indicated on the right side of the weld symbol.
283

Lap Joint With A Plug Weld
Other-Side Member
Arrow-Side Member
Desired Weld
Symbol
The arrow should point to the
centerline of the weld
Figure 8.41Plug Welds
diameter
depth of filling
(complete if blank)
spacing
to
countersink
angle
Figure 8.42Plug Weld Details
ExampleTypical plug weld application (see Figure 8.43).
Welding Symbol
Summary
See Figure 8.44.
References
AWS A2.4, Standard Symbols for Welding, Brazing, and Nondestructive

Examination.
AWS A3.0, Standard Welding Terms and Definitions.
284

54
8 @ 6=48
1
4
Desired Weld
4
4
Detail A
54
48
1-5/16 5/8 6
1-5/16
Welding Symbol
5/8
Detail A
Number of Plugs = Number of spaces + 1

= 48/6 + 1
=8+1=9
Figure 8.43Plug Weld Applications
FINISH SYMBOL
GROOVE ANGLE; INCLUDED ANGLE

OF COUNTERSINK FOR PLUG WELDS
CONTOUR SYMBOL
F
A
R
T
TAIL (OMITTED
WHEN REFERENCE
IS NOT USED)
{
{
SIDES
S (E)
BOTH
SPECIFICATION.
PROCESS, OR
OTHER REFERENCE
LENGTH OF WELD
PITCH (CENTER-TO-CENTER
SPACING) OF WELDS
(N)
WELD SYMBOL
{ L-P
{
OTHER
SIDE
DEPTH OF BEVEL: SIZE OR

STRENGTH FOR CERTAIN WELDS
ROOT OPENING; DEPTH OF FILLING

FOR PLUG AND SLOT WELDS
ARROW
SIDE
GROOVE WELD SIZE
WELD-ALLAROUND
SYMBOL
REFERENCE LINE
NUMBER OF SPOT, SEAM,

STUD, PLUG, SLOT,
OR PROJECTION WELDS
ELEMENTS IN THIS AREA REMAIN

AS SHOWN WHEN TAIL AND
ARROW ARE REVERSED
Figure 8.44Summary
285
FIELD WELD
SYMBOL
ARROW CONNECTING
REFERENCE LINE TO
ARROW SIDE MEMBER
OF JOINT OR ARROW
SIDE OF JOINT

Guides and
Exercises
1. Information appearing above the reference line refers to the:
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
Tail
Arrow side
Other side
Near side
None of the above
2. The 1/4 in. to the left of the fillet weld symbol refers to:
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
Length
Pitch
Weld size
Number of welds
All of the above
1/4
24
1/4
24
1/4
24
3. The 2 in. to the right of the fillet weld symbol refers to:
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
Weld length
Size
Spacing between weld ends
Pitch
Finish
4. The 4 in. represents:

A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
Size
Pitch
Length
Spacing between weld ends
Number of welds
5. The circle where the arrow breaks from the reference line stands for:
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
Field weld
Groove symbol
Weld all-around
Fillet symbol
None of the above
286

6. Match the joints with the correct names.

___
___
___
___
___
Butt joint
Lap joint
Edge joint
T-joint
Corner joint
7. In the adjacent welding symbol, the weld symbol shown on the other side
represents a:
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
V-groove weld
Back weld
Melt-through weld
Partial penetration weld
A and B
1/2
75 o
8. The adjacent symbol represents what type of weld:

A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
Square groove weldother side

Square groove weldarrow side
Double square groove weld
Single V-groove weld
None of the above
1/8
9. The adjacent symbol represents what type of weld.

A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
Fillet weld
Spot weld
Flare V-groove weld
Flare bevel groove weld
Plug weld
287
3/4 (5/16)

10. Determine the following for the adjacent symbol.

A. Bevel angle A
____
B. Root face R ____
C. Gap G ____
3/8
1/2
R
G
11. Draw in the required welds for each of the following:
(3/16)
1/8
1/4
3/8
1/4
3/8
12. Draw and dimension the welds on both views.
3/16
3/16
28
28
18
288
1/8
60o

13. Complete the weld symbol for the following detail.
60
5/8
3/4
14. Choose the correct welding symbol.
289
CJP
PJP
PJP

Answers
1. C
2. C
3. A
4. B
5. C
6. A, D, E, B, C
7. C
8. B
9. D
10. A. 30
B. 1/8
C. 1/8
11.
3/16
1/8
12.
18
290

13.
3/4 (5/8)
60
0
14. C. Answer D would also be acceptable to A2.4, but C is better as it provides more information.
291

Notes
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292

Chapter 9Welding Instruction
Chapter 9WELDING INSTRUCTION

Introduction
The welding supervisor is the primary conduit for information and instruction
to the employees in his department. He is responsible as managements eyes
and ears for the progress of production, and employee performance. To be
effective, he must be the only person that gives instructions to his welders and
other assigned personnel. This clear chain of command prevents contradictory
or incorrect instructions from other sources, which could result in work being
performed without the supervisors knowledge.
The types of daily instruction the supervisor gives welders follow the four
management metrics. These metrics are:
Quality
Cost
Throughput
Safety
These metrics are used by management in most companies. Welding supervisors need to understand how these metrics specifically apply to the quality
and productivity of their welding department.
Quality Metric
The quality metric provides the supervisor with a properly defined quality
standard for use by the welders. This quality standard includes visual acceptance criteria that define the difference between acceptable weld appearance
and defective weld appearance for each job. The existence of this standard can
also lead to the creation of welding workmanship standards, sample boards, or
weld mock ups. These physical welding aids can be used for both training and
reference by the supervisor when instructing the welder (see Chapter 2,
Requirements of a Weld). The amount of undercut or porosity allowed before
the weld is considered defective is an example of the type of information
contained in the visual acceptance criteria that would make up the quality
standard.
Visual acceptance criteria should be taught to welders so that they can inspect
their own welds as they are made. Welders should be instructed not to pass on
parts or move to the next welds until they are sure the welds just completed are
acceptable. When welds are found to be unacceptable, the welders should correct their own welding mistakes so they learn how to prevent the same type of
defective weld in the future (see Chapter 12, Welding Inspection). Also see
Figure 9.1, which demonstrates that use of the proper visual inspection by the
welder and supervisor can help ensure that any weld defect is corrected at the
welding workstation.
293

The Quality Assurance function, or some other part of the company responsible for verifying adherence to product or customer requirements, writes
the visual inspection procedure for each specific weld, including the weld
acceptance criteria determined by Design Engineering. When welders,
supervisors, or inspectors are inspecting a weld, they are required to use the
same weld acceptance criteria from the visual inspection procedure to
ensure consistency of weld acceptance. When this is not done, it can
become a point of contention between departments. The welding supervisor usually ends up stuck in the middle of this contention. If everyone
follows a common visual inspection procedure, disputes are eliminated.
Figure 9.1Use of the Proper Visual Inspection by WelderSupervisor

Can Help Ensure that Any Weld Defects are Corrected at the Weld Station
The welding supervisor must instruct welders to follow the essential welding
variables that are detailed in the welding procedure. For example, when the
proper electrode, gun travel, and transverse angles are maintained, when the
electrode position is correct, and the proper amperage (wire feed speed), arc
voltage, contact-tip-to-work distance, and travel speeds are followed, the welders can make defect-free welds, barring outside influences.
Along with training welders in procedures and techniques, the supervisor is
responsible for communicating performance expectations and assuring that
294

performance standards are met each day. The most effective way the supervisor can do this is by monitoring the welders performance on a daily basis.
Monitoring is necessary in all four metrics, but is most important in quality, as
daily reinforcement is necessary to maintain quality. The actual approach to
monitoring is covered in Chapter 14, Work Reports and Records.
Many welders required to perform tasks in accordance with drawings, procedures, work methods, and work center planning will do so only if the
supervisor is enforcing that effort. This enforcement is best accomplished
by monitoring the welders performance using the work instructions and
standards.
Cost Metric
The welding supervisor issues instructions to the welders to help control and
minimize welding costs. These instructions focus on reducing both the arc time
and non-arc time per weldment. To control and minimize arc time, the welders
must be instructed in the proper weld size to use and the part fitup must allow
the welders to make the weld sizes specified. The supervisor needs to assure
that the welding procedures have amperage or wire feed speed values accompanied by appropriate arc voltages to allow the welder to maximize the deposition rate for each specific weld. The welding supervisor may need to address
welding procedures when sufficient amperage or wire feed speed values have
not been set. The welding supervisor may have to revise the welding procedures and retest them to allow for the highest productivity and lowest possible
cost. Supervisors must assure that any changes in welding procedure values are
tested before the products are released for production.
Welding supervisors also need to instruct welders in the proper welding work
methods and weld sequencing to reduce non-arc time. In most cases, the welding work methods and weld sequences are designed to limit or eliminate hand
and foot movements used when welding an assembly or component. When
dealing with welding work methods and weld sequences, supervisors should be
alert and identify new opportunities to reduce the amount of non-arc time.
When this is done, the documentation needs to be changed and the welders
need to be reinstructed to use these revised welding work methods and weld
sequences. The welders are also an important source for potential improvements. Supervisors should cultivate them and be mindful that listening to the
welders can be very beneficial.
Throughput Metric
Many companies now have material pull systems. Pull systems depend on
welding departments to pull the parts they need to weld assemblies or components to a schedule and then pass the completed work on to the next operation.
The welding department must complete their portion of the value added work
so that the manufacturing operations that follow welding will be able to pull
the materials they need from welding.
295

Welding supervisors must ensure that welders are capable of making quality
welds in an efficient manner to prevent the welding department from becoming
a bottleneck in the flow of materials. To accomplish this, supervisors need to
complete work within the prescribed cycle time, and ensure that the work
meets all engineering requirements, including weld quality. The throughput
metric cannot be met if the welding is not completed on time to be pulled by
the next operation, nor can it be met if the parts or the welds are defective at the
time the work is pulled.
Welding supervisors must not allow production demands on their welding
department to supersede quality requirements. Supervisors must understand
the conditions under which the welders are performing their tasks. They must
understand the condition of material fitups, either from other operations or
from the welding fixtures, the condition of those fixtures, and the maintenance
status of all the welding equipment. Any problem associated with the welders
work area could result in lost time or rework. With problems, the allotted time
for passing work through the welders will cause the planned throughput time to
be exceeded. This could cause the next operation not to have work due to the
delay in welding. Supervisors must be able to react to these situations when
they occur. By working closely with the welders, they should be able to prevent these throughput problems.
Safety Metric
Welding, if not done properly or if required safety equipment is not used, can
be dangerous and even life threatening. Welding safety is the responsibility of
both the welding supervisor and the welder. The welding supervisor is the
person responsible for monitoring the welders use of all safety equipment and
adhering to the safety requirements at all times. This requires the supervisor to
reinstruct welders and see that worn out or faulty safety equipment is replaced
so as to not place welders in dangerous situations. Safety and Health is covered
in detail in a separate section of this manual (see Chapter 13, Welding Health
and Safety). As the supervisor spends more time each day with the welders, it
will become easier to be aware of and safety issues and to support the welders
efforts to work safely.
Welding
Procedures
One of the most important documentations to insure that a welding supervisor

is giving proper welding instructions to the welders is the welding procedure.
Many supervisors view welding procedures as less than helpful. This feeling is
the result of a lack of training of the welding supervisor in the proper use of
welding procedures. Even welding supervisors that were previously welders
have similar feelings about the use of welding procedures, because welders are
seldom trained in their use. Too often, welding procedures are a form of window dressing that are pulled from files to show inspectors, or used at the beginning of contracts and never seen again.
296

Before we begin talking about the details of the Welding Procedure Specification (WPS), it should be noted that the supervisor may encounter different
types of WPS forms; some are suggested, none are mandatory, but they all
must have the information discussed below on them. If the supervisor encounters a form that he hasnt seen before, he should pay special attention that it
contains all of the necessary information.
Using the sample WPS as shown in AWS D1.1, Figure 9.2 demonstrates how a
welding procedure can be used by the welding supervisor to give proper
welding instructions to the welder. Most welding procedures and welder
instructions from other codes are similar for the welding supervisor.
The supervisor must understand what information is contained in a Welding
Procedure Specification and how to apply it. The following is an example of
the type of information contained in a WPS.
1. The Welding Procedure Specification includes the welding processes that
will be used by the welder for each specific job. As an example, if Flux
Cored Arc Welding (FCAW) is specified [see Chapter 5, Flux Cored Arc
Welding (FCAW)], no other welding process can be used by the welder
with this WPS.
2. Joint Design
a. Butt: Type of joint to be welded
b. Single-welded: From one side only
c. Backing: Using a backing strip or bar made out of ASTM A 131 Grade A
d. Root Opening: 1/4 in. should be the fitup spacing between the two parts
being welded
e. Groove Angle: For the butt weld is 35.
If the weld joint does not match these dimensions within the tolerances of
the engineering drawing, then either the welding procedure is wrong or the
parts to be welded are wrong. In either case, the welding supervisor should
instruct the welder not to proceed until the problem is resolved.
3. Base Metals
a. Material Specification and Type or Grade shown on the WPS as ASTM
A131 Grade A should match the engineering drawings.
b. Thickness: Groove is 1 in. If the weld is greater than 1/8 in. to unlimited, then the procedure is being properly followed. If the thickness of
the actual weld is less than 1/8 in., then the WPS cannot be used to
make the weld.
297

Figure 9.2Sample Welding Procedure Specification

298

If the base metal or thickness does not agree with the WPS, the welding
supervisor must verify that he has the correct parts. The supervisor may not
always know the specification of the base material, but he can always
verify or have the welder verify the correct thickness.
4. Filler Metals
a. AWS Specification: A5.20 should appear on the side of the weld wire
spool or on the side of the bulk wire container.
b. AWS Classification: E71T-1 should appear on the side of the weld wire
spool or on the side of the bulk wire container.
If neither of these matches the welding procedure, then either the welding
supervisor or the welder must stop and replace the wire. The welding procedure should not be used on a weld joint without the correct filler metal.
5. Shielding
a. Flux: Used to identify the Submerged Arc flux that is to be used with
the filler metal wire listed above.
b. Electro-Flux (Class): Used with the Submerged Arc welding process
and identifies the AWS Classification for the Electrode Flux combination that is to be used with this WPS (a and b are only applicable if
process is SAW).
c. Gas: The only gas qualified to this WPS is CO2no other gas can be
used with this WPS.
d. Composition: 100%. The reason for this specification is that other
welding gas mixtures could be used and the percentage of each gas
used in the gas mixture must be identified for the WPS.
e. Flow Rate: 45 CFH. This flow rate is normally set by the flow meter
mounted on the gas bottle or the wall. It should be checked by the
supervisor to see that the welder is using the right flow rate for this
WPS.
f. Gas Cup Size: #4. This gas cup size is specified since the combination
of gas type and cup size affects flow rate for effective gas shielding
during welding. If a different gas cup size is used with this WPS, it
could cause defects in the weld. (Gas cup sizes are used mostly with
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding and not FCAW.)
299

The supervisor must see that the gas used and the equipment set up is in
accordance with the requirements of this WPS. He must instruct the welder
to make appropriate changes when required.
6. Preheat
a. Preheat Temperature: Min 75 Ambient. This value depends on material specification and type. It can vary from ambient to several hundred
degrees above, depending on the affect of rapid cooling and the susceptibility of the material to embrittlement or cracking.
b. Interpass Temperature: Min 75F, Max 350F. This temperature range
is only used with multiple pass welding. When a weld can be made
using only one pass, no interpass values are necessary. The minimum
temperature of 75F is the same as the preheat temperature, and is only
necessary when the weld is allowed to cool completely between subsequent passes. The maximum temperature of 350F is used when welding is continuous from one weld pass to the next. In this case, all base
metal surrounding the weld should not be allowed to exceed 350F
before the next weld pass is made.
Welding supervisors need to remind their welders to follow these preheat
requirements during the course of welding, as the supervisor may not be
present throughout the complete welding sequence.
The measurement of preheat has traditionally caused some confusion
among welders and supervisors, although the measurement can be performed using a pyrometer, heat gage, or temperature-indicating crayon.
The most common approach is with a temperature-indicating crayon. This
crayon type material is formulated to melt at varying temperatures. When
applied to the surface being heated, it will melt when that area of metal
has reached the temperature corresponding to the crayon. In most cases,
the weld joint should be heated to several inches on either side of the area
where the weld will be deposited to the desired temperature before welding begins. When checking the preheat temperature, the weld joint or
weld pass of a multi-pass weld should not be touched by the crayon, as
this may leave a residue of contamination.
7. Position
a. Position of Groove: 4G. This refers to the welding position approved
for use with this WPS. They are designated by alphanumeric codes. 4G
is the overhead position. 1G, 2G, and 3G are the flat, horizontal, and
vertical positions, respectively. 1F through 4F are used to designate the
four fillet weld positions. It is important for the welding supervisor to
300

make sure that the orientation of the welded assembly is correctly positioned and is the same as the approved positions in the WPS. For a
more detailed description on welding positions, consult AWS D1.1 or
the AWS Welding Handbooks.
b. Vertical Progression: This refers to the direction of travel a welder
uses when welding in the vertical position. The supervisor should
observe this when the welder is welding in the vertical position. If
down progression of travel is used instead of the specified up progression, incomplete weld penetration could result. Conversely, if a welder
uses an up progression of travel instead of the WPS required down progression of travel, excessive melt through or even burn through could
result.
8. Electrical Characteristics
a. Transfer Mode (GMAW): This is used to describe the method in which
the metal transfer is made during welding [see Chapter 3, Gas Metal
Arc Welding (GMAW)]. If a welding procedure is followed for the wire
feed speed, arc voltage, and shielding gas, the mode of transfer listed in
the WPS should be achieved.
b. Current: This defines the type of current used in the WPS. AC or alternating current is used on aluminum and some SMAW and GTAW
welding applications. DCEP or direct current electrode positive is the
most common type of current and polarity for welding. DCEN or direct
current electrode negative is used for selected applications where heating of the base metal is important or for GTAW welding with nonconsumable electrodes. Pulsed current is the welding process that uses a
background and peak current with pulsing from the background to the
peak at a set frequency. It can be used in GMAW to increase deposition
and penetration for out-of-position welds.
c. Tungsten Electrode (GTAW):
i. Size: The diameter of the tungsten or tungsten alloy electrode is
critical to welding, because the current carrying capacity of a
specific type of electrode affects the quality and productivity of
welding.
ii Type: There are multiple types of tungsten alloy electrodes as well
as pure tungsten that may be used for welding to improve current
carrying capacity or improve arc stability. Some of the types
include Thoriated Tungsten (EWTh), Ceriated Tungsten (EWCe),
Lanthana Tungsten (EWLa), and Zirconiated Tungsten (EWZr).
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9. Technique
a. Stringer or Weave: This designates whether the welder is allowed to
use a single stringer or weave pass technique for welding. Stringer
technique is used in most applications except when weaving technique
may be used with manual and semi-automatic welding in the vertical
position with an up welding progressive travel. The Stringer technique
is used for all other positions because of the difficulty with insuring
complete weld fusion with the weave technique.
Stringer bead technique is the application where the weld electrode
progresses without any side to side motion of the electrode across the axis
of the travel direction. However, a whipping motionforward and back
along the axis of electrode travel is permissible and is not considered to be
a weaving motion.
Weave bead technique is just the opposite, and comprises a side-to-side
motion. When used to weld vertical up, this side-to-side motion can take
on various types of motion, from a half-moon to a zig-zag movement of
the electrode.
b. Multi-Pass or Single Pass (per side): Multi-pass welding is used to

help control heat input to the weld, and when having to deposit a larger
size weld. The size of each weld pass and the ability to control the weld
passes directly affects the quality of the weld.
c. Number of Electrodes: 1. With some welding processes such as SAW,
the option exists to use single or multiple electrodes. The quality of
welding is directly affected if the WPS was qualified with one electrode and two or more are used. All of the other essential welding variables of the WPS become unusable.
d. Electrode Spacing: Longitudinal, Lateral, Angle. This refers to SAW
welding with multiple electrodes [(see Chapter 5, Submerged Arc
Welding (SAW)]. This specification defines the relative location of the
electrodes. Leaving this unspecified directly affects the process control
of the welds being made with the WPS.
e. Contact Tube to Work Distance: 3/4 in.1 in. This is one of the essential welding variables that welders control that affects penetration and
fusion. If not maintained between the allowable limits of the WPS,
weld penetration and weld strength could be negatively affected.
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f. Peening: None. This specifies whether a welder is to use a mechanical

impacting device to compress the surface of a multi-pass weld in order
to help control the build up of shrinkage stresses. In the right applications, peening can help control shrinkage and distortion. When done
improperly or when not specified in the WPS, peening can lead to
cracking or masking of weld defects.
g. Interpass Cleaning: Wire Brush. The need to always weld on a clean
surface, even on the interpasses of a multi-pass welds, is critical to the
prevention of contamination of the weld which can cause porosity, slag
inclusions, or cracking. The welding supervisor must periodically
check welders to assure that this requirement of the WPS is being
followed.
10. Postweld Heat Treatment
a. Temperature: Not Applicable. This refers to the temperature that some
base materials, when welded, are required to be heat treated to after
welding to restore the metallurgical properties of the weld and the heat
affected area adjacent to the weld.
b. Time: The time is only recorded if a heat treatment is required. The
Post Weld Heat Treatment would not normally be the responsibility of
the welding supervisor or the welder.
11. Welding Procedure
This summary table includes the specific details of the actual welding for
each welding pass. It specifies the filler metal, current, arc voltage, travel
speed, and weld joint details such as welding bead placement.
From the above review of the somewhat general WPS, it should be apparent to
the welding supervisor that some of the sections in the WPS are informational
and only indirectly affect the welder during welding. Examples include Joint
Design, Base Metal/Filler Metal and Post Weld Heat Treatment. Design Engineering through the Welding Specification determines these elements of the
WPS.
Some of the essential welding variables used by the welders are not in the
WPS. Examples of these include the Electrode Position, Transverse, and
Travel Angles of the Electrode. This is due to the fact that welding is a combination of technical process requirements and welder skill. Both are required to
make proper welds. Some of the skills required are not defined in a WPS.
The issue of a welders skills is addressed by the welder qualification test. To
properly use a WPS, the welder must be qualified to the essential elements of
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that WPS and demonstrate the welding skills to apply those essential elements
to a test coupon, which simulates the conditions under which the WPS is used.
The qualification of a WPS is done using a Procedure Qualification Record
(PQR). This PQR consists of a welder welding up a test coupon usually
consisting of two plates approximately 7 in. wide by 15 in. or more in length.
These plates are welded together lengthwise using the essential variables and
in accordance with the WPS that is being qualified. The welded coupons are
then visually inspected and may be radiographic tested before being cut up to
make destructive test samples. These destructive tests usually consist of four
face/root or side bend tests in either the longitudinal or transverse bend mode.
In addition, two tensile tests are also made (see Chapter 7, Welding Metallurgy). If all of these tests are passed the WPS is considered qualified, and a
copy of the PQR with the test parameters and test results is kept as proof of the
qualification. Also, as a result of this weld successfully passing all required
tests, the welder that performed the weld is also considered qualified to that
WPS. (More detailed information on the qualification of WPSs can be found
in AWS D1.1 or the AWS Welding Handbooks.)
Welder
Qualification Test
Record
The Welder Qualification Test Record (see Figure 9.3) is used to document that
each welder has qualified to the essential elements of a WPS. The welding
supervisor is responsible for assigning a welder to a specific weld covered by a
WPS. Due to the lack of training and time constraints, the welding supervisor
may not do an adequate job of fulfilling this responsibility. This can result in
welders that are not qualified to make welds covered by the WPS being
assigned. In order to avoid this situation, the following section of the Welding
Instructions covers the elements of welder qualification that are important in
assigning welders. (See AWS D1.1 for a more detailed explanation of welder
qualification.)
The sections of a welder qualification record that determine if a welder is qualified to make a weld using the assigned WPS are:
1. Process Type. If the welding process in the welder qualification test record
is different from the WPS welding process, then the welder is not qualified
to use the WPS.
2. Filler Metal. For the SMAW process, if the F-number as recorded in the
welder qualification test record under the heading of Qualification range is
the same F-number or a lower F-number as recorded in the WPS, then the
welder is qualified to use the WPS.
3. Position. The position or positions recorded in the welder qualification test
record should match the positions recorded in the WPS, and that are
assigned to the weld being made. If they are the same, then the welder is
qualified to use the WPS.
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Figure 9.3Welder, Welding Operator, or Tack Welder Qualification Test Record from AWS D1.1
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4. Weld Progression. When the position that the welder is qualifying in is

vertical, the weld progression will identify if the welder qualified with
either an up or down weld progression of electrode travel. If the qualification range for the welder matches the required weld progression used on
the WPS, the welder is qualified; otherwise, the welder must requalify.
5. Base Metal Thickness and Pipe Diameter. When a welder qualifies on a
test plate, the range of plate or pipe wall thickness is recorded. For pipe, the
diameter qualification range is also recorded. The supervisor must check
the thickness of the production plate being welded and the diameter of the
pipe. If it is a pipe weld, verify that the WPS and the welder qualification
record are in agreement with these thicknesses and diameters. If they agree,
then the welder is qualified for that production weld.
6. Backing. When a welder takes a qualification test, the use or omission of
backing material for the test joint must be recorded. If the welder uses a
backing plate to qualify, and the production weld and the WPS do not
allow for the use of a backing plate or a double sided weld using backgouging and welding from the second side, then the welder must be requalified
before being assigned to that production weld. A welder that qualifies without a backing bar is, however, qualified for welding in production with a
backing bar.
7. Multiple Electrodes. If a welder uses a single electrode during the qualification test and the WPS that is used, requires a multiple electrode, such as
with the SAW process, the welder must requalify. If the welders qualify
with multiple electrodes and the procedure they are about to use only
requires one electrode, they do not have to requalify.
These seven variables are the only ones that the welding supervisor has to
verify before assigning a welder to a specific WPS. Other industrial and
military welding standards are structured in the same way. The welding supervisor should check each specific standard and verify which essential welding
variables the standard requires for requalification of the welders.
Conclusion
The need for the welding supervisor to give clear and detailed instructions to
his welders is critical to their quality, productivity, throughput, and safety. The
contractual requirements of a specific welding job may also require the welding supervisor to make determinations on the suitability of a WPS that will be
needed for specific weld joints, and to assign only those welders that are qualified to the essential elements of a WPS. The amount of time and attention
required of the welding supervisor in these responsibilities will most likely be
more than previously but without it; the true potential of his welding department will not be realized.
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Review Questions
1. When the welder and welding supervisor are evaluating a weld visually for
weld quality, they must use?
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
What ever looks good

Follow the inspectors lead
Acceptance criteria
Not their job
Cannot be inspected in this fashion
2. If a fillet weld is made larger than the engineering drawing requires, which
of the following will it affect?
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
Quality Metric
Throughput Metric
Welding Procedure Specification
Welder Qualification
Cost Metric
3. When input parts are not to the proper engineering dimensions, which of
the following will be affected?
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
Quality Metric
Cost Metric
Throughput Metric
All of the Above
4. Welders that do not weld using proper safety equipment will be violating
which of the following?
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
Quality Metric
Cost Metric
None of these
Welders Qualification
5. Before a weld can be made in accordance with an industrial welding standard, the supervisor must verify which of the following?
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
Welding Procedure Specification and Welder Qualification

Quality Metric
Cost Metric
Throughput Metric
Safety Metric
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Answers
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
C
E
E
D
A
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Chapter 10Welding Economics and Variables
Chapter 10WELDING ECONOMICS AND VARIABLES

Introduction
It is critical for the welding supervisor to understand welding economics and

the variables that affect those economics. This knowledge provides the welding supervisor with the information necessary to make the best decisions each
day to positively affect both quality and productivity.
The Five Welding Dos Goals break down welding economics so that it can be
applied to each aspect of welding. In this chapter the Five Welding Dos Goals
will be used to explain the economics of welding. As a refresher, these Dos
Goals are:
1. Reduce Weld Metal Volume
3. Reduce Rejects, Rework, and Scrap
5. Reduce Motion and Delay Time
The improvement goals of any welding operations are represented by these
five goals. These goals are also referred to as expectations or Dos in the
Barckhoff Welding Management System and the Barckhoff Method.
The word Do represents the action required to achieve one of these Dos
Goals, such as, Do make welds to size to reduce overwelding.
Specific welding terms that will be used and defined in this chapter are as
follows:
Weld Metal Volume
Deposition Weight
Deposition Rates
Deposition Efficiency
Total Labor Time
Total Arc Time

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Welding
Productivity
Arc Time Per Weldment
Operating Factor
Filler Metal Consumption
Non-Arc Time
The most important equation from the viewpoint of welding and weld productivity is:
Total Labor Time = Total Arc Time + Non Arc Time
Total Labor Time is the amount of time required by the welder to complete the
assigned task.
Total Arc Time is the amount of arc time a welder spends during one welding
cycle. Measured in minutes, Total Arc Time is often used as a basis to compare
the amount of welding time per hour. When converted to a percentage of Total
Arc Time of welding per hour, this time is referred to as the Operating or
Operator Factor.
Operating Factor =
Arc Time
Total Labor Time
Supervisors should always be careful when doing the calculations in this

chapter not to mix Metric and U.S. Customary dimensions.
Non-Arc Time is the time used by a welder to perform tasks other than welding,
such as:
Setup time
Loading and unloading parts
Moving from weld to weld
Grinding
Inspection
Cleaning
The concepts of Total Arc Time and Operating Factor appear to be simple, but
in controlling the cost of welding, all factors involved are expressed in this
equation. The Five Welding Dos Goals are used to help the welding supervisor focus on improving each welders Operating Factor.
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Dos Goals 1 and 2 focuses on reducing the arc time per weldment. Dos Goal
3 focuses on reducing both the Total Arc Time and the Non-Arc Time. Dos
Goals 4 and 5 focus on reducing Non-Arc Time. Together all Five Welding
Dos Goals result in the lowest Total Labor Time for any welding operation or
complete weldment.
We will now review in some detail how welding economics are improved by
focusing on each of the Five Welding Dos Goals.
Dos Goal 1:
Reduce Weld
Metal Volume
Weld Metal Volume is the amount of filler metal consumed in making welds.
The two most common types of welds are the fillet weld and the groove weld.
Fillet Welds
The fillet weld is the most commonly used type of weld joint. To understand
the economic impact of weld metal volume, it is important to understand how
the volume of a given fillet welds size is calculated.
To calculate weld volume, it is first necessary to determine the cross-sectional
area of the weld. This is done for a fillet weld by imagining the fillet sliced
crossways and looking at it from the end as illustrated in Figure 10.1.
To calculate the area of this triangular shape, it is necessary to view this triangle
as one-half of a square. Multiply the length of one side by the length of the other
side. This is the area of the square. The triangular fillet makes up one half of the
square. To calculate the area of the triangle, divide the area of the square by 2.
Figure 10.1Area of the Fillet Weld Cross Section

in Square Inches is A = a b 2
Area of the fillet weld = a (one side of the triangle) b (the other side of the
triangle) and then divide by 2.
The lengths of the fillet weld sides shown in these calculations are the
same sizes that a welder or supervisor sees when they measure a fillet
weld using a fillet weld gage. For example, a 1/4 in. fillet weld size on the
gage is the same 1/4 in. leg size shown here.
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If both sides of the triangle are equal in length (an equal leg fillet weld) or a =
b = leg, then the equation could be written as:
A = (a b)/2
A = (leg leg)/2
A = (leg)2/2
Where the term (leg)2 means that one fillet weld leg length is being multiplied
by the other fillet weld leg length, which is the same size. Leg is the size of
fillet specified on the engineering print.
Example 1
A 1/4 in. fillet weld has two equal legs, each 1/4 in. in length. The area of this
1/4 in. fillet weld is calculated as follows:
Area = (1/4)2/2 Converted to decimal Area = (0.250)2/2
Area = (0.0625)/2
Area = 0.03125 square inches
The next step to calculate total weld metal volume for a given weld is to multiply the area by the length of the weld. For example, if a weld is 12 in. long, the
total weld metal volume is 12 in. the Area (A). To calculate the volume for a
fillet weld of a different length, substitute the new length (such as 30 in). for
the 12 in. shown in the following example.
Deposited Volume per linear foot of weld = (Leg)2 12/2
For the previously described 1/4 in. fillet weld, the deposited volume per linear
foot of weld is calculated as follows:
Deposited Volume per linear foot of weld = (0.25 in.)2 12/2
Deposited Volume per linear foot of weld = 0.0625 sq. in. 12/2
Deposited Volume per linear foot of weld = 0.375 cu. in.
NOTE: When the cross-sectional area of a weld in square inches is multiplied by the length of the weld expressed in inches, the resulting volume
is measured in cubic inches.
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Square Groove Welds

Compared to fillet welds, groove weld calculations are a little more difficult to
do, but with practice will become easier. If we wanted to calculate the volume
of weld metal deposited in one running foot (12 in.) of butt weld, with gap W
and thickness T, then multiplying W T 12 in. will give you the required
volume of this groove weld.
Figure 10.2 shows the calculations for a butt joint, square groove weld.
Figure 10.2Area of the Deposited Weld Metal is the Gap W Multiplied

by the Thickness of the Plates T for a Full Penetration Weld.
Deposited Volume per linear foot of weld = W T 12 in. Multiplying the

width by the thickness by 12 in. gives the deposited volume of the weld.
Where:
W = Width of the gap
T = Thickness of the plate
Example 2
Butt joint, square groove weld with 1/8 in. gap and 3/16 in. thickness of plate
(see Figure 10.2).
Deposited Volume per linear foot of weld = 0.125 in. 0.1875 in. 12 in.
Beveled Groove Welds
When working with beveled groove welds, the calculations get a little more
complicated. However, following this breakdown of the calculations should
make them more understandable.
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The first new term is the tangent angle of a right triangle; we have already been
discussing right triangles when discussing fillet welds. We saw that when one
of the sides of the triangle was multiplied by the other and divided by 2, you
could obtain the cross-sectional area of the triangle. Now, we will use that
triangle to help calculate the area of a beveled groove weld. We do this by
using trigonometry and specifically the relationship between one of the angles
in the triangle and the length of two of the sides of the triangle.
Figure 10.3Tangent = Opposite Side Divided by the

Adjacent Side or Tan = a b
The angle as shown in Figure 10.3 has an angle which we call theta (a Greek
alphabet letter) and denote by using the symbol . This symbol can represent
any angle in degrees. By using trigonometry we know that the sides a and
b are related to the size of this angle by the following formula:
Tangent abbreviated tan = a b. If tan is known and side b is
known, then to find out what side a is, we change the formula to be:
a = tan b
Therefore, if we want to know how to calculate the cross-sectional area of a
bevel groove angle, then we can divide it up into three parts as shown in Figure
10.4.
Figure 10.4Bevel Groove Weld Divided Up into Manageable Areas
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In part A1 we know that the thickness T is the same as side b in our equation, and that tan is the angle of the bevel cut into the plate. Since we dont
know what side a is, we can find it by the following formula:
a = tan T
and if we now side a and side T, then it is just like our fillet weld triangle:
A1 = a T 2
We can also see that area A3 is the same as A1; then all that remains to be done
is to calculate the center block A2, which is calculated just like the square
groove weld in the earlier example.
When we combine the three areas together we get:
A1 + A2 + A3 = (a T 2) + (W T) + (a T 2)
Substituting for a will give the formula:
A1 + A2 + A3 = {(tan T) T 2} + (W T) + {(tan T) T 2}
Simplifying the formula results in the following:
A1 + A2 + A3 = {(tan T2) + (W T)}
To convert the cross-sectional area into deposited volume per linear foot of
weld, it is only necessary to multiply the above equation by 1 foot (12 in.).
Tan
Decimal Equivalent
15
30
45
60
75
0.268
0.577
1.000
1.732
3.732
Deposited Volume per linear foot of weld = {(tan T2) + (W T)} 12

Where:
Tan = Angle that the bevel on the plate is cut, such as 30 angle
T
= Thickness of the plate
W
= Width of the gap between the plates; if there is no gap, W = 0
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Figure 10.5For a V-Groove Weld, the Area = (tan T2) + W T
Example 3
Butt joint, V-groove weld of 30 angle, with a gap of 1/8 in. and a plate thickness of 1/2 in.
Deposited Volume per linear foot of weld =
{(tan 30 1/2 in.2) + 1/8 in. 1/2 in.} 12
Deposited Volume per linear foot of weld =
{(0.577 0.25) + 1/8 in. 1/2 in.} 12
This equation assumes no weld reinforcement. An allowable reinforcement of
no more than 1/32 in. to 1/16 in. will add between 10% and 15% of additional
deposited filler metal to the groove weld. Excessive reinforcement could push
additional weld metal volume up to 50% or more.
If a 1/16 in. reinforcement were added to Example 3, 15% would be added to
the total weld deposited volume. The calculation of the additional weld metal
volume would be as follows:
Deposited Volume per linear foot of weld = 0.206 + (0.206 0.15)
To convert the deposited weld metal volume into a deposited filler metal
weight the following equation is used:
Deposited Weight = DV
Where:
= Specific density of deposited metal

DV = Deposited Volume
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The value of different materials is:
Steel = 0.283 lb./cu. in.
Aluminum = 0.100 lb./cu. in.
Stainless Steel = 0.290 lb./cu. in.
To understand specific density of deposited metal, it is easiest to picture a

one cubic foot block of metal (1 foot high, 1 foot wide, 1 foot thick.) The
volume of that block in cubic inches is 12 in. (height) 12 in. (width)
12 in. (thickness) = 1728 cubic inches. If that block were made out of
carbon steel it would weigh about 490 lbs. If that same block were made
out of aluminum it would weigh about 173 lbs. And if the block were
made out of stainless steel it would weigh about 501 lbs. The reason for
the difference in weight when all three blocks are exactly the same size is
the specific density of the metals. For example, take the 490 lb. weight of
the steel block, divide that weight by the 1728 cu. in. volume, and it will
equal 0.283 lb./cu. in., which is the exact value that is given for the
specific density of the steel. The same values can be calculated for the
aluminum and stainless steel blocks. What this allows us to do is to take
any volume of a metal, multiply it by the specific density as shown in the
text, and get the weight of that volume of metal.
Using the previous example where the deposited volume was 0.237 cubic
inches and the weld metal is steel with a specific density of 0.283 lbs./cu. in.,
the deposited weld metal will be calculated as:
Deposited Weight = DV
Deposited Weight = 0.283 lbs./cu. in. 0.237 cu. in.
Deposited Weight = 0.067 pounds
This calculation demonstrates that the smaller the deposited weld metal
weight, the less time it takes to make the weld and the less filler metal is
required.
Factors That Affect Welding Decisions
When deciding which type of weld joint to use, the choice becomes a trade off
between the cost of the weld preparation time for a groove weld vs. the additional deposited weld metal needed to make a fillet weld of equal strength. In
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sheet metal and light plate thicknesses, the comparison usually favors the use
of fillet welds. In heavier plate, the advantage in productivity shifts to groove
welds. The transition point usually occurs with fillet welds of less than 5/8 in.
to 3/4 in. leg size. In some cases it can occur before, depending on an individual companys cost of weld groove preparation.
Once a groove weld has been selected over a fillet weld, then the decision whether
to use a single-sided weld joint (single bevel or single V-groove) or a doublesided weld joint (double bevel or double V-groove) must be made. As the plate
thickness increases, the amount of extra deposited weld metal needed to make a
single-sided groove weld will exceed the cost of double-sided joint preparation.
Where this changeover point occurs will in part be affected by the companys
cost of making weld joint preparations, but in most cases this point occurs in
groove welds when the thickness of the metal exceeds 1-1/8 in.
Another factor that can affect the requirement to use the least amount of filler
metal is the need to control distortion in the welded plates. When welding is
done from one side only, the amount of weld metal deposited about the neutral
axis of the plate being welded is unbalanced, which can lead to distortion of the
material about that axis. In most cases, depositing the same amount of filler
metal on each side of the neutral axis will result in the least amount of distortion.
When backgouging is not required (e.g., for a partial joint penetration weld)
this is achieve by equal groove preparations on both sides. When backgouging
is required (e.g., for a complete joint penetration weld) this is accomplished by
making the first side of welding deeper than the second side. When the backgouging operation is performed from the second side into the root of the first
side, the resulting groove on each side will be equivalent. A 2/3 (first side) 1/3
(second side) is often used to achieve this result.
Sources of Overwelding
In any production operation there are three potential sources of overwelding.
The first source is Design Engineering. Since the Design Engineer specifies the
fillet weld size or the joint application, this selection becomes the requirement
that the welders must meet. If the Design Engineer selects a weld that is larger
than necessary, then overwelding results because the welders are required to
make oversized welds.
The second potential source of overwelding is the welder. Once the Design
Engineer has specified the weld size required, the welder must make the weld
that size and length. Any weld greater than those amounts results in overwelding.
The third potential source of overwelding is parts fitup. If a weld fillet has a
gap greater than 1/16 in. the welder is required to weld a larger fillet than the
engineering print specifies, which results in overwelding. If a groove weld
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contains an unspecified or larger than specified gap, or has an included angle

greater than specified, overwelding will occur.
The welding supervisor does not have control over Design Engineering, but
does exercise supervision over the welders and, to a degree, the fitup. Therefore, the welding supervisor can effect how large a weld is being made.
Figure 10.6 illustrates the effect that overwelding can have on costs. The
examples use a fillet weld for ease of comparison.
The comparison of one fillet weld size to another to calculate savings is
the result of obtaining the difference between the two fillet weld volumes
and dividing that amount by the smaller fillet weld volume.
Example 4
A 3/16 in. fillet weld volume per inch length is 0.0175 cubic inches, a 1/4 in.
fillet weld volume per inch of length is 0.031 cubic inches. The subtraction of
0.0175 from 0.031 = 0.0135 cubic inches of deposited metal savings. The
0.0135 when divided by the small fillet weld volume will show the percentage
of savings, 0.0135 divided by 0.0175 = 78% volume savings when making a
fillet weld to engineering size that is 3/16 in. instead of overwelding the fillet
weld 1/4 in.
As shown in Figure 10.6, the difference in filler metal volume can range from a
43% to a 124% increase if the weld leg size is larger than the size required by
just 1/16 in. This difference can be even greater if the leg size is oversized by
more than a 1/16 in.
As shown in Figure 10.7, having just one leg of the fillet weld oversized can
lead to significant overwelding. A further example is the effect on cost of making a 1/4 in. fillet weld with one leg oversized. This overwelding example
results in a fillet with one leg 1/4 in. and the other leg 5/16 in. This increases
weld metal volume by almost 26%. If the oversized leg is 3/8 in., which can
happen with horizontal fillet welds, the increase in weld metal volume will be
almost 52%. This results in a cost of overwelding of more than 50% in both
filler metal and welder arc time.
At the same time, overwelding can also occur when doing intermittent or partial
length fillet welds where the length of fillet weld is specified by the design engineer. If the welder fails to make a fillet weld of this length, but instead makes
the weld longer, the additional weld length is also considered as overwelding.
319

Figure 10.6The Cost of Overwelding from Making Oversized Fillet

WeldsEither by Design or by Welder Exceeding the Design Requirement
The same logic for overwelding can be applied to groove welding where
excessive increase in the groove angle, gap opening, or depth of penetration
above what is specified in the design requirements results in additional filler
metal. This additional filler metal requirement consumes more pounds of filler
metal material, as well as taking additional welder time.
If the Design Engineer specified a 3/16 in. fillet weld leg size on an engineering drawing, and the welder made a 5/16 in. weld, this would result in an
increase in weld metal volume and therefore deposited filler metal weight of
177%. The result, independent of the deposition rate used, would require 177%
320

Leg Sizes (in.)
Cubic Inches
of Metal per
Inch of Weld
Percent
Increase
(%)
1/4 in. Leg Sizes

By Specification
1/4 5/16
1/4 3/8
0.031
0.039
0.047
Normal
+25.8
+51.6
5/16 in. Leg Sizes

By Specification
5/16 3/8
5/16 7/16
0.048
0.059
0.068
Normal
+21.9
+41.7
3/8 in. Leg Sizes

By Specification
3/8 7/16
3/8 1/2
3/8 9/16
0.071
0.078
0.094
0.106
Normal
+15.6
+32.4
+49.3
Figure 10.7The Cost of OverweldingIncrease in Wire (Electrode)

and Labor Costs When Too Much Weld Metal is Deposited
by 1/16 in. Increments in One Leg Only
more arc time per weldment to complete. For example, the welder making a 3/
16 in. fillet weld one foot long would require 36 seconds, the same weld with a
5/16 in. fillet weld using the same welding parameters would require 1 minute
and 39 seconds to complete. A welder could complete approximately three
feet of weld using a 3/16 in. fillet in the same time that would be required to
make a 5/16 in. fillet one foot long.
It is obvious that a major reduction in the amount of arc time required to make
a length of weld is greatly impacted by the size of the weld being made.
321

A welding supervisor can do little to impact the weld size designed for the part,
except to be aware of its impact and alert the Designer Engineer whenever a
change in weld size is warranted. Overwelding occurring due to welder performance and joint fitup is to a degree controllable by the welding supervisor. The
supervisor can ensure that the welders periodically check their welds using a
fillet weld or weld reinforcement gage to verify that the welds are made to size
(see Figure 10.8). This practice not only prevents overwelding, but also guards
against undersized welds that could lead to weld failures or repairs. The supervisor should periodically check the welders joint fitups to verify that welds are
being made to the specified size and length. This type of monitoring can demonstrate the importance of weld sizes if the welders supervisor takes the time
to check them.
Photograph courtesy of Knapheide Manufacturing Company
Figure 10.8Overwelding Can be Controlled by Welders

Measuring Their Welds Using a Fillet Weld Gage
An overlooked benefit of reducing overwelding is the effect that using less

weld metal has on distortion. One of the hidden problems in welding is the
effect that distortion has on the outcome of a finished weldment. Distortion can
lead to an unsightly appearance of the part, can cause assembly problems, and
can also interfere with the operation of the welded assembly in service. All of
322

these conditions will result in time-consuming, costly delays to rework or

replace a part that is rendered unusable because of distortion from overwelding.
Dos Goal 2:
Reduce Arc Time
Per Weldment
The Arc Time Per Weldment is the amount of time the welding arc is maintained while making a specific length of weld.
The Arc Time Per Weldment should not be confused with Total Arc Time.
Total Arc Time is the amount of time a welder is able to weld out of each labor
hour. Total Arc Time is used to calculate the Operating Factor.
Once the supervisor has established that welds are being made to specified size
and length, the next Dos Goal is to Reduce Arc Time Per Weldment. To
accomplish this, the supervisor must understand the importance of welding
procedures and the wire feed speed/amperage and arc voltage essential welding variables that the procedure specifies. In all welding processes, the ability
of the welder to obtain the lowest arc time per weldment is the result of using
the highest wire feed speed/amperage and corresponding arc voltage possible
to achieve the maximum Deposition Rate (pounds of deposit) (see Figure 10.9).
Figure 10.9Increasing the Wire Feed Speed

will Allow Higher Deposition Rates and Reduce
the Arc Time Per Weldment
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The Deposition Rate is the amount of filler metal wire/electrode that a welder
can deposit in one hour using specified amperage or wire feed speed with
100% Operating Factor.
The highest possible Deposition Rate allows the welder to produce the maximum amount of weld footage in a given period of time. Maximum weld footage is achieved by making welds of the proper size and length (Dos Goal 1)
and depositing the greatest amount of filler metal in accordance with the
specified wire feed speed/amperage contained in the welding procedure (Dos
Goal 2).
Examples of Welding Processes, Amperages, Voltages, and Deposition Rates
are given in Tables 10.110.5.
Table 10.1Shielded Metal Arc Welding Process
Carbon Steel E-7018, Low Hydrogen, Iron Powder Electrodes
Electrode Size
Amps
Voltage
Deposition Rate
3/32 in.
70110
2030
1.351.75 lbs./hr.
1/8 in.
110140
2030
2.32.7 lbs./hr.
5/32 in.
140200
2030
2.754.3 lbs./hr.
3/16 in.
200300
2030
4.85.6 lbs./hr.
Table 10.2Gas Metal Arc Welding Process

Carbon Steel ER-70S-X 98%Ar/2% CO2 (Spray)
Wire Size
Amperage (Wire Feed)
Voltage
Deposition Rate
0.030 in.
140200 A (440650)
2426 V
4.0 to 6.7 lbs./hr.
0.035 in.
180230 A (400550)
2527 V
6.3 to 8.0 lbs./hr.
0.045 in.
260340 A (300500)
2530 V
8.0 to 13.0 lbs./hr.
0.052 in.
275400 A (265390)
2633 V
8.3 to 13.5 lbs./hr.
0.062 in.
290400 A (180280)
2636 V
8.8 to 14.0 lbs./hr.
Table 10.3Gas Metal Arc Welding Process Carbon Steel

ER-70S-X 75% Ar/25% CO2 (Short Circuit Transfer)
Wire Size
Voltage
Deposition Rate
0.030 in.
75140 A (190350)
1416 V
1.84.0 lbs./hr.
0.035 in.
90160 A (180300)
1519 V
2.14.1 lbs./hr.
0.045 in.
130200 A (125200)
1719 V
2.85.5 lbs./hr.
0.052 in.
150250 A (135240)
1720 V
3.76.25 lbs./hr.
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Table 10.4Flux Cored Arc Welding Process

Carbon Steel ER-70T-X 100% CO2
Wire Size
Voltage
Deposition Rate
0.045 in.
180280 (230410)
2428
4.910.5 lbs./hr.
1/16 in.
210350 (120250)
2429
4.911.7 lbs./hr.
3/32 in.
350550 (120280)
3034
9.621.3 lbs./hr.
7/64 in.
550700 (140190)
3036
17.123 lbs./hr.
Table 10.5Submerged Arc Welding Process Carbon Steel

1.5 to 2 lbs. of Flux per lb. of Electrode
Wire Size
Voltage
Deposition Rate
3/32
250700 (55180)
2634
6.920 lbs./hr..0
1/8
300900 (30125)
2836
828 lbs./hr.
5/32 in.
4001000 (30150)
3038
948 lbs./hr.
3/16 in.
5001300 (2085)
3240
1042 lbs./hr.
1/4 in.
6001600 (1860)
3442
1555 lbs./hr.
As is evident in these welding process charts, the higher the amperage used
during the arc-on welding time, the greater the Deposition Rate will be. The
welder should be trained to use the highest amperage specified by the welding
procedure. The welding procedure should be qualified or tested to identify the
highest amperage value that can be used in a specific welding application.
Additional graphs of Welding Current v. Deposition rates can be found in

Chapter 12 of the AWS Welding Handbook on Economics of Welding
and Cutting.
Examples of this are the following comparisons:

Example 5
A welder using the Gas Metal Arc Welding Process (GMAW) is using 0.045 in.
diameter solid wire at 260 amperes (300 ipm) depositing 8 lbs./hr. making a
1/4 in. fillet weld. If the same welder is able to use 340 amperes (500 ipm) and
deposit 13 lbs./hr. how much more welding will be done at the higher amperage in 1 minute of welding arc time?
325

At 260 amperes the welder deposits 0.133 lbs. of wire in one minute. This
amount of metal used to make the 1/4 in. fillet weld with no overwelding
results in 15.1 in. of fillet weld length per minute (the 15.1 in. is the result of
dividing the 0.133 lbs. of wire by the weight of one inch of 1/4 in. fillet weld
which is 0.0088 lbs./in.). The same welder welding at 340 amperes depositing
13 lbs./hr. and welding 1/4 in. fillet for one minute will make 25 in. of weld.
From this example it is easy to see that welding using the highest permissible
amperage (wire feed speed) for a given application will result in the lowest arc
time per weldment. In this example the increase in productivity is 63% by just
the reduction of Arc Time Per Weldment though the use of higher amperages.
Example 6
A welder must weld 120 inches of 1/4 in. fillet weld in a welded assembly. If
the welder uses the GMAW process with 0.035 in. wire and 205 amperes, the
deposit rate is 6.4 lbs./hr. The metal is carbon steel with a metal density of
0.283 cu. in. How much time in arc minutes will it take to weld the assembly?
Deposited Volume = 3.75 cu. in.
Deposited Weight = 1.05 lbs. of deposited weld metal
Deposition Rate = 6.4 lbs./hr.
Arc time = Deposited Weight Deposition Rate
Arc time = 1.05 6.4
Arc time = 0.16 of a hour or 9.8 minutes
If the same welder used 230 amperes with a Deposition Rate of 7.5 lbs./hr. and
all other variables remained the same, how many arc time minutes would be
required to weld one assembly?
Deposited Volume = 3.75 cu. in.
Deposited Weight = 1.05 lbs. of deposited weld metal
Deposition Rate = 7.5 lbs./hr.
Arc time = Deposited Weight Deposition Rate
Arc time = 1.05 7.5
Arc time = 0.14 of a hour or 8.4 minutes
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The savings in arc welding time minutes per unit length is 9.8 minutes 8.4
minutes or 1.4 minutes for each welded assembly. 1.4 9.8 shows a savings of
14% of arc welding time per assembly. If the company was to weld 200 of
these assemblies each day and each welder used the higher amperage, the savings would amount to 4.6 man-hours per day. This savings resulted from just a
25-ampere higher setting.
Once the deposited weight of weld metal is known, it is easy to calculate how
much filler metal has been used.
Filler Metal Bought represents the amount of filler metal needed to make a particular weld. It is calculated by taking the Deposited Metal (pounds) and dividing it by the Deposition Efficiency. Deposition Efficiency is the value for each
weld process that represents how much filler metal of weld wire or electrode is
actually deposited. This amount is different for each welding process and is
always less than 100%.
Typical Deposition Efficiencies are shown in Table 10.6.
Table 10.6Typical Deposition Efficiencies
Welding Process
Deposition Efficiency
Shielded Metal Arc Welding
55 to 65%
Gas Metal Arc Welding
90 to 97%
Flux Core Arc Welding
80 to 90%
Submerged Arc Welding (not including flux)
95 to 99%
Filler Metal Bought = Deposited Metal Deposition Efficiency

From previous example:
Filler Metal Bought = 1.05 lbs. 0.9 (GMAW Deposition Efficiency of
90% converted to a decimal)
Filler Metal Bought = 1.16 pounds
It should be clear to the welding supervisor that Dos Goals 1 and 2, when
applied, Reduce The Arc Time Per Length of weld.
When Dos Goals 1 and 2 have been used to Reduce The Arc Time Per Weldment, the arc time per labor hour is also reduced. This occurs because the
welding arc time is less. Up to this point, no reduction in the Non-Arc Time
has occurred. With Dos Goals 1 and 2, the amount of time the welder spends
327

each labor hour in welding is reduced because the Arc Time Per Weldment is
reducedwhich requires less time to do the same amount of welding.
Total Labor Time = Arc Time/Hr. + Non-Arc Time/Hr.
As the arc time decreases, the non-arc time minutes remain the same; therefore, the labor time will decrease by the same amount of time that the arc time
decreases.
Another very powerful method of cost reduction that the supervisor should
know is the reduction in the number of welds. When a weld is eliminated, both
the Arc Time and Non-Arc Time are reduced, which can have a significant
effect. A typical example would be an increase in the pitch for intermittent
welds or the use of staggered welds. Although these are design responsibilities,
the supervisors can contribute though their knowledge of weld economics.
Dos Goal 3:
Reduce Rejects,
Rework, and Scrap
(Refer to Chapter 2, Requirements of a Weld.)

In a welding economic sense, Dos Goal 3 defines the cost of quality for a
companys welding operations. In many companies, a conflict has existed
between quality and productivity. It was felt that if either quality or productivity were emphasized, the other would suffer.
The belief was that if quality, expressed by the need to make welded components to the engineered quality standard was emphasized, then productivity
would suffer. Conversely, if productivity or schedule was emphasized, especially in the end of the month shipping frenzy, then quality would suffer. Dos
Goal 3 will actually show that not only are quality and productivity not in conflict, they compliment each other, because meeting quality standards helps
improve productivity.
The Reduction of Rejects, Rework, and Scrap can affect both Welding Arc
Time and Non-Arc Time. If a reject is found and the weld is to be repaired,
then removal of the defect will require Non-Arc Time. Rewelding of the
repaired area will require additional arc time over the time to make the original
weld. In this case, the Non-Arc Time to remove the defect and the arc time to
reweld the repaired area will add to the original labor time and increase the
overall cost of the part.
If the defective weld requires the part to be scrapped, then the entire setup,
fitup, and welding operation will have to be repeated. The amount of work to
make two production parts is invested to make one good part. The arc and
Non-Arc Time to make the replacement part is additional cost without any productive benefit.
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An additional reason for achieving Dos Goal 3 of weld defects is to ensure

that all defects are detected before product is shipped. If defects are either discovered by the customer or lead to a weld failure in service, the economic cost
of correction is much higher and the consequences can be more serious.
The welding supervisor can do a great deal to effect the quality and workmanship of the welders. The supervisor is the one individual that observes the
welders more than any other person in management. The supervisor is responsible for giving orders and work instructions to the welders. Both the welders
and management look to the supervisor for leadership. Many supervisors see
this as a difficult assignment to fulfill, and lack the confidence necessary to
meet this responsibility, especially when it comes to quality issues. To meet
this challenge, the supervisor needs both to instruct and to monitor the welders.
Instructing Welders
All welders should be instructed in the essential welding variables for the
welding process they are using. Refer to Chapters 36 (SMAW, GMAW,
FCAW, and SAW).
All welding processes have essential welding variables that if followed
consistently will always lead to quality welding; and to the degree that they
are adhered to, these processes will produce the lowest possible defect rate.
Most of the essential welding variables are contained in standard welding
procedures, however, some are not. Some variables contained in the procedures are intermixed with other information, so that they may not be singled
out for the kind of attention that is needed. welding supervisors must not only
know the essential welding variables, they must also ensure that the welders
consistently follow them. This practice will result in quality conformance to
specification.
Axiom: It takes no longer to make a quality weld then it takes to make

a defective weld.
Essential Welding Variables

With some variation, the essential welding variables for all arc-welding
processes are the same. These variables for the more common arc welding
processes are contained in Chapters 36 (SMAW, GMAW, FCAW, and SAW).
For the sake of continuity, the seven essential welding variables will be briefly
reviewed here.
329

Amperage/Wire Feed Speed and Arc Voltage

The first two essential welding variables are taken together, because within
limits, they must always be in balance. As seen in Dos Goal 2, the desire is to
always maximize amperage within acceptable limits of the welding procedure
for the weld joint application. From a weld quality standpoint, an arc voltage
that will support a given amperage is needed to avoid welding defects such as
undercut and cold lap. A good welding procedure reflects a narrow range of
amperage and arc voltages that will support the need for these two variables to
maintain an acceptable balance.
Travel Speed
The third essential welding variable, travel speed, is determined by weld size
as defined in Dos Goal 1. Once the welder has set the amperage and arc voltage, he will achieve the correct travel speed by making a weld of the correct
size in accordance with Dos Goal 1. The welder that is tasked with making a
1/4 in. fillet weld where the amperage and arc voltage have been set, will move
the electrode at a speed so that the deposited filler metal deposits a 1/4 in. fillet
weld. This movement rate results in a specific travel speed. If the travel speed
is too slow the weld will be oversized and miss meeting the Dos Goal 1, or it
will have rollover resulting in cold lap and not meet Dos Goal 3. If the travel
speed is too fast, the weld will be undersized and therefore defective and not
meet Dos Goal 3. This variable normally appears in welding procedures
Electrode Extension (Contact-Tube-to-Work-Distance)
Electrode extension applies to arc-welding processes with continuous wire
feed. This fourth essential welding variable refers to that portion of the contacttube-to-work-distance between the end of the contact tip and the welding arc
(an example of this can be seen in Chapter 2.) If the welder uses too long an
extension during welding, the resistance heating of the wire will cause the
overall amperage for the wire feed speed to decrease. Although this will not
decrease the deposition rate, it will result in a reduction in the temperature of
the base metal and possibly reduce penetration to an unacceptable level or
cause lack of fusion. Both of these conditions could result in weld defects.
If the electrode extension is too short, excessive heat for the wire feed speed
will go into the base metal and possibly result in excessive melting and even
burn through of the base metal.
Electrode extension is another essential welding variable that is normally contained in the welding procedure. Welding in accordance with this parameter
value will prevent defects.
330

Transverse Gun Angle

The fifth essential welding variable, transverse gun angle, is the angle transverse to the axis of weld and the direction of the travel of the welding electrode. This angle affects the balance between the fillet weld legs as well as the
arc force. These variables control bead shape, fillet weld leg size, and weld
bead tie-in. Improper transverse angle control can lead to defective weld conditions requiring rework. This essential welding variable is not normally specified in a welding procedure, however, it is as important as those included and
should be addressed by both the supervisor and the welder to make sure that
the proper transverse angle is used.
Travel Angle
Travel angle, the sixth essential welding variable, is defined as the angle that
lies in the direction of the weld axis and the travel of the welding electrode.
This angle is defined by whether a weld is made in the push forehand position,
or the pull backhand position. Bead shape, penetration, and weld bead fusion
are affected by this essential welding variable. Maintaining control over this
variable will contribute to making a quality weld. This variable also does not
normally appear in a standard welding procedure; however, it should be understood, observed, and followed consistently if Dos Goal 3 is to be achieved.
Electrode Position
This seventh essential welding variable controls where the electrode impinges
on the surface of the base metal. For a fillet weld of only one weld bead the
electrode will, in general, be aimed by the welder at the root or junction of the
mating base metal plates being joined. This may be altered somewhat by welding processes such as FCAW, where a large weld using a large diameter wire is
used to make a horizontal fillet. If it is other than a single or root pass, the electrode position will be in accordance with good bead placement for multipass
welding. This variable is sometimes specified in the welding procedure. It is
essential that the welder control this essential welding variable to prevent rollover, undercut, slag entrapment, incomplete fusion, and incomplete penetration
(see Figure 10.10).
Control of these seven variables leads to consistent quality results. The supervisor must ensure that the welder knows and understands how to follow these
variables, and has mastered the skills to follow them under diverse welding
conditions. Where welders cannot follow these variables, due to accessibility
problems because of component assembly or welding fixtures, the supervisor
must resolve the situation by working with engineering.
After the welders have been adequately instructed in the seven essential
welding variables, the welding supervisor must monitor each welder daily to
331

Figure 10.10The Seven Essential Welding Variables are the Key to

Quality and Productivity for Gas Metal Arc and Flux Core Arc Welding
assure that the specified variables are being followed, thus ensuring long-term
sustainability of welding quality.
Monitoring the Welder
Welding supervisors must monitor the welders each day to ensure that the
welders are following the welding procedures, instructions, and are welding in
accordance with the essential welding variables (see Chapter 12, Welding
Inspection).
Monitoring can take many forms, but should achieve the following results:
that welders are welding in accordance with the essential welding variables
for the welding process they are using.
that after a weld is completed, the welder visually inspects the weld to
ensure there are no defects.
that the welder knows the acceptance criteria for visual inspection and
applies them correctly.
332

In all cases, if the welder is unable to perform the required process or procedure to the required degree of proficiency, additional training and or instruction may be required.
Following the completion of welds and visual inspection by the welders, the
supervisor should perform random samplings of all welds made during that
work shift to ensure that only quality product is being made and sent on to the
next operation or to the customer.
Some of the factors that negatively affect Dos Goal 3 are:
1. Insufficient training of welders
2. Lack of welder qualification requirements
3. Lack of Workmanship Standards
4. Non-adherence to existing Workmanship Standards
5. Lack of proper shop surveillance by welders and supervisors
a. No inspection of work by welder and supervisor
b. No monitoring of welders and essential welding variables by supervisor
6. Lack understanding by welders and supervisors of the essential welding
variables and their effect on weld quality
7. Lack of properly developed welding procedures
8. Inadequate welder skills
9. Poor weld joint fitup
10. Poor welding accessibility (see Figure 10.11)
Dos Goal 4:
Reduce Work
Effort
Dos Goal 4 encompasses the adage of Work Smarter, Not Harder. The
effort to meet Dos Goal 4 will result in a decrease in the amount of Non-Arc
Time that the welder spends each hour during the work shift. It is important
that the supervisor recognizes that the welder is asked to perform a number of
non-arc welding tasks. Some of the tasks are necessary, such as assembling
parts into a fixture for welding. However, no matter how necessary a task is,
the amount of effort required by the welder should always be minimized. If the
supervisor is sensitive to the importance of making improvements to reduce
work effort, many opportunities can be found. Some of these opportunities
include the following:
333

Figure 10.11Accessibility and Hard-to-Reach Welds will

Increase the Work Effort of Any Welder and Reduce Productivity
Alignment of Subassemblies and Parts. The more time the welder spends
trying to get parts properly oriented, especially without proper welding
fixtures or alignment tools, the more time is wasted in unnecessary work
effort.
Ease of Use of Welding Fixtures. Bring the work to the welder properly,
and adjust the height of the fixture to allow the welder to work in a less
strenuous position.
Weld Accessibility. For good weld accessibility, important considerations

are: interference by other parts, parts spaced too closely together, and properly sized electrode holder or gun.
Weld Position. Improved weld position allows more welds to be made

in the flat or horizontal position instead of the vertical or overhead position, which, in turn, decreases arm weariness and improves quality and
productivity.
334

As the welding supervisor becomes more aware of these causes of excessive

work effort, improvements can be made to address welding fixture problems as
well as accessibility and weld position problems. As a result, the welder will be
able to work the entire shift with less fatigue and neither consciously nor
unconsciously slow down and increase Non-Arc Time.
Returning to the basic economic welding formula of
Total Labor Time = Arc Time Non Arc Time
it is easy to see that a decrease in work effort and the welders fatigue results in
a decrease in Non-Arc Time. Therefore, a given number or welds or parts can
be completed in a shorter period of time. By decreasing the Non-Arc Time, the
Operating Factor is also improved. The formula is:
Operating Factor =
Arc Time
100
Total Labor Time
Since Total Labor Time is decreased as Non-Arc Time decreases and the Arc
Time/Hr. remains the same, the value of the Operating Factor increases. Whenever the Operating Factor increases by virtue of a decrease in the Non-Arc
Time, the productivity of the welding operation improves. Conversely, whenever the arc time/unit length is reduced by an increase in the deposition rate or
making welds to size, the Operating Factor will decrease. Hence, both an
increase and reduction in the Operating Factor can increase productivity as
long as the Labor Time is decreasing. The effect this productivity has on the
Operating Factor depends on whether the Arc Time or the Non-Arc Time is
reduced.
Example 7
Arc Time/hr. = 1.5 hrs.
Non-Arc Time = 6 hrs.
Total Labor Time = 1.5 hrs. + 6 hrs.
Total Labor Time = 7.5 hrs.
Operating Factor = 1.5 hrs. 100
7.5 hrs.
Operating Factor = 20%
335

If the operator is able to reduce Non-Arc Time by one hour by reducing the
work effort through fixture improvement or repositioning the welds, the new
Total Labor Time and Operating Factor will be as follows:
Non-Arc Time = 6 hrs. 1 hr. (savings) = 5 hrs.
Total Labor Time = 1.5 hrs. + 5 hrs.
Total Labor Time = 6.5 hrs.
Operating Factor = 1.5 hrs. 100
6.5 hrs.
Operating Factor = 23%
Dos Goal 5:
Reduce Motion
and Delay Time
Welder Motion and Delay Time is affected by work area layout, weld fixturing
and tooling, equipment downtime, and any hand, foot or body movement that
is required to complete the welding task. These activities comprise the NonArc Time of the welder. Any project that decreases the time for these activities
will reduce the Non-Arc Time and thereby increase the Operating Factor (see
Figure 10.12).
When looking at Reduction of Motion and Delay Time, the supervisor needs to
differentiate between the Non-Arc Time tasks that are necessary and those that
are unnecessary. The objective for the supervisor in meeting Dos Goal 5 is to
reduce all Non-Arc Time as much as possible. Necessary Non-Arc Time tasks
can never be completely eliminated but their times can be reduced. Non-Arc
Time steps that are unnecessary can be completely eliminated.
Non-Arc Time tasks that are necessary are as follows:
Initial equipment setup
Layout
Alignment and fitting of parts
Tacking of parts (if parts are positioned in a fixture, this task may be eliminated)
Setup prior to the deposition of each weld pass
Time between passes
Cleaning during welding (although deslagging is unnecessary for non-flux

welding processes)
336

Figure 10.12The Layout of the Workstation and the Design and

Condition of the Fixture Can Greatly Affect the Labor Time for Any Job
Movement between arcing segments
Grindinginterpass and final
Preheating (when required)
All of the above tasks are necessary as part of welding. The supervisor can
influence and control the amount of time that is used in performing these tasks.
For example, if the parts needed to be loaded into a weld fixture are properly
placed around the fixture, the welder can save a lot of hand, foot, and body
movements. Without proper parts positioning the welder can spend an inordinate amount of time walking or reaching to pick up parts.
As another example, the amount of grinding that the welder does can be greatly
influenced by the size and shape of the weld bead. A properly shaped weld
bead that is made to size can be ground in a fraction of the time of an oversized
weld. Too often when welders know they are going to grind a weld they will
not put the proper care into that weld to control weld size. This leads to additional grinding by the welder to produce an acceptable finished weld surface.
337

It is evident from these examples that both the welder and the welding supervisor affect the time required for non-arc necessary tasks that the welder must
perform. One of the most valuable activities for the supervisor is to spend time
in the workstations with the welders to observe, monitor, and support their
daily activities. The amount of savings that can be realized by observing and
thereby reducing necessary non-arc welding time can be significant.
The elimination of non-arc welding time for unnecessary tasks should not
be neglected. A problem with these tasks is that in some cases they have
been occurring for so long that they have taken on the appearance of necessary
tasks. The following examples are unnecessary tasks that can sometimes seem
necessary:
Locating missing parts
Reworking parts not made to print
Using welding fixtures that are not in good working order
Delays caused by welding equipment breakdowns
Waiting for clarification of instructions
Compensating for engineering drawing errors
Delaying caused by filler metals and consumable parts not readily available
The problem with the above list is that too often many of these issues seem
unfixable. The belief is that since they have been happening for so long that
nothing can be done about them. Or they only happen occasionally and therefore are not a big deal. Both of these beliefs are not true.
Much of what causes the welders to perform unnecessary tasks are little things
that keep happening throughout the course of the shift. The fact that they are
just little things and many do not take up a considerable amount of time is not
really the issue. The real issue is that these tasks happen repeatedly to many
welders and on most shifts. These types of issues are systemic problems that,
when traced back to their source and solved, will yield significant reductions in
wasted motion and delay time.
For the welding supervisor it is important not that they solve all of these problems, but that they consistently monitor and report occurrences without becoming complacent. The following example serves to illustrate this point.
338

Example 8
A company has a 15% Operating Factor, and a welding component cycle time
of 60 minutes. This equates to an arc time per hour of:
Arc Time = Labor Time Operating Factor
Labor Time = 60 minutes
Operating Factor = 15% 100 = 0.15 (decimal form)
Arc Time = 60 minutes 0.15
Arc Time = 9 minutes
Non-Arc Time = Labor Time Arc Time
Non-Arc Time = 60 minutes 9 minutes
Non-Arc Time = 51 minutes
If the company were able to save, through the elimination of some Non-Arc
Time unnecessary tasks, and reduce the time duration of some necessary NonArc Time tasks, a total of 10 minutes out of 51 Non-Arc Time minutes, the
new Non-Arc Time will be 51 10 = 41 minutes.
With this reduction of non arc time by 10 minutes, what would the Total Labor
Time, Operating Factor and productivity improvement be?
As previously shown:
Labor Time = Arc Time + Non-Arc Time
Labor Time = 9 minutes + 41 minutes
Labor Time = 50 minutes
Operating Factor = Arc Time Labor Time
Operating Factor = 9 minutes 50 minutes
Operating Factor = 0.176 or 100 = 18%
Productivity Improvement = Old Labor Time New Labor Time 100
Old Labor Time
339

Productivity Improvement = 60 50 100

60
Productivity Improvement = 16.6%
Several important arguments can be made from this example. The most compelling is that a 10-minute savings achieved from reducing Non-Arc Time
tasks results in a 16.6% productivity improvement. To achieve the same
amount of productivity improvement from Arc Time would mean completely
eliminating all the welding time and 1 minute more. This of course is a physical impossibility. Since Non-Arc Time is a much greater percentage of the
welders Total Labor Time than Arc Time, the potential for improvement is
greatest with Non-Arc Time.
The opportunity for productivity improvements from Dos Goals 4 and 5 is
even greater than can be achieved from Dos Goals 1 and 2. This will begin to
change as the Operating Factor begins to reach 50%. Once the percentage of
Arc and Non-Arc Time approaches 50%, the amount of savings that can be
achieved in either Arc or Non-Arc Time reductions will have the same effect
on welding productivity.
Method for
Computing
Operating Factor
A method can be used to determine the present Operating Factor for any
company, either by department, section, or company-wide by the following
steps:
1. Take the number of welders using the same process for a given department,
section, or company-wide and calculate how many hours they have worked
over a specific period of time such as one year, one month or one week.
2. Survey the welding machines that these welders are using and establish a
good representative average welding current or wire feed speed. From this
number a filler metal deposition rate can be determined.
3. For the same period of time, determine how many pounds of wire or electrodes have been issued and used by the welders in the area under consideration. Take this weight of filler metal or electrodes and multiple it by the
deposition efficiency factor to get the amount of deposited filler metal.
If a company issued 10,000 pounds of weld metal (obtain from company
records) and the deposition efficiency factor is 90% (0.90 decimal form),
then the amount of deposited filler metal is Deposited Metal = Filler
Metal Bought Deposition Efficiency or
Deposited Metal = 10,000 pounds 0.90 = 9,000 pounds
340

4. Take this deposited filler metal figure and divide it by the filler metal
deposition rate. The result will be the arc time in hours at 100% Operating
Factor that it would take to deposit all of the filler metal consumed.
If the companys filler metal deposition rate is 9 pounds/hr. and the
amount of Deposited Metal is 9,000 pounds, then the Arc Time = Deposited
Metal Deposition Rate or
Arc Time = 9,000 pounds 9 pounds/hr. = 1000 arc hours
5. Take this arc time and divide it by the number of welder hours from Step 1
and this will give a rough Operating Factor. The accuracy of this approach
will depend on how accurate the quantity of filler metal used is, the accuracy of the amperage or wire feed speed of the welding, and the accuracy of
the number of actual welder hours for doing welding.
If the companys Total Labor Time for welders was 5000 man-hours, then
the Operating Factor = Arc Time Total Labor Time or
Operating Factor = 1000 arc hours 5000 total hours = 20%
Example 9
A company has 150 welders using the Flux Cored Arc Welding process, using
0.052 in. diameter wire at an average of 200 amperes. Over a one-year period
these welders consumed 350,000 pounds of Flux Core Arc wire. Over this oneyear period what was their Operating Factor?
Step 1. 150 welders 1700 hrs./year = 255,000 Hours used by the Flux Core
Arc Welders.
Step 2. 200 amperes using 0.052 in. wire would yield 6.0 pounds/hr. of
welder deposition rate at a 100% Operating Factor.
Step 3. Company records showed that 350,000 pounds of Flux Core Wire
were consumed by the welders during the one-year period.
350,000 pounds 0.85 (deposition efficiency for Flux Cored Wire) =
297,000 pounds of deposited filler metal
Step 4. 297,000 pounds 6.0 pounds/hr. = 49,583 hrs. of arc time to weld this
quantity of wire if welding at 100% Operating Factor.
341

Step 5. Operating Factor = Arc Time Total Labor Hours

Operating Factor = 49,583 arc time hrs. 255,000 Total Labor Hours.
Operating Factor = 0.194 100 = 19.4%
Putting It All
together
Lets take a real life example to help demonstrate how the welding economics work and what the benefits can be from following the five Dos Goals.
Example 10
The welding supervisor has a crew with ten welders. The supervisor does an
initial review of the welding of these ten welders and finds the following:
Although the average size of the fillet welds shown on the engineering
drawings is 1/4 in., the welders are depositing a 5/16 in. fillet weld by measurement. From the comparison chart in Figure 10.6, the supervisor realizes that the welders are overwelding by 57% by volume and weight of
filler metal. Since, the welding arc time is 2,968 man-hours, correcting the
welding sizes and making 1/4 in. size fillet welds would result in a gain in
welding footage equivalent to 1,692 additional arc-welding hours.
The supervisor then checks each welders weld parameters. They are using
Gas Metal Arc Welding Process with a 0.045 in. diameter wire in the spray
mode with an average wire feed speed of 300 inches per minute, which has
a deposition rate from the chart of 8.0 lbs./hr. The supervisor also knows
that with a little retraining the welders could learn to weld at 500 inches per
minute with a new deposition rate of 13.0 lbs./hr. This change in deposition
rate would result in a reduction of arc time per weldment of 38%. Using the
new deposition rate would be the equivalent increase in welding footage of
1,127 additional arc-welding hours.
The supervisor also looks at the welders rework and repair rate. In this
example, almost all defect conditions in the welding department are
resolved by rework and repair, not by scrapping the defective parts. The
supervisor, by closely monitoring the welders, finds that 10% of the welds
made require either rework or repair and that most is due to the welders not
following the welding procedures and essential welding variables. The
supervisor soon realizes that by correcting this situation by having the
welders work in accordance with the essential welding variables, results in
the rework and repair rate being reduced by 50%. The rework and repair
was found to consume 890 man-hours a year. A reduction of 50% would
result in a savings of 445 man-hours a year.
After gathering the above information, the supervisor calculates an operating factor as follows:
342

Step 1. 10 welders 1,700 man-hours/year = 17,000 man-hours used by

the Gas Metal Arc welders.
Step 2. 300 amperes using 0.045 in. wire would yield 8.0 lbs./hr. of
welder deposition rate at a 100% operating factor.
Step 3. Records showed that the welders consumed 25,000 pounds of Gas
Metal Arc Solid Wire during the one-year period.
25,000 lbs. 0.95 (deposition efficiency for Gas Metal Arc Wire)
= 23,750 lbs. of deposited filler metal
Step 4. 23,750 lbs. 8.0 lbs./hr. = 2,968 hrs. of arc time to weld this quantity of wire if welding at 100% Operating Factor.
Step 5. Operating Factor = Arc Time Total Labor Time
Operating Factor = 2,968 Arc Time hrs. 17,000 Total Labor
Hours.
Operating Factor = 0.175 100 = 17.5%
This operating factor means that 82.5% of the welders time is spent in NonArc Time activities. In other words, of the 17,000 hours spent by the ten welders and only 2,968 Arc Time hours the other 14,032 hours were spent doing
Non-Arc Time (necessary and unnecessary) things as previously discussed.
However, some of this time was used either doing rework and repair, or as
work effort and was lost and wasted time. The supervisor found that by identifying the unnecessary time losses and reducing the necessary tasks to more
efficient times, a savings of 20% in Non-Arc Time could be achieved. Since
the Non-Arc Time is 14,032 hours this would result in a labor-hour savings of
approximately 2,800 hours per year.
After the welding supervisor made these improvements, the results achieved
were quantified for productivity and dollar cost improvement.
Reduced Overwelding
1,692 hours
Reduced Arc Time per Weld Length
1,127 hours
Reduced Rejects, Rework, and Scrap
445 hours
Reduced Work Effort, Wasted and Lost Time
2,800 hours
Total Productivity Increase
6,064 hours
343

These total savings represent slightly over 35% overall productivity improvement.
The total cost benefit of these improvements can be calculated by obtaining the
companys labor rate + benefits + overhead fixed costs. This figure for most
companies is available from the accountant or comptroller of the company. For
the sake of this example, a rate of $45.00/hr. will be used.
6,064 labor hours (productivity improvement) $45.00/hr. = $272,880 per year.
With this example it is easy to see that the welding supervisor can make a
significant productivity and cost savings impact for his company by using the
information available in this manual and making improvements in his own
department.
The introduction of so many terms and concepts may appear overwhelming
when first encountered, however, when they are all put together in some example problems, it will be somewhat clearer. To aid in the effort of connecting
these economic concepts together, the following examples should prove to be
helpful.
Example 11
Lets take a look at another real life, everyday situation in the environment that
we all work in every day.
We pay welders to weld. Therefore a foreman entering a workstation or department can typically find 3 welders welding or performing some welding-related
function. All seems well; after all, the welders seem to be doing what they
were hired and paid to do. But are they really?
Assume the following:
1. Labor: $42.00 an hour
2. Flux-core wire: $1.25 per pound
3. Flux core has an 85% deposition efficiency (from Table 10.6)
4. An 8 hour work day is performed
All 3 welders have been asked to weld 500 feet of 3/16 in. fillet weld at
250 amps with a 45% arc time. Carbon steel that has a density of 0.283 pounds
per cubic inch is being welded.
NOTE: 45% arc time is 27 minutes of every hour, or 3 hours and 36 minutes
of the work day.
344

There is also a reason why 500 feet was chosen: this will become evident
momentarily.
WELDER A
Welder A gives us exactly what we asked for. Lets do the math.
0.1875 0.1875 0.5 12 0.283 = 0.0596 pounds per foot.
500 feet 0.0596 = 29.8 pounds of weld metal deposited into the joint.
At 85% deposition efficiency, 35.05 pounds of wire will have to be purchased.
At 250 amps, depositing 8.2 pounds an hour, the welder can weld 137.6 feet an
hour at 100% arc time.
In an 8 hour day, he can weld 1100 feet. Now with a 45% arc time, he can weld
495.3 feet a day. Rounded off, that is 500 feet and the reason why I chose it as
our baseline.
So 35.05 pounds of wire times $1.25 a pound equals $43.82 for consumable
cost.
8 hours labor times $42.00 an hour equals $336.00.
Welder A: Cost equals $379.82 to weld 500 feet of 3/16 in. fillet weld at
250 amps.
WELDER B
Welder B slightly overwelds and gives us a 1/4 in. fillet instead of the 3/16 in.
we asked for. He also only welds at 225 amps and with an arc time of 35%.
Lets do the math.
0.250 0.250 0.5 12 0.283 = 0.106 pounds per foot.
Now at 225 amps, he will be depositing 7.0 pounds per hour.
53.06 7.0 = 7.58 hours at 100% arc time. At 35% arc time, labor hours will
be 21.65.
So 62.4 pounds of wire at $1.25 pound = $78.00.
345

Labor at $42.00 21.65 hours would cost $909.30.

Welder B: The direct cost for this weld is $987.30 to weld the 500 feet. The
resulting weld is 1/16 in. larger than specified and the total assembly
weighs almost 27 lbs. more than the engineer wanted. Welder B also took
more than 13 extra hours to deliver this out-of-spec weld.
WELDER C
Now returning to our original premisewe are looking at a real life, everyday
situation. So lets use Welder C as our realistic welder.
His foreman is not checking his weld size, nor his amperage and never
instructed him as to any kind of footage expectancy. So what do you get from
Welder C?
He overwelds a 3/16 in. fillet and gives us a 5/16 in. fillet. His amperage is 180
and at the end of the day he had a 20% arc time. Lets do the math.
0.3125 0.3125 0.5 12 0.283 = 0.165 pounds per foot.
Now at 180 amps, he will be depositing 5.08 pounds per hour.
82.9 5.08 = 16.31 hours at 100% arc time. At 20% arc time, labor hours will
be 81.6.
So 97.5 pounds of wire at $1.25 pound = $121.86.
Labor at $42.00 81.6 = $3,477.2
Welder C: The direct cost for this weld is $3,599.06 to weld 500 feet. The
resulting weld is 1/8 in. larger than specified and the total assembly weighs
almost 62.45 lbs. more than the engineer required. Welder C also took
more than 73.6 extra hours to deliver this out-of-spec weld.
Comparison
Compare Welders A, B, and C
Welder A: $379.82
Welder B: $987.30 (Almost 3 times more than A)
346

Welder C: $3,599.06 (Almost 10 times more than A)

Conclusion
Based upon the examples used in this chapter, you are now aware that actual
Operating Factors are lower than what you might have expected. Many supervisors think that their welders are making welds the majority of the time the
welders are at their workstations. Experience and surveys have shown that this
is not the casewhich is why so much improvement is possible when sound
principals are used to achieve the Five Welding Dos Goals.
As shown, the supervisor can affect every facet of welding economics and
productivity through the use of the Five Welding Dos Goals.
A quick review of the actions that the welding supervisor can take related to
each of the Five Welding Dos Goals to improve welding quality and
productivity the summary for each Dos Goal are:
Dos Goal 1. Reduce Weld Metal Volume
Make sure that welders check their fillet welds and reinforcement weld
sizes with weld gages and weld length for intermittent welds.
Monitor the weld sizes and take corrective action when over or undersized.
Make sure that welders know the correct weld sizes.
Verify fitups to help prevent oversized welding.
Dos Goal 2. Reduce Arc Time Per Weldment
Make sure welders use the highest amperage (wire feed speed) value
allowed in the welding procedure.
Monitor the amperages or wire feed speeds against quality requirements to

assure that quality is maintained.
Verify that the welding process with the greatest deposition rate is being
used.
Look for opportunities to use automatic welding that can use much higher
deposition rates.
Dos Goal 3. Reduce Rejects, Rework, and Scrap
Verify that all welders are capable of inspecting their own work.
347

Monitor welding before it leaves your area to ensure that it meets the applicable acceptance criteria.
Ensure that welders understand the essential welding variables for the
welding processes they are using and monitor them periodically to ensure
that the essential welding variables are followed.
Dos Goal 4. Reduce Work Effort
Check weld assembly for accessibility.
Weld joints in flat or horizontal position whenever possible.
Make sure welds are positioned at a comfortable height whenever possible.
Make sure welding equipment and fixtures are in good working order.
Dos Goal 5. Reduce Motion and Delay Time
Summary of Key
Concepts
Make sure parts are available when needed
Improve positioning and handling parts before and after assembly.
Look for unnecessary hand, foot and body movements.
Bring the work to the welder, when possible.
The Key Concepts discussed in this chapter are summarized in Table 10.7.
Table 10.7Summary of Key Concepts
Key Concept
Desired Result
Rationale
Total Labor Time
Decrease
Reduce the number of hours it takes to

do the job.
Arc Time Per

Weld Length
Decrease
Reduce overwelding and maximize the

deposition rate to complete the weld in
the shortest time.
Total Arc Time
Increase
Having the welders actually welding a

high percentage of the time is the best
use of their time.
Non-Arc Time
Decrease
Welders are being paid to weld, so all

non-welding tasks need to be done more
efficiently or be eliminated.
348

Table 10.7Summary of Key Concepts (Continued)

Key Concept
Operating Factor
Reference
Review Questions
Desired Result
Increase
Rationale
Maximize arc time of every welders labor
hour to achieve highest productivity.
Economics of Welding and Cutting, Chapter 12, AWS Welding Handbook,

Vol. 1, Ninth Edition.
1. A welder using the FCAW process welds for 15 minutes out of every
hour. What is the welders Operating Factor?
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
10%
15%
25%
30%
35%
2. A welder using the SMAW process welds for 12 minutes out of every
hour. What is the welders Operating Factor?
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
5%
10%
15%
20%
25%
3. A welder using the SAW process welds for 30 minutes out of every hour.
What is the welders Operating Factor?
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
10%
25%
50%
80%
90%
4. A welding job requires 25 feet of 1/4 in. carbon steel fillet weld. The
FCAW welding process used has an 85% deposition efficiency. Approximately how much filler metal will be required to weld this job? Assume
the density of carbon steel is 0.283 lbs./cu. in.
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
2.0 pounds
3.0 pounds
6.0 pounds
7.0 pounds
7.5 pounds
349

5. A welding job requires 120 feet of full penetration square groove welds in
a 1/4 in. carbon steel plate with 1/8 in. gap and a backing strip. The SAW
welding process used has a 95% deposition efficiency. Carbon steel has a
density of 0.283 lbs./ cu. in. Approximately how much filler metal will be
required, assuming no reinforcement?
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
9.0 pounds
10.0 pounds
11.0 pounds
12.0 pounds
13.0 pounds
6. A welding job requires 30 feet of full penetration weld in a 3/16 in. carbon
steel plate with 1/16 in. gap, welded from both sides. The SMAW welding
process used has a 6% deposition efficiency. Carbon steel has a density of
0.283 lbs./cu. in. Approximately how much filler metal will be required,
assuming no reinforcement?
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
2.0 pounds
3.0 pounds
4.0 pounds
5.5 pounds
6.0 pounds
7. If the labor time to perform a welding task is 3 hours and 30 minutes and
the Total Arc Time is 1 hour, how much of the time is Non-Arc Time?
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
1 hour and 45 minutes

2 hours and 30 minutes
None of the above.
8. If the labor time to perform a welding task is 2 hours and 45 minutes and
the Total Arc Time is 30 minutes, how much of the time is Non-Arc
Time?
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.

1 hour
None of the above.
350

9. A welding task requires 1 hour and 30 minutes of Arc Time, using a welding process that has a 35% Operating Factor. Approximately how many
labor hours will it take the welder to complete this task?
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.

30 minutes
10. A welding task that requires 10 lbs. of deposited filler metal is being done
using the SMAW process. E-7018 electrode with a deposition rate of 4 lbs./
hour is being used. If the welding process is changed to use FCAW, E-70T4 electrode with a deposition rate of 10 lbs./hr., approximately how much
Total Arc Time will be saved?
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
90 minutes
75 minutes
150 minutes
50 minutes
200 minutes
11. A welder using FCAW process and E70T-1 electrode can weld up a job in
30 minutes of Arc Time with a 7 lbs./hr. deposition rate. Another welder
does the same job using SAW process with a single electrode and a deposition rate of 15 lbs./hr. Approximately how much time will the second
welder require to do the same job?
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
6 minutes
10 minutes
14 minutes
18 minutes
24 minutes
12. A welder using the SMAW process and E-7018 electrode is making a vertical weld using 180 amperes and the job takes 30 Total Arc Time minutes
with a deposition rate of 4 lbs./hr. The job is repositioned so that the
welder can weld it in the flat position using 250 amperes with a deposition
rate of 6 lbs./hr. Approximately how many arc time minutes will be saved
with this new method?
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
2 minutes
4 minutes
7 minutes
10 minutes
13 minutes
351

13. A welding job using GMAW process in the short circuit mode on out of
position fillet welds using 150 amperes with a deposition rate of 4 lbs./hr.
requires 75 minutes of Arc Time to weld. The out of position fillet welds
are repositioned so that they can be done in the flat position using GMAW
in the spray mode at 260 amps with a deposition rate of 9 lbs./hr. Approximately how much time will it take to weld the fillets in the new weld
position?
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
22 minutes
33 minutes
38 minutes
18 minutes
44 minutes
14. The engineering drawings call out for 1/4 in. fillet welds totaling 75 linear
feet of welds. The welder makes welds that are consistently 5/16 in. fillet
welds. Approximately how much weld metal volume should have been
used and how much weld metal volume did the welder actually use?
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
65 cu. in. and 100 cu. in.

None of the above.
15. Using the example below approximately how much filler metal will be
required to make the 1/4 in. fillet welds?
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
2.0 pounds
2-1/2 pounds
3-1/4 pounds
3-3/4 pounds
4-1/2 pounds
Example 12
A welding job requires 20 linear feet of 1/4 in. fillet welds, 45 linear feet
of 1/8 in. fillet welds and 30 linear feet of 5/16 in. fillet welds. The job is
to be welded using FCAW process and 250 amperes with a deposition
rate of 7.5 lbs./hr. on all fillet weld sizes. The non-arc welding time
including set-up, loading and unloading of fixtures and welders movements is 2 hours and 40 minutes. The deposition efficiency for FCAW is
85%. The weld metal density is 0.283 lbs./cu. in.
352

16. Using the same example above, approximately how much filler metal will
be required to make the 1/8 in. fillet welds?
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
1/2 pounds
1 pounds
1-1/2 pounds
2 pounds
2-1/2 pounds
17. Using the same example above, approximately how much filler metal will
be required to make the 5/16 in. fillet welds?
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
4 pounds
4-5/8 pounds
5-1/4 pounds
5-7/8 pounds
6-1/4 pounds
18. From the same example above, what is the approximate amount of filler
metal required to make all three sizes of fillet welds?
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
8-1/2 pounds
7-1/4 pounds
9-3/4 pounds
6-1/2 pounds
9 pounds
19. Based on the information from the same example above, approximately
how much arc time will be required to make all of the fillet welds?
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
60 minutes
70 minutes
80 minutes
90 minutes
100 minutes
20. Using the same example above, approximately how much labor time will
be needed to complete this job?
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.

353

Answers
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
C
D
C
B
E
A
C
A
E
A
C
D
B
D
B
C
D
E
C
A
354

Chapter 11Application of Weld Standards
Chapter 11APPLICATION OF WELDING STANDARDS

Introduction
The application of welding standards and codes is not well understood by most
welding supervisors. This is usually the result of the lack of formal training in
the use of standards and codes as they apply to welding.
Very often supervisors are not told about contract welding standard requirements because the individual responsible for negotiating the contract is not
very knowledgeable about welding standards and codes. As a result, the supervisor becomes aware of a specific standard or code requirement only after it is
missed, which then requires rework to correct. With proper understanding and
communication, most of these situations can be avoided. The use of standards
and codes as they apply to welding is not difficult for the supervisor to understand. Even though there are many standards and codes, there are just a few
that are widely used.
Widely Used
Standards and
Codes
American Welding Society

1. AWS D1.1, Structural Welding CodeSteel
2. AWS D1.2, Structural Welding CodeAluminum
3. AWS D1.3, Structural Welding CodeSheet Steel
4. AWS D1.6, Structural Welding CodeStainless Steel
ASME
1. ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Sections I, III, IV, VIII, and IX,
ASME Piping CodeSections
American Bureau of Shipping
1. Rules for Building and Classing Steel Vessels
American Petroleum Institute
1. API 650, Welded Tanks for Oil Storage
2. API 1104, Standard for Welding Pipelines and Related Facilities
Military Standards
1. MIL-STD 1689, Fabrication Welding and Inspection of Ship Structures
2. MIL-STD 22, Welded Joint Design
This is not a complete list of standards and codes, but provides some idea of
how many different types of standards and codes are available for industries to
choose from for a given welding application. In many cases, standards are
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written to provide specific welding technical data, as well as instructions for

welding a product. Often the owner, prime contractor, or government body,
with jurisdiction as a requirement of the contract, adopts a specific standard or
code. Where public safety is an issue, the use of a specific standard may be
required by governmental legislation. When reviewing the various codes and
standards for welding requirements, it is interesting to note that they all address
welding in the same way. This is expected because welding is a science. To
ensure weld quality, welding codes contain few differences.
An important aspect to remember when using standards and codes is their
use of terminology. As an example, when they use the word shall, this
means the provision of the code is mandatory. When the verb should is
used, it is to recommend a practice that is beneficial but not mandatory.
When the verb may is used, it refers to some option that is available to
supplement the standard or code requirement.
The basic format or structure used in codes and standards is as follows:
General Requirements
This section of the standard or code usually states what the scope and limitations of the particular standard or code is. Examples include which types of
structures, components, equipment, or parts are covered by the requirements
contained in the standard.
Design of Welded Connections
This information is contained in a particular standard, or if not, in a standard
that is referenced where these design requirements are found. These design
requirements cover what types of weld joints to use, and how the strength of
these different weld joints is calculated. Following the design requirements is
reflected in the welding symbol that appears on the engineering drawing showing which welded connection (weld joint) the designer has selected.
In standards and codes, there is always someone responsible for specifying the welding requirements. The Designer or Engineer of Record is that
person.
This designer or engineer is responsible for providing the following:
Full documentation including engineering drawings with weld symbols for

use on the contract.
The code or standard with the year or edition the document was issued.
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Nondestructive Testing used on the contract.
The acceptance criteria by which the Nondestructive Testing is evaluated.
Special requirements for welding, if any, and any additional requirements

not identified in the code or standard. These special requirements may
include static vs. cyclic structures, seismic provisions, fracture critical for
bridges, etc. Sometimes these special situations can turn the normal code
requirements on their heads. We could include this explanation in the last
bullet item as examples.
Welding Procedure Qualification

This requirement in the standards and codes is usually covered in two ways:
prequalified and qualification by testing. Not all standards and codes include
the prequalification option. Where prequalification is allowed, the requirements are very rigid, because of the need to follow all of the essential welding
variables without exception. In many cases, a company may find this too
restrictive and may decide instead to qualify their own procedure using essential welding variables that are more in line with their own practices and needs.
The prequalified option contains some codes and standards used where
the WPS that is needed is so commonplace and has been qualified so
many times in the past that the welding parameters and specific information needed to qualify the WPS are well-established and unquestioned.
Under those circumstances, a particular code will allow a company to use
a WPS that contains all of the welding parameters and specific information required for that weld without requiring the company to perform a
PQR.
Welder Qualification
Welder qualifications are handled in a similar way in all codes and standards.
Welders are required to take a test that has specific welding variables, such as
thickness of test coupon, weld position, and welding process, and need to
follow an already approved welding procedure.
Fabrication
These are the rules and requirements for the preparation, assembly, and
workmanship of the welded structure, equipment, or component covered by
the standard or code.
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The welding supervisor is the person most involved from the fabricator or
contractor side and is responsible for helping create and use the Welding
Procedure Specification. The supervisor is also responsible for making
sure only qualified welders use the procedures. With inspection responsibility falling more on the welders, the supervisor is responsible for verifying that all work done by their welders meets the standard or code
welding acceptance requirements.
Inspection
This section contains the inspection requirements for the welded connections
specified, and the acceptance criteria for each type of inspection method, especially visual and nondestructive testing. In addition, it contains the criteria for
the qualifications and responsibilities of inspectors or refers to another companion standard where the information can be found.
In some cases, the Designer or Engineer of Record may require a verification inspection. This inspection is most often done by outside inspectors.
The use of outside inspectors is not a reflection on the welders or supervisors, but is in most cases a requirement of the contract or owner, who
specifies third party involvement. In this case, the supervisor contacts the
outside inspector when the weld is ready for inspection. Many supervisors
consider this an inconvenience because of the disruption to the workflow.
However, it is also an opportunity for the supervisor that is verifying the
quality of the weld to gain valuable information. When the outside inspectors have completed their inspection, if they have found no visual defects,
then it is an indication to the supervisor that their own inspections are
thorough. If the weld does not pass, the supervisor can see what was
missed and then improve his own and the welders performance for the
next weld inspection. If the weld is inspected with subsurface inspection
methods such an Ultrasonic or Radiograph Inspection, the results of this
test will reveal to the supervisor how well the Welding Procedure Specification (WPS) is working and how proficient the welders were on those
welds.
Of the fabrication requirements covered by the standards and codes, the ones
that are the most important to the welding supervisor are qualification of welding procedures, welder qualification, fabrication, and visual inspection. This
chapter will cover these areas in more detail.
An important point to remember is that even though there is a great deal of
similarity in welding requirements in each standard and code, there are still
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differences. It is important that welding supervisors do not take their knowledge of one welding standard for granted, and therefore assume that another
standard handles a particular welding issue the same way. Whenever the supervisor begins working with a new standard, the referenced standard that will be
used must be checked to prevent a mistake from occurring.
Qualification of
Welding
Procedures
Welders and welding supervisors consistently use welding procedures on any

job that has a requirement for the adherence to a particular standard. All welding on a job that is covered by a standard is done following an approved welding procedure. The welding supervisor is responsible for assuring that welders
assigned to them are following all of the essential welding variables contained
in the procedures for that job.
A qualified welding procedure, also referred to as a Welding Procedure Specification (WPS), can either be prequalified if the standard allows, or qualified
by test. A Procedure Qualification Record (PQR) is generated if the qualification is by test. The WPS is written to record the essential welding variables that
will be used in the qualification test and in production. Then a PQR is created
to record the essential welding variables that are used in the test. This is necessary because the WPS has established ranges for many of the essential welding
variables and the PQR records the actual value for an essential welding variable used during the test. A WPS will also record other nonessential welding
variables for information only, such as gas cup size. The actual values of these
variables are not required for the PQR. The PQR will also contain the results of
the qualification test, such as the tensile test results and the bend tests. The
qualification of other type WPSs, such as fillet welds, may require other tests,
such as break tests or macro etching, for determining the amount of fusion.
Qualification of
Welders
Welding supervisors sometimes administer qualification tests to welders. This

test requires the welder to make a weld on test coupons following the approved
WPS. The size of the test coupon is determined by how many test specimens
must be removed from the coupon. All this information is specified in the
welding standard or code for which the test is run.
For the supervisor, the administration of this test is no different than production, as the welders are required to follow an approved WPS during the test. In
production, the welder is required to follow the approved WPS to make welds.
The only difference is that the test coupon will be destructively and possibly
nondestructively tested. The production weld may only be nondestructively
tested. Upon successful completion of the destructive test, the welders test
papers or test record is written, containing the essential welding variables to
which they qualified and the results of the destructive tests are recorded.
Comparison of
Common
Standards
Table 11.1 contains a comparison of three well used, but somewhat different
standards. This table shows that many similarities exist between the qualification of welders from one standard to another.
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Table 11.1Welder Qualification Comparison Chart

Welder Qualification Tests for 3/8 in. groove weld:
Qualifies the welder for thicknesses from 1/16 in. to 3/4 in. in all 3 standards
AWS D1.1
ASME Section IX
MIL-STD 1689
Visual Inspection
Required
Required
Required
Acceptance Criteria
Section 4.8.1
Section QW-190
0900-003-0008
Sec. 512
Cracks
No cracks
No Cracks
No Cracks
Incomplete Fusion
No IF
No IF
No IF
Incomplete Penetration
No IP
No IP
No IP
Full Cross Section
Profile Defined in Figure 3.4
Full Cross section
Full Cross Section
Undercut
Undercut 1/32 in. Max.
Undercut Not Specified
Undercut 1/64 in. Max.
Porosity
One in 4 in. not greater than

3/32 in.
Not Specified
Not Specified
Bend Test Required
Table 5.6
1Face Bend
1Root Bend
Table QW 452.1
1Face Bend
1Root Bend
Table XII
1Face Bend
1Root Bend
Acceptance Criteria
Section 4.8.3
Section QW-163
Section 4.5.2.3.1.
Discontinuity
No greater than 1/8 in. Sum

of all discontinuities3/8 in.
No greater than 1/8 in.
No greater than 1/8 in.
Radiographic Testing
(Optional)
May be used in lieu of

Bend Tests

Bend Tests

Bend Tests
Acceptance Criteria
Section 6.12.1/3
Section QW-191.2.2
Section 9.25.1
Below is a summary of the types of information generally contained in each

section of the most commonly used standards.
Fabrication
The fabrication requirements in different welding standards contain many of
the elements that have already been discussed in this manual. The following
are some of the typical points that are addressed in the fabrication section of a
standard.
Welding Consumables and Electrode Requirements. This section

includes the selection, storage and control of electrodes on the job site or
factory floor.
Welding Procedures Specifications. This section addresses the need to follow all welding variables contained in the WPS during welding, including
any preheat, heat input, and stress relief requirements contained in the WPS.
Welding and Cutting Equipment. This section concerns the need to

maintain the equipment in good working order.
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Welding Environment. This section includes factors that could affect weld
quality such as maximum wind velocity and minimum ambient temperatures.
Preparation of Base Metals. This section usually concerns the edge

preparation or surface where a weld is required to insure that no defects in
the base metal are present.
Temporary and Tack Welds. The treatment of these temporary welds and
their removal, and the tack welds that are either incorporated into a finished
weld and those that are not, is covered here.
Control of Distortion and Shrinkage. This section usually addresses the

sequencing, weld progression, restraint and temperature limitations that
can affect distortion after welding.
Repairs. In the event that a repair becomes necessary, this section covers
how the repairs are to be made and what approvals are necessary.
Inspection
This section of any standard is designed to do the following:
Identifies what inspections and nondestructive tests will be required. This

is determined by the design engineer specifying what types of structures
will require inspection and then the type and degree of inspection that is to
be applied. Included are the acceptance criteria for each type of nondestructive inspection.
Identifies the level of training, experience, and testing that the inspector
must undergo to be qualified for working with the welding standard.
Specifies what other items need to be inspected in addition to the nondestructive inspection, such as WPS, welder qualifications, and the need to
keep detailed reports on the results of these inspections.
One of the two most common types of certified inspectors the welding
supervisor encounters is the Certified Welding Inspector (CWI). This
inspectors qualifications and responsibilities are covered by the AWS
QC1, Standard for Certification of Welding Inspectors, previously discussed in this manual. The CWI is a Q.A. function, the CWI besides
visual inspection they will also audit many of the before, during, and after
welding activities. The other is the American Society of Nondestructive
Testing (ASNT) Inspector, which is covered under SNT-TC-1A. This certification covers all of the nondestructive testing methods. The most common are Visual, Liquid Penetrant, Magnetic Particle, Ultrasonic, and
Radiographic (see Chapter 12, Welding Inspection). The (ASNT) Inspector is a Q.C. function with no auditing responsibilities.
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Inspectors using the ASNT SNT-TC-1A Certification are classified as either

Level I, Level II, or Level III:
Level I. Individuals holding this level of qualification can conduct tests, set
up equipment and evaluate the results, but only under supervision from a
certified NDT Level II or Level III.
Level II. This individual is able to set up equipment, perform, interpret,

and evaluate results to any of the applicable codes, standards, or specifications. Level II must also to able to provide on-the-job training and guidance
for trainees and NDT Level I personnel.
Level III. This individual is capable of establishing techniques and

procedures; interpreting codes, standards, specifications, and procedures.
Level IIIs are responsible for creating inspection procedures and training, as
well as testing NDT, Level I, and Level II personnel. They are required to
administer the NDT inspection programs to meet all codes, standards, and
specifications.
Welding supervisors will most frequently come in contact with the NDT Level
II inspectors as they carry out specific NDT testing of welds, such as Visual,
Magnetic Particle or one of the other inspection methods. The job of the Level
II inspector is to conduct the specific test and interpret the results. If the welds
are acceptable, the supervisor knows that the welders have followed instructions and achieved the desired results. If weld defects are detected, the NDT
Level II inspector can explain the nature and type of these defects to the welding supervisor. He then can address corrective actions with the welders for
those defective welds, and thus prevent the occurrence of such defects in the
future.
Conclusion
Most welding supervisors will come in contact with welding codes and standards in carrying out their responsibilities for welding. In many cases, this contact is incomplete and after the fact, since companies have a tendency to isolate
or provide only partial information to the welding supervisor. Sometimes this
is the result of the management not understanding how many of the requirements in the code or standard affect welding. In other cases, the welding supervisor, due to lack of training or instruction, feels overwhelmed by how to meet
the requirements of the standards and codes.
The welding supervisor can now see that there is no great mystery to the structure and content of welding standards and codes. The information presented in
this manual better prepares the supervisor to handle any requirement contained
in these standards and codes.
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Review Questions
1. A PQR is used to qualify which of the following?

A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
A pre-qualified procedure
A welder qualification
A visual inspection procedure
A WPS by test
A workmanship procedure
2. Which of the following individuals is involved in the use of a WPS on the

job?
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
Management Consultant
Inspector
Welder
Break press operator
A and C only
3. Which of the following is not normally a part of the fabrication requirements for a standard or code?
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
Welding procedure specification

Magnetic particle test
Welder Environment
Control of Distortion and Shrinkage
Tack welds
4. Which of the following is not normally a part of the inspection section of a

standard?
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
NDT requirement
Specific welds to be inspected
Inspector qualifications
Preparation of base metals
Welder qualifications
5. When using standards and codes, which of the following is the Design
Engineers responsibility?
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
NDT used on the contract

Qualification of the WPS
Qualification of the welders
Qualification of the inspectors
All of the above
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Answers
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
D
C
B
D
A
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Chapter 12Welding Inspection
Chapter 12WELDING INSPECTION

Welding
Inspection
In Chapter 9, Welding Instruction, the four company management metrics

were identified as quality, cost, throughput, and safety. The welding supervisor
must be able to understand and verify the quality of welding to assure that the
quality metric is met. To do this, the supervisor must first understand what a
quality weld is.
The designer must either develop or adopt a welding quality standard that
defines quality in both visual and measurable ways for each component part,
assembly, or structure being built. This quality standard answers the question
often asked, What is the welding quality required for this job? Without a
clearly defined welding quality standard, there is no way to get all of the individuals involved in welding to agree on what is required. This is demonstrated
when welding is completed, passed on by the welder as good, reviewed by the
supervisor as acceptable, and then rejected by the inspector, customer representative, or someone else in authority over final product acceptance.
Without clearly defined and communicated welding quality standards, supervisors feel powerless and resign themselves to doing the best they can. The supervisors who understand the system of inspection and how they and their welders
fit in can take control of the quality of welding and prevent inspection rejects. The
first step for the welding supervisor is to understand all the various types of
inspections and their acceptance criteria. The common types are:
Visual Testing (VT)
Liquid Penetrant Testing (PT)
Magnetic Particle Testing (MT)
Ultrasonic Testing (UT)
Radiographic Testing (RT)

Some terms that a supervisor should be familiar with:
Relevant and non-relevant indicationterms sometimes used to

differentiate indications discovered during inspections, the relevant
ones are those that by their size, shape, and number may be defects.
The non-relevant ones are known to not be defects and disregarded.
Artifactthis term is used most often when discussing radiographic

film. It is an imperfection that shows up on the film which is related to
the film and not the weld being inspected. Unless the artifact ends up
masking the weld on the film so that it cannot be inspected, the artifact
is disregarded.
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Acceptance
Criteria
Flaw and imperfectionthese are slang terms in welding denoting

the presence of a discontinuity in a weld.
Discontinuityinterruption of the typical expected weld structure of

the material, such as a lack of homogeneity in the mechanical, metallurgical, or physical characteristics. A discontinuity is not necessarily
a defect.
Defectis a discontinuity that by its size, shape, or number exceeds

the acceptance criteria of the design engineer or specification. Defects
are always unacceptable. All defects are discontinuities, but not all
discontinuities are defects.
Acceptance criteria is the standard against which the person doing the inspection evaluates a weld. A supervisor and welder can visually inspect a weld the
same as a Certified Welding Inspector if they understand the acceptance criteria used for that weld. Acceptance criteria contain information such as whether
undercut is allowed, and if so, how much, or the presence of overlap. The criteria also defines how much porosity, if any, a weld bead can have. It may also
define the need to fill weld crater cross sections.
When the acceptance criteria is known and clearly defined, a welder and supervisor can visually inspect their welds before any required inspections are
performed, and have a high degree of confidence that the welds will pass.
Visual inspection is the most common type of nondestructive welding inspection used.
Quality issues usually arise when a company fails to define what inspection
method and acceptance criteria will be used on a particular job. Without the
answer to this question, most welding inspections are more subjective. Every
welding supervisor has the responsibility to know what inspection method and
acceptance criteria will be used on each job.
One concern supervisors have is how to handle situations where no inspection
method or acceptance criteria has been defined. In some companies, this frequently occurs. This situation can occur if the designer of the product is reluctant to designate acceptance criteria, and specifies the use of an inspection
method that has been used before. Designers can also be reluctant to specify
acceptance criteria when they have not received training in inspection methods
and acceptance criteria. In all cases where inspection methods and acceptance
criteria are not defined, the supervisor must request that they be defined and
agreed to before welding begins. This will ensure acceptable quality welding
by allowing the welders to inspect their own work and the supervisor to monitor the welding.
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Besides having access to visual acceptance criteria and knowing how to

use them, the supervisor must also have an understanding of the common
nondestructive inspection methods that are used to evaluate production welds.
Visual
Discontinuities
Before a welding supervisor can be expected to assist or perform a visual

inspection, he must understand what the discontinuities are that may be present
in a weld. The following is a list and description of visual discontinuities that
may be defects.
1. Porosity. This is in most cases a spherical cavity formed by gas entrapment, resulting from contamination during welding. There are several
types of porosity:
Scattered porosity (see Figure 12.1)
Figure 12.1Scattered Porosity
Piping porosity (see Figure 12.2)
Elongated porosity (see Figure 12.3)
2. Incomplete Fusion. This is a discontinuity where, during a welding pass,

the surfaces of the base metal or the weld metal of a previous pass was not
melted by the arc, resulting in the new filler metal not fusing with the base
metal or weld metal (see Figure 12.4). Some of the causes are:
Improper welding technique
Improper joint design
Insufficient welding heat
Lack of access to fusion surfaces

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Figure 12.2Surface Appearance of Piping Porosity
Figure 12.3Elongated Porosity
Figure 12.4Incomplete Fusion
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3. Incomplete Joint Penetration. This discontinuity occurs when the weld

metal fails to penetrate to the depth required by the weld symbol on the
engineering drawing (see Figures 12.5 and 12.6). Some common causes of
incomplete penetration are:
Insufficient welding heat
Improper joint design (weld process not capable of penetration

requirement)
Improper electrode travel angle
Figure 12.5Incomplete Joint Penetration with Consumable Insert
Figure 12.6Incomplete Joint Penetration
4. Undercut. This is a groove melted into the toe or root of a weld that is not
subsequently filled by weld metal (see Figure 12.7). This groove results in a
mechanical notch that is a stress riser. Some potential causes of undercut are:
Improper transverse welding electrode angle
Excessive voltage
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Figure 12.7Undercut at Fillet Weld Toe
5. Underfill. This is a condition where either the face or the root of the weld
is below the adjacent surface of the base material (see Figure 12.8). This
discontinuity is the result of a welder not completely filling the weld joint
to at least flush with the base material.
Figure 12.8Underfill
6. Overlap. This discontinuity is a protrusion of unfused weld metal beyond

the toe or root of the weld (see Figure 12.9). The discontinuity will also
result in a mechanical notch that is a stress riser. The formation of this
potential defect is the result of insufficient travel speed or incorrect transverse electrode angle.
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Figure 12.9Overlap
7. Cracks. This is the most serious discontinuity that can occur and is always
considered a defect (see Figure 12.10). In appearance, cracks are sharp
tipped with a length-to-width ratio that is high. There are a number of
different orientations and types of cracks.
Longitudinal cracks (see Figure 12.11)
Transverse cracks
Throat cracks (see Figure 12.12)
Crater cracks
Face cracks
Heat-affected zone (HAZ) cracks
Root cracks
Toe cracks
Underbead crack
Cracks are the result of localized stresses from causes such as other discontinuities, notches, or high restraint areas. Welding cracks exhibit little sign
of stretching. This is do to localized hardening of the cracked material.
(See Chapter 7, Steel Metallurgy, for more a detailed discussion on
cracking.)
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Figure 12.10Types of Cracks
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Figure 12.11Longitudinal Crack and Linear Porosity
Figure 12.12Throat Crack
8. Metallic and Nonmetallic Inclusions. Metallic inclusion such as tungsten

in the weld can only result from the Gas Tungsten Arc Welding process
(see Figure 12.13). While nonmetallic inclusions are usually slag from a
flux bearing process that has become entrapped in the molten weld metal,
slag inclusion are most likely the result of:
Visual Inspection
Method
Improper welding techniques
Lack of adequate access to the weld joint
Improper cleaning of the weld between passes
Visual inspection is the most common inspection method used for evaluating
welds. It is always the first inspection method to be used, and in many cases,
the only one.
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Figure 12.13Slag Inclusions
In todays manufacturing and construction environment, the requirement to

make acceptable quality welds without a formal inspection has lead to welders
and supervisors performing visual inspections. The intent of the welders
visual inspection and the supervisors monitoring of the welds is to prevent
passing on defective welds that would be rejected by the Certified Welding
Inspector or customer representative, when outside inspection is required.
Where no additional inspection takes place except a random statistical inspection for auditing purposes, the need for welders to pass on only acceptable
quality welds is even more critical.
The purpose of any nondestructive testing should not be to find defects.
Instead, it should be used to verify that the process control for making the
welds being tested has worked. Defects that are discovered should be
investigated to put in place a corrective action that will improve the
process control and not just to repair the defective weld.
It is even more critical that the initial visual inspection be completed properly
when a second nondestructive inspection method follows the visual inspection.
It is important to ensure that all necessary steps before, during, and after welding, including the visual inspection, are done properly to obtain an acceptable
result in subsequent inspections.
For visual inspections, the welder and the supervisor both play critical roles. The
supervisors responsibility is to ensure that all the welders follow all the procedures and instructions for the work they are doing. In addition, the supervisor must
monitor the welders during these steps to assure that they are being done properly.
To complete a weld successfully and pass visual inspection a welder must:
Before welding: have an acceptable weld fitup, including the correct bevel,
root face, and gap for butt joints, as required. In fillet welds, the proper
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angle of fitup with no gap over 1/16 in. Larger gaps will require an adjustment to the fillet weld size or the need to refit the weld joint.
During welding: follow the essential welding variables and other parameters in the approved welding procedure during welding.
After welding: visually inspect the weld following the approved acceptance criteria after the completion of the weld.
The role of the Certified Welding Inspector (CWI) is often misunderstood
by the welding supervisor. As a result, instead of a mutually supportive
relationship between the CWI and welding supervisor, in many cases it is
adversarial. This may be the result of the welding supervisor not understanding the responsibility of the CWI before, during, and after the welding is completed. If viewed properly, the CWI can provide much needed
feedback to the welding supervisor.
In addition, the supervisor must monitor the welders progress at each of these
points to assure that the welders are successfully following procedures and
instructions, and to assist in correcting any of the parts, parameters, values, or
results that are not as specified. To do this, the supervisor must be able to
spend sufficient time in the welders workstation. The subjects of proper parts
fitup and the essential welding variables have been covered in earlier chapters
of this manual. The subject of the how to conduct the visual inspection will be
addressed below.
Besides performing and administering NDT after the welding, the CWI has
additional responsibilities that must be carried out before welding begins.
Some of these responsibilities include:
Reviewing the engineering drawings
Checking base metals and filler metals to see that they match the engineering drawings
Checking the condition of the filler metals
Checking the welding procedures and welder qualifications
Checking the weld joint edge geometries and joint fitup
Checking to see the joints are clean and that the preheat temperature, if
required, is correct per the welding procedure
375

During the time the CWI is carrying out these responsibilities, he is in essence
an extra set of eyes that the welding supervisor can rely on, as the CWI is
checking many of the things that the supervisor must verify.
Every welder should visually inspect 100% of the welds they make. Monitoring by the supervisor should be sufficient to assure that each welder is properly
performing the work assigned in the proper way. More monitoring time is
required for a new welder or a welder performing weld tasks that are different
than previously successfully done. All visual inspection is done using the specified acceptance criteria.
The following is an example of a typical acceptance criteria adapted from
AWS D1.1:2004, Table 6.1. Other welding standards have acceptance criteria.
Weld designers may also define their own acceptance criteria for their
welds. All visual inspection acceptance criteria should contain the following
information:
Visual Inspection Acceptance Criteria

1. Crack Prohibition. Any crack shall be unacceptable, regardless of size or
location.
2. Weld/Base-Metal Fusion. Through fusion shall exist between adjacent
layers of weld metal and between weld metal and base metal.
3. Crater Cross Section. All craters shall be filled to provide the specified
weld size, except for the ends of intermittent fillet welds outside of their
length.
4. Weld Profiles. Weld profiles shall be in conformance with AWS
D1.1:2004, Subsection 5.24 (see Figure 12.14).
5. Undersized Welds. The size of a fillet weld in any continuous weld may
be less than the specified nominal size without correction by the following
amounts as shown in the Table 12.1 However, the length of this undersized
fillet cannot exceed 10% of the total length of the weld.
Table 12.1Undersized Fillet Weld Allowance
Specified Nominal Weld Size
Allowable Decrease from L
3/16 in.
1/16 in.
1/4 in.
3/32 in.
5/16 in.
1/8 in.
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Figure 12.14Acceptable and Unacceptable Weld Profiles
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6. Undercut. For material less than 1 in. thick, undercut shall not exceed
1/32 in. with the following exception: undercut shall not exceed 1/16 in.
for any accumulated length up to 2 in. in any 12 in. length. For material
equal to or greater than 1 in. thick, undercut shall not exceed 1/16 in. for
any length of weld.
7. Porosity. Complete joint penetration welds in butt joints transverse to the
direction of computed tensile stress should have no visible piping porosity.
For all other groove welds and for fillet welds, the sum of the visible piping
porosity of 1/32 in. or greater in diameter shall not exceed 3/8 in. in any
linear inch of weld and shall not exceed 3/4 in. in any 12 in. length of weld.
In addition to the responsibilities that a CWI has before welding begins,
there are additional responsibilities that he must perform during the welding operations.
Some of these responsibilities include:
Check welding parameters and techniques for compliance with the

welding procedure
Verify the visual quality of the welding
Check the interpasses for the cleaning of the slag
Verify that the preheat and interpass temperature is in accordance with

the WPS
Verify any in-process NDE that may be required
Many supervisors consider all of this work by the CWI while the welder is
making welds to be a distraction and interference. However, all of the
things the CWI is doing are the same checks the welding supervisor
should be making as part of their monitoring activities. In essence, the
CWI is reinforcing and at times supplementing the work of the welding
supervisor.
When welders and supervisors understand acceptance criteria, the art is
removed from weld inspection and objective evaluation of welds by all
interested parties can be done. In this way, welders and supervisor can ensure
that the competed welds are acceptable before they ever leave the welders
workstation.
378

Welding supervisors most likely will not use nondestructive inspection

methods other than visual inspection. However, they need to know the other
methods to understand the results and interpretations of the inspector/welders.
After the CWI has completed his preweld and in-process responsibilities,
he then must perform the after welding responsibilities. These are the
activities the welding supervisor is most familiar seeing the CWI do.
These activities often frustrate both the welders and the welding supervisor. The source of the frustration is that the welders and the welding
supervisor have a different understanding of the weld quality requirements than that of the CWI.
The following are the responsibilities the CWI has after the welding is
complete.
Check inspect finish weld against visual acceptance criteria
Check weld sizes and lengths
Check critical weld dimensions
Verify additional NDE, if required
Verify test results
Verify post-weld heat treatment was done correctly, if required
Prepare and maintain inspection reports
As the welding supervisor begins to follow the CWS training in this manual, he
will find that the objectives of both the CWI and the CWS are the same in
ensuring the quality of the welding.
Liquid Penetrant
Testing (PT)
Next to visual inspection, liquid penetrant is the least expensive and easiest
nondestructive welding process to use. This process does, however, require
someone with experience in preparation, application, and interpretation of the
results for the method to have any value. An incorrect interpretation of results
can lead to an assessment that an indication is present where none exists, or a
missed indication where one exists. Both can be just as damaging as no liquid
penetrant testing at all. The liquid penetrant testing method is still the most
commonly used method after visual inspection for both quality information as
well as required inspections. The reason for this is that the materials used for
this process are inexpensive, and the procedure can be performed in a manner
that causes limited interference with the workflow.
379

Liquid penetrant testing is primarily used on nonmagnetic materials where

Magnetic Particle testing does not work. It can also be used on magnetic materials.
Liquid penetrant testing is divided into two typesfluorescent penetrate and
visible dye. Visible dye is the most widely used. It can be performed on location using a cleaner, penetrant, and developer to indicate the presence or
absence of defects. Visible dye gives very good results. Fluorescent penetrate
uses a fluorescent penetrant and a black light to indicate the presence of
defects, and therefore is more difficult to use. Fluorescent penetrate, when
done correctly, gives better results than visible dye.
Method
The method of applying the two types of penetrant tests consists of seven
steps:
1. Clean the surface to be inspected of scale, slag, grease, oil, paint, and
water. Then apply a spray cleaning solution that is available with the liquid
penetrant materials.
2. Apply penetrant. This penetrant can be either a liquid red spray or a
fluorescent that is applied by dipping, brushing, or spraying.
3. Allow sufficient penetrate dwell time. This time, which is specified by the
manufacturer of the penetrant, is used to allow time for the penetrant, by
capillary action, to enter into any indication that is exposed to the surface.
4. Remove excess penetrant. This is done using various techniques, but in all
cases care must be taken not to flush the area and remove penetrant that has
collect in surface indications. The most common technique for visible liquid penetrant is to spray a clean cloth with the same cleaner that was used
in the cleaning of the surface, and then gently wipe off the weld surface
without flushing or rinsing the area of inspection.
5. Apply developer to indicate retained penetrant. This is normally done by
spraying. The process, as the name implies, is used to develop or bring out
indications of penetrant so that an examination can be made. Usually, the
manufacturer of the penetrant materials specifies a prescribed amount of
time for this development to take place.
6. Examine and inspect. This is the hard part, because there can be shallow
indication from surface anomalies that can give false readings, and these
must be segregated from the indications that are discontinuities. At this
time, the interpreter must use the acceptance criteria for the liquid pene380

trant testing to determine whether a defect exists. This acceptance criteria

is different from the visual inspection criteria, but is based on finding many
of the same types of discontinuities.
7. Clean part, if required, after the inspection is complete.
Advantages:
Penetrant materials are inexpensive
The test is relatively easy to learn and use
Interpretation of test results are not difficult to learn (similar to visual

testing)
Can be used without disrupting manufacturing operations
Disadvantages:
Magnetic Particle
Testing (MT)
Will only reveal discontinuities open to the surface
Clean up can be time consuming
Difficult to make a permanent record of results (digital color photographs

may work best)
Magnetic particle testing is used on magnetic materials as a nondestructive

inspection method to detect the presence of discontinuities. This method is
considered the second easiest nondestructive method to use. This is based on
the cost of equipment, which next to liquid penetrant is the least costly of the
nondestructive testing methods. Magnetic particle testing can also be performed with minimum disruption to the workflow. Magnetic particle testing in
welding is beneficial when performed after the root pass of a weld is deposited,
and at intermittent steps during welding. This provides quality evaluation
before completion of the weld. If a problem is discovered, it can be corrected
while the defect still lies relatively close to the surface. If the problem is not
discovered until after the weld is completed, the removal of the defect and
repair requires more weld metal removal and replacement.
Description
Magnetic particle testing is the use of a magnetic field in ferromagnetic materials to detect discontinuities. This magnetic field is disrupted when it encounters any flaw or imperfection on the surface or near surface of the material
381

being tested. Depending on the type of testing equipment used, the amount and
depth of subsurface discontinuities that can be detected will vary.
The magnetic particle testing equipment used in most applications in the field
is a machine that transforms electricity into high amperage, low voltage for
application to welds through either a yoke or a set of prods (see Figure 12.15).
Figure 12.15Indirect Magnetization Using a Yoke
The yoke is a U-shaped device with adjustable legs. The operator grips the
insulated center of the U-shaped yoke and touches the legs of the yoke to the
part where the test is performed (see Figure 12.16).
The prods are used in sets of two. They resemble cylindrical rods with tapered
ends that touch the work surface. The other end of the rods has an insulated
handle for the operator to grip. The operator applies the prods to the work in
much the same manner as the yoke. The operator activates the yoke or prods
when they are in contact with the part being inspected. This allows current to
flow through them and into the part creating a magnetic field. This circular
magnetic field is what allows detection of any discontinuities in the material
between the contact points of the yoke or prods. This detection is made possible in field or shop applications by the use of dry magnetic particles being
applied while the yoke or prods are energized. This dry magnetic powder is
applied by means of a dusting bag, atomizer, or spray gun. When the magnetic
field lies parallel to the direction of the discontinuity, the indication from the
powder will be light and may be difficult to interpret. When the magnetic field
lies transverse to the discontinuity, the accumulation of dry powder is much
382

Figure 12.16Direct Magnetization Using DC Prods
heavier. For this reason, any given length of weld must be checked by orienting the yoke or prods in two directions with the second 90 to the first. This
will prevent the missing of a discontinuity.
The current used for the magnetic dry particle testing can be either alternating
or direct current. Alternating current is used for surface inspection and will not
detect subsurface discontinuities. In this respect, it is similar to liquid penetrant
testing in that if the discontinuity is not exposed to the surface, the alternating
current magnetic particle testing will not detect it.
With direct current magnetic particle testing, a magnetic field is produced that
penetrates into the part, and is therefore capable of detecting subsurface discontinuities. For small fillet and groove welds with sufficient direct current and
the proper inspection procedure, such defects as subsurface cracks and incomplete fusion that cannot be detected by visual, liquid penetrant, or alternating
current magnetic particle are detectable.
Method
The following steps are required to ensure that the results of the magnetic particle testing are accurate. For the interpretation and evaluation of the results to
be accurate, a trained and experienced technician is necessary. Any misinterpretation of results could lead to missed defects or unnecessary repairs.
1. Clean the part. As with any inspection, the surface of the part being
inspected must be clean from dirt, oil, rust, moisture, or other contaminates
that could prevent the powder from moving freely with the magnetic field
383

or prevent good electrical contact between the yoke legs or the prods and
the material surface.
2. Contact with yoke or prods and material surface. With welds, this will need
to be done twice at 90 angles for a given inspection area.
3. While the yoke or prods are in contact with the material surface and the
current is flowing, the magnetic particles are applied. The current should
still be flowing when a stream of air that is just strong enough to carry
away the excess powder is used.
4. The indications left by the remaining powder can then be interpreted by a
trained inspector according to the shape, sharpness of outline, width, and
height that the particles have built up. This interpretation is made using the
acceptance criteria for magnetic particle testing. Again, as with all inspection processes, no interpretation is possible without an approved acceptance criteria (see Figure 12.17).
Figure 12.17Magnetic Particles Attracted to

Discontinuities by Flux Leakage
Interpretation of Different Discontinuities

1. Surface Cracks. Cracks are one of the easiest discontinuities to identify
because the powder indication is sharpest and heavily built up. The deeper
the crack, the more pronounced the indication of powder.
2. Subsurface Discontinuity. Powder will have a little fuzzier or less defined
appearance then does a crack.
384

3. Crater Cracks. These cracks are recognized by their location in an

unfilled crater of a weld stop, and by their small size, which may be either a
single line or a star-shaped pattern.
4. Incomplete Fusion. In most cases, the identification of incomplete fusion
will be along the edge of the weld where, depending on the extent and nearness to the surface, the pattern of the powder will be sharper.
5. Subsurface Porosity and Slag Inclusion. These two discontinuities are
very similar in the type of powder indication that occurs when either is
present. They tend to be neither strong nor pronounced, even when a high
magnetizing field is used.
6. Undercut. This discontinuity leaves a pattern of powder that is less identifiable than incomplete fusion; however, in most cases, undercut is detectable by visual examination.
In general, unless the magnetizing field is high or the discontinuity is exposed
to the surface and very pronounced, it can be extremely difficult to separate an
irrelevant indication from a discontinuity.
Advantages:
Can be used to test both surface and to a limited degree subsurface of weld
Is less difficult than Ultrasonic or Radiographic Testing to apply
Equipment less expensive than Ultrasonic or Radiographic Testing
Requires less experience and skill to interpret the results than Ultrasonic or
Radiographic Testing
Disadvantages:
Ultrasonic
Testing (UT)
Equipment is more expensive than Penetrant Testing
Can only be used on materials that have magnetic properties
Difficult to make a permanent record of the test results (digital pictures or

adhesive tape impressions of the power indications could be used)
Ultrasonic testing will detect, locate, and when evaluated against established
acceptance criteria, determine if defects are present in a weld. This inspection
method uses a high-frequency sound beam projected into the material being
inspected. A reflection of the sound beam occurs if any interruption within the
material is encountered. If this interruption occurs in the weld, its most likely
385

cause is the presence of a discontinuity, which, depending on the limits of the

acceptance criteria, maybe a defect.
The advantages of ultrasonic testing are:
1. Discontinuities in thick sections are detectable.
2. The inspection method is sensitive enough to identify small discontinuities.
3. The locations of internal discontinuities are locatable by ultrasonic testing.
4. One-sided inspection of welds is possible with ultrasonic testing.
5. Modern ultrasonic equipment is light and very portable for moving around
a job site.
6. Inspection of welds, using ultrasonic testing will not interfere with other
welding work in the near vicinity.
The disadvantages of ultrasonic testing are:
1. The amount of set-up and training of inspectors is more expensive, and
the equipment is more costly than liquid penetrant and magnetic particle
testing.
2. Fillet welds and especially groove welds that are irregular in shape or
geometric configuration are ultrasonically difficult to inspect.
3. When discontinuities lie close to the surface, the reflection from the surface
of the material makes them difficult to detect.
4. To use ultrasonic testing, a coupler is needed to transmit the energy
between the transducer and the test material.
5. Test blocks and workmanship samples are needed to calibrate the equipment before testing can begin.
6. Different test blocks and workmanship samples are required if the materials or metallurgical conditions vary.
Equipment
Ultrasonic testing uses a piece of equipment called a pulse-echo flaw
detector (see Figure 12.18). This equipment allows a pulsed sound beam in
386

Figure 12.18Schematic Representation of a Pulse-Echo Flaw Detector
the 16 MHz frequency range to be emitted. The most commonly used frequency for welding application is 2.25 MHz. Between pulses, the echoes from
any interruption are received back by the detector and displayed on a screen.
This screen display is most commonly shown as an A scan that is capable of
showing both the size and location of interruptions. The pulse signal and echo
are introduced and retrieved from the material being tested by a transducer that
converts the electrical signal from the equipment into the sound wave and then
converts the echoing sound wave back into an electrical signal. In order to prevent this signal from being weakened at the interface between the transducer
and the material, a coupling is used. This coupling can be water, light oil, or
cellulose gum powder mixed with water. The most common coupling is a form
of glycerin.
387

Calibration
Before testing of a weld can begin, the equipment with transducer must be
calibrated using a test block with known notches and drilled holes to simulate
defects. The equipment is calibrated against these known defects so that an
indication of their presence is shown on the equipment screen display with the
right location and the correct size. In this way, when an indication appears in
the actual test, the inspector will be able to tell where it is located and its
approximate size based on the calibration settings.
Method
Once the operator has calibrated the equipment and has assured that the
material surface is clean, the testing may began. Since the test is interpreted
as the transducer sends back signals, the operator must be aware of the acceptance criteria for the particular weld application to render an accurate inspection. The inspection can be performed in one of two modes, by using either a
longitudinal or shear wave. Shear wave mode is the more commonly used
because it does not require the removal of the weld reinforcement (see Figure
12.19).
Notes:
1. Testing patterns are all symmetrical around the weld axis with the exception of Pattern D, which is
conducted directly over the weld axis.
2. Testing from both sides o f the weld axis is to be made wherever mechanically possible.
Figure 12.19Typical Search Patterns Used in Ultrasonic Testing
388

1. Shear Wave Mode. This mode requires using a 70, 60, or 45 angle on
the transducer, allowing the sound wave to enter the material at one of the
three angles. The angle of this path can be closely calculated, and since the
speed of the sound wave is constant through a given material, the location
of any discontinuity can be found and the size and type evaluated.
2. Interpretation. When the inspection is correctly set up, the equipment
calibrated and the inspection procedure followed, the ultrasonic testing is
capable of locating:
Cracks
Incomplete fusion
Incomplete penetration
Slag
Porosity
The identification and determination of defects using ultrasonic testing is

based on pre-established criteria. Cracks are always defects. Slag and
porosity are indicated by the amount of echo that is received from the
equipment. The larger the discontinuity, the greater the echo. This is indicated on the screen display as a larger amplitude signal. If the size of the
signal exceeds the allowable amplitude for the type of inspection, then it is
interpreted as a defect and requires repair.
Radiographic
Testing
Radiographic testing uses a radiant energy source, which can be either X-ray,
gamma rays, or high-energy neutrons. These radiant energy sources are placed
on one side of the weld. An industrial radiographic film is placed on the opposite side. This radiographic film is a thin, transparent, flexible plastic base that
has been coated with gelatin containing microscopic crystals of silver bromide.
When this film is exposed to a radiation source, the parts of the weld that have
the highest density will appear the lightest in the film. This is because for the
time of the exposure, these areas of the film had the least amount of radiation
strike the surface of the film. In those areas of the weld where the density is
reduced because of the presence of discontinuities (discontinuities are for the
most part voids and therefore do not block radiation energy), the film will be
darker, showing the presence, size, and shape of the discontinuity (see Figure
12.20).
Radiographic testing has, like all of the nondestructive inspection methods,
both advantages and disadvantages.
389

Note: Relative film densities from light to dark are A, B, C, D.
Figure 12.20Schematic Conceptualization of Radiographic Testing
The advantages of radiographic testing are:

1. Radiography can detect subsurface discontinuities in any material that can
be welded.
2. Film used in the radiographic processes is used as a permanent record of
the test, if properly stored away from excessive heat and light.
390

The disadvantages of radiographic testing are:

1. The radiation used during the test poses a hazard to humans through excessive exposure.
2. A great deal of training and experience in safety and proper testing using
the radiographic testing method is required.
3. When the radiation source is operating, the area used must be evacuated,
which can result in lost production hours.
4. Radiographic testing equipment is very expensive. The training time for
competent operators and interpreters is very lengthy. Accurate interpretation requires personnel that are qualified to either AWS Radiographic
Interpreter or ASNTs SNT TC-1A. With the high costs of RT and the
consequences of weld repair or rework, the supervisor should be acutely
interested in the qualifications of the interpreter.
5. In some limited applications, the radiographic testing may not detect
defects such as cracks or incomplete fusion unless the radiation source is
oriented correctly with respect to the direction of the defect. Radiographic
testing is usually not done on fillet welds because of the difficulty of orienting the radiation source with the film.
6. Radiographic testing requires access to both sides of the part. This is the
only inspection method of the five discussed in the chapter that requires
this level of access.
Essential Elements
1. Source of radiation from either X-rays or radioactive isotope (Cobalt 60,
Iridium 192, or Cesium 137).
2. Either the weld being radiographed must be prepared with the weld
reinforcement removed or with the weld reinforcement properly contoured,
preventing the obscuring of a potential discontinuity.
3. A recording device such as radiographic (X-ray) film enclosed in a lightproof holder must be placed on the opposite side of the object being
radiographed.
4. A qualified radiographer (Level 1 ASNT TC-1A) trained to produce satisfactory exposures. These exposures must meet a stringent set of requirements that establish the film density, sharpness, and sensitivity. If any of
391

these film quality requirements are not met, the film cannot be used for
inspection purposes.
5. The film, after having been exposed, must be developed much like a picture. This requires a laboratory and the proper developing equipment or an
automated developer.
6. Finally, a person skilled in interpretation is required. This person would
either be AWS Radiographic Interpreter or ASNT, TC-1A Level II certified to read and interpret film.
Interpretation
Once the film has been properly exposed and developed, the job of interpreting
the content of the film begins. A radiographic film is capable of being used to
identify the following discontinuities and defects.
1. Porosity. In radiographic film, porosity usually will appear as small black
circular spots.
2. Inclusions. Slag will appear in the film as large and irregularly shaped
shadows. It will be somewhat linear in appearance, and may run parallel to
the sidewall of the joint. Tungsten inclusions are one of the exceptions to
the fact that inclusions appear darker on film. Since tungsten is denser than
carbon or stainless steel, if any tungsten is broken off into the weld, it will
appear lighter than the surrounding film surface.
3. Cracks. One of the most troublesome discontinuities is cracks that will
appear as dark lines in the weld. Shrinkage cracks formed during the welding process will appear irregular, while stress cracks are regular and well
defined.
4. Incomplete Fusion and Incomplete Joint Penetration. These two defect
conditions will appear in the film as thin lines or cracks with the incomplete fusion along the sidewall and the incomplete penetration more in the
center of the weld.
Conclusion
A welding supervisor is expected to understand how nondestructive inspection

processes work. However, he will not be required to administer them except
for visual inspection. The important thing for the supervisor to remember is
that all the inspection methods and their results can be used as informational
as well as for required inspections for welding. In order for Liquid Penetrant,
Magnetic Particle, Ultrasonic, and Radiographic Testing to work properly,
they require the following.
392

The inspector conducting the test, with the proper equipment, must follow a
procedure on how the inspection will be conducted. The inspector must be
properly trained and tested in accordance with a recognized standard or code to
perform a specific inspection. In all cases, nondestructive inspections require
interpretation, either during the inspection, or in the case of radiographic
testing, after the film is developed. To do this interpretation properly, the
inspector must be trained and have demonstrated the required interpretative
skills through testing before being assigned to a weldment. In addition, the
responsible designer engineer must designate which acceptance criteria will be
used during the interpretation. This allows the inspector to distinguish between
flaws and imperfections that are discontinuities, and those that are defects.
Without all of these elements in place and followed through the inspection
sequence, the results from nondestructive testing may be either false or
misleading, resulting in unnecessary rework or undiscovered defects.
References
AWS B1.11:2000, Guide for the Visual Examination of Welds

AWS B1.10:1999 Guide for the Nondestructive Examination of Welds
Review Questions
1. A weld acceptance criteria can only be used by:

A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
Anyone making a visual inspection of welds

A CWI
A welding supervisor
A welder
None of the above
2. Porosity can be identified visually by which of the following descriptions?

A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
Sharp tipped linear shapes

Mechanical notch
Nonmetallic substance
Spherical void
Protrusion of unfused metal
3. Undercut is a discontinuity that can be identified by which of the following descriptions?

A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
Weld metal that fails to penetrate

Mechanical notch
Sharp tipped linear shape
Tungsten inclusion
None of the above
393

4. Undercut can be caused by:

A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
Improper transverse welding angle

Insufficient weld heat
Improper joint design
Insufficient travel speed
Hardened weld metal
5. Under the sample acceptance criteria on page 378, how much total
porosity is allowed in any 12 in. of weld length?
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
1/32 in.
1/4 in.
3/8 in.
1/2 in.
3/4 in.
6. Which of the following is an item that both the CWI and welding supervisor should check before welding begins?
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
Joint fitup
Correct shade of welding lens
Welding gloves
Welder is following the essential welding variables
All welds were visually inspected
7. Which is the least expensive NDT method other than visual testing?
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
Eddy Current
Radiography
Liquid Penetrant
Magnetic Particle
Ultrasonic
8. When performing an NDT examination on a nonferrous material such as

aluminum or nickel alloy, which of the following is not used?
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
Visual
Liquid Penetrant
Magnetic Particle
Ultrasonic
Radiographic
9. When a welding inspection using a through-the-weld inspection method,

which NDT method may be used?
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
Visual
Liquid Penetrant
Magnetic Particle
Ultrasonic
None of the above
394

10. Which NDT examination method uses a thin, transparent flexible plastic
base panel coated with gelatin containing silver bromide?
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
Ultrasonic
Radiographic
Visual
Magnetic Particle
Liquid Penetrant
395

Answers
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
A
D
B
A
E
A
C
C
D
B
396

Chapter 13Welding Health and Safety
Chapter 13WELDING HEALTH AND SAFETY

Creating a Safe
Workplace
Most industrial operations have potential risks to health and safety. Welding
and associated activities expose workers to certain hazards, ranging from fire
and explosion to fumes and gases. It is the joint responsibility of the employer
and worker to minimize these hazards and provide a safe working environment. Some general rules for providing a safe working environment are as
follows:
Follow all safety methods and procedures; ask, if in doubt
Use protective clothing and equipment as required for the job in hand
Maintain all equipment and report unsafe conditions
Do not bypass the safety features of the equipment you are using
Know the hazards of the materials and processes you are using
Keep work areas clean and organized
The Importance of
Training
Training on hazard identification and control is an important part of creating a

safe working environment.
Many hazards in the shop are rather obvious. These can be called apparent
hazards, one of which is shown in Figure 13.1. However, workers still need
training on methods and procedures to control these types of hazards.
Figure 13.1Example of an Apparent Hazard
397

Less obvious hazards (which can be called hidden hazards) can be just as
important, but without training, workers may not even be aware of them. For
welding operations, these types of hazards include:
Fumes and gases
Radiation from the arc
Electrical hazards
Confined space
Important
References
This training program only provides a refresher and overview of welding

health and safety. It is not intended as an in-depth presentation of all safety
considerations, and assumes that participants have already had basic health and
safety training. For more thorough information on this subject, refer to the
following resources:
ANSI Z49.1, Safety in Welding, Cutting, and Allied Processes
CAN/CSA W117.2-01, Safety in Welding, Cutting, and Allied Processes
AWS F4.1, Recommended Safe Practices for the Preparation for Welding
and Cutting of Containers and Piping
Precautionary information on the welding product and Material Safety Data
Sheets (MSDSs)
Hazards in
the Shop and
Construction
Table 13.1 shows the primary hazards for different welding processes.
Table 13.1Primary Hazards
Oxyfuel
Electrical
SMAW
GTAW
GMAW
FCAW
SAW
PAW
Air Carbon
Arc Gouging
Fire
Burn
Radiation
(X)
Heat
Fumes/Gases
(X)
Noise
(X) = A hazard in certain situations.
398

Electrical Safety
Electric shock and even electrocution are possible hazards with all types of
electric arc welding. A typical electric circuit indicating how current and voltage are measured is shown in Figure 13.2.
VOLT
MET
ba
TER
MME
tte
ER
ry
Figure 13.2Typical Electric Current
The amperage in an electric circuit is related to the voltage and resistance by

the equation:
I = V/R
Electricity is a hazard in welding because the body can become part of the
electric circuit. Electric shock or electrocution can occur when the body has a
critical level of amperage flowing through it (see Figure 13.3).
Incoming power
One wire is
connected to
the ground
Figure 13.3Electricity Can Be Hazardous
399

A critical level of current can be developed under different conditions. When

dry, relatively high voltages are dangerous. If the body is wet, even low voltages can be a hazard (see Figure 13.4).
High Voltage
Mains voltage
I=V
R
Dry
Welding voltage
I=V
R
Wet
Low Resistance
Figure 13.4How Voltage Affects Current Levels
Any source of water, including sweat, will reduce resistance and increase the
electrical hazard (see Figure 13.5).
Figure 13.5The Effect of Water on Resistance and Electrical Hazards
400

Higher voltages will always increase the electrical hazard. The primary side of
a welding power source is connected to a high voltage supply, usually 460 or
575 volts. Keep the primary side cables out of the work area. Any servicing on
the primary side must be done by a qualified electrician (see Figure 13.6).
Primary side
(high voltage)
Secondary side
(lower voltage)
TRANSFORMER
Figure 13.6High Voltage and Low Voltage Side of a Welding Power Source
The welders first line of defense is to be properly insulated from the source of
electricity (see Figure 13.7).Table 13.2 provides recommendations for electrical safety in welding.
screws are electrically hot
keep tight and recessed
electrode is
electrically hot
Figure 13.7Properly Maintained Equipment is Required

to Insulate the Welder from Electrical Power
The work lead and ground are not the same. Figure 13.8 shows the work table
connected to ground or earth.
Improper grounding of the workpiece (see Figure 13.9) can lead to:
Welding current in the wire connecting the power source enclosure to
ground, thereby burning it out
401

Table 13.2Recommendations for Electrical Safety in Welding

Power Source
Installation and service by a qualified electrician only

Avoid working near primary side power cables and do not
run over them with forklifts
Welding Equipment
Check condition of electrode holder or welding gun

Check condition of welding cables
Protective Clothing
Wear proper welding gloves that are dry with no holes

Wear insulated work boots
Keep dry
Do not sit on metal buckets and avoid contact with work
Procedural Details
Always remove the electrode from holder when not in use

Use DC instead of AC where practical
Use special care in confined space
Grounding
Do not confuse work return lead with the ground connection

Ground the work lead at the workpiece and not at the power
source terminal
Make sure the work return clamp is attached near the point
of welding and makes a good electrical connection
Do not place power source on a floor that could conduct
welding current
Stray welding current in the building or grounded structure which can lead
to overheating, sparking, fires, or damage to bearings and other electrical
equipment
If electric shock occurs:
If possible, disconnect and turn off the power immediately
Do not try and pull the victim free while in contact with the electrical power
If you must move a victim in contact with a live wire, insulate yourself
If the victim is not breathing, give artificial respiration (AR)
If the victims heart has stopped, and you have been trained, give cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR)
Keep the victim warm and horizontal
Call for medical help
402

550 volt input plug
Electrode holder
Work clamp
Power source
Work table ground

Work lead
Electrode lead
Figure 13.8Work Table Connections
ground wire
of electric
drill
secondary
circuit is
connected to
power source case
three pin
plug and socket
possible return current paths
Figure 13.9Improper Grounding of the Workpiece
403

Arc Radiation
The electric arc emits three types of radiation (see Figure 13.10).
UV (Ultraviolet
Visible
IR (Infrared)
Figure 13.10Radiation Emitted from Electric Arcs
Skin exposed to welding UV radiation will burn much like a sun burn. You will
not know it is occurring at the time of exposure, but hours later a burning sensation and redness will appear. Higher amperages and argon-based gases will
increase the radiation intensity making the hazard more severe. It is important
to protect the skin with clothing that is heavy enough to prevent the passing of
radiation. Take special precautions when welding reflective material such as
stainless steel or aluminum, as reflected radiation can make the problem worse.
The eye is sensitive to all three types of radiation (see Figure 13.11).
Arc eye or welders flash is the most common injury from radiation. Several
hours after the exposure a painful effect that feels like sand in your eye can
occur. Additional symptoms can include swelling and fluid excretion. The
symptoms can last for several hours or longer. Occasional and minor welders
flash has no lasting effects. However, intense exposure can cause eye damage
over a period of time and must be avoided. Some clear plastic lenses can offer
protection from arc eye caused by short wave UV but not the other types of
light describe above. Therefore, it is important to use shaded lenses with the
correct shade number at all times (see Table 13.3).
Burns and Fire
Because of the very high temperatures associated with arc welding processes,
burns and fires are a potential safety hazard. Most arc welding produces sparks
and spatter which can travel considerable distances from the welder (see
Figure 13.12).
Fires can start immediately in highly combustible substances or some time
later from smoldering materials. ANSI Z49.1 requires a fire watch for a minimum of 1/2 hr. after completion of welding or cutting operations.
404

Short wavelength
UV causes arc eye
or welders flash
UV in the range of
300-400nm has been
associated with
cataract formation.
IR and visible light

can cause retinal
lesions or burns
Figure 13.11Eye Sensitivity to Radiation
Keep combustibles away from welding work areas. This would include but not
be limited to:
Wood
Paper products
Plastics
Rags and other cloth materials
Chemicals, cleaning fluids, etc.
Oils, greases, etc.
Proper protective clothing is important for welders to avoid serious burns (see
Figures 13.13 and 13.14). Clothing should be heat and fire resistant. Avoid
wearing synthetic or frayed materials. Never carry a cigarette lighter in your
clothing while welding.
405

Table 13.3Guide for Shade Numbers for Welding (ANSI Z49.1)*

Electrode Size
Operation
in.
mm
Arc
Current
Amps
Minimum
Protective
Shade
Suggested
Shade No.
(Comfort)
Less than 60
Less than 3/32
Less than 2.5
3/325/32
2.54.0
60160
10
5/328/32
4.06.4
160250
10
12
More than 8/32
More than 6.4
250550
11
14
Less than 60
60160
10
11
160250
10
12
250550
10
14
Less than 500
10
12
5001000
11
14
Less than 300
Medium
300400
12
Heavy
400800
10
14
SMAW
GMAW and FCAW
Light
Air Carbon Arc Cutting
Heavy
Light
Plasma Cutting
*Consult original for further details and other processes.
24 ft
16 ft
up to 65 ft
8 ft
10-20 ft
13-26 ft
16-32 ft
Figure 13.12Possible Distances Sparks and Spatter Can Travel
406

Helmet
Long sleeves
Insulated gloves
Heat resistant
apron
No cuffs
Rubber-soled
safety shoes
Figure 13.13Proper Clothing to Avoid Serious Burns When Welding
Figure 13.14Proper Ear Protection Minimizes

Hazards from Noise and Spatter
Fumes and Gases
The fume or smoke that is seen coming off a welding operation is composed of
very small particles that come from the electrode, flux, or base metal. Gases
used for shielding or produced by the arc will also be present (see Figure
13.15).
407

Welding Fume
Base
coatin material
g
B a se
Ele
mater
ia
ctro
de
Gases produced
by welding
Figure 13.15Sources of Fume and Gases
Breathing the fumes and gases may present health hazards ranging from
discomfort to long-term illness depending on the amount of exposure and constituents in the fume (see Figure 13.16).
Gases
Particulates
Those that cause

dust disease of
the lung
Those that cause

pulmonary irritation
and/or systemic poisoning
Iron
Cadmium
Tin
Chromium
Aluminum
Copper
Titanium
Lead
Beryllium
Manganese
Magnesium
Nickel
Vanadium
Zinc
Asphyxiants
Simple*
Chemical
Carbon
Dioxide
Carbon
Monoxide
Argon
Irritants
Systemic
Poisions
Ozone
Fluorides
Chlorides
Oxides of
Nitrogen
Fluorides
Sulphur
Dioxide
Phosphine
Phosgene
Helium
Nitrogen
Acetylene
Propane
Fluorides
Figure 13.16Summary of Possible Health Effects

from Components in Welding Fumes
Coatings on the base metal can also be an important sources of welding fumes
(see Figure 13.17).
408

Base
coatin material
g
Welding Fume
Figure 13.17Welding Fumes Caused by Coatings on Base Metal
Some coatings that welders might encounter are listed in Table 13.4.
Table 13.4Coatings
Cause
Effect
Zinc (galvanized steel)
Exposure to zinc fumes can result in zinc fever or

metal fume fever. (Zinc fever is an acute reaction with
flu-like symptoms and chills from which the patient
usually recovers in a few days.)
Cadmium plating
Exposure to cadmium fumes can be toxic.
Lead-containing paints
Exposure to lead fumes can be toxic.
Zinc chromate paints
Hexavalent chromium is associated with lung cancer.
Harmful coatings should be removed from the weld area to minimize the fume.
It should be noted that further precautions regarding coating removal may be
necessary, as simple grinding may produce harmful dusts. Seek expert advice
for proper methods of coating removal (see Figure 13.18).
The level of fume in the welders breathing zone will depend on:
Fume generation rate of the process
General ventilation
Head position with respect to the welding plume
Different welding processes produce different amounts of fume (see Figure
13.19).
409

higher
Figure 13.18Seek Expert Advice for Proper Methods of Coating Removal
FCAW (self shielded)

SMAW
FCAW (CO2)
Particulate
fume
generation
rate (g/min)
GMA (CO2)
GMA (argon)
higher
Increasing current
Figure 13.19Fume Generation Rates for Different

Welding Processes and Shielding Gases
Natural ventilation, mechanical ventilation, or local exhaust are methods of

reducing fumes to acceptable levels. The method needed for a particular application will depend on variety of factors (see Figure 13.20).
Keep the head and breathing zone out of the plume, and take special precautions when welding in confined space (see Figure 13.21).
Allowable levels of exposure to welding fumes have been set by several organizations, such as the U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration
(OSHA), the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH),
and the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists
(ACGIH). The most widely used are Threshold Limit Values (TLVs) published by the ACGIH (see Table 13.5).
410

(a) Use of a Vent Hood
(b) Capture at Source in the

Nozzle of the Welding Gun
Figure 13.20Two Examples of Local Exhaust
Figure 13.21Welder Exposing Head and

Breathing Zone to Welding Plume
In some situations, ventilation and local exhaust may not be practical or adequate to control exposure. In these circumstances, personal protection devices
such as a respirator may be necessary. Generally, expert advice is required in
the use of respirators. Some jurisdictions require training and a pulmonary
function test prior to the use of respirators. Two different types of respirators
are shown in Figure 13.22. Note that a dusk mask does not provide adequate
safety in hazardous fume situations.
411

Table 13.5TLVs for Various Fume Components

Substance
TWA mg/m3
Barium, soluble compounds, as Ba
0.5
Beryllium and compounds
0.002
Carbon dioxide
5,000 ppm
Carbon monoxide
25 ppm
Chromium metal, Cr(ii), Cr(iii) compounds, as Cr
0.5
Chromium (VI) compounds, chromates, as Cr
0.05
Copper fume
0.2
Fluorides, as F
2.5
Iron oxide fume, as Fe
Magnesium oxide fume
10
Manganese, inorganic compounds, as Mn
0.2
Nickel, soluble compounds, as Ni
0.1
Ozone (moderate work)
0.08 ppm
Phosgene (carbonyl dichloride)
0.1
Silica, fused, respirable dust
0.1
Zinc oxide
Note: Refer to original and latest ACGIH publication for details.
(A) Facepiece Respirator with

Replaceable Filter
(B) Supplied Air Respirator
Figure 13.22Two Different Types of Respirators
412

Gases Produced
During Welding
The UV radiation from the welding arc can produce hazardous gases.
Phosgene gas is produced from the action of UV light on the vapor of a chlorinated hydrocarbon solvent. Containers of cleaning solvents should be kept
capped and removed from the welding area. Solvents should be removed from
the workplace and welding gloves should not be allowed to become contaminated with solvents (see Figure 13.23).
Phosgene gas
Vapor
UV
Figure 13.23Phosgene Gas Production
Ozone can be a major problem with GMAW of aluminum. Exposure can produce headaches, chest pain, shortage of breath, and in high doses, can produce
fluid in the lungs or even death. Ozone levels will depend on the filler metals
and shielding gases used. Because ozone can form at some distance from the
arc, local extraction may not be effective (see Figure 13.24).
O2
O3
UV
Figure 13.24The Formation of Ozone
Working with
Oxygen and Other
Gases
Explosion and asphyxiation are two of the most common hazards when working with industrial gases. The properties of the individual gases determines
their hazard potential (see Figure 13.25). Argon and CO2 are two commonly
used shielding gases that are heavier than air and can act as an asphyxiant in a
confined space.
413

Acetylene is lighter
than air and can
collect in the upper
part of confined spaces
Explosion Hazard
Acetylene
Argon
Asphyxiation Hazard
(no O2)
Argon is heavier
than air and can
collect in the lower
portion of confined
space
Figure 13.25Common Hazards with Industrial Gases
All flammable gases and vapors have a range of mixture with air where they
are dangerous (see Figure 13.26).
Air
Too lean
0%
Too rich
LFL
Flammable
UFL
100%
Figure 13.26Flammable Gas and Vapor Mixtures
Flammable ranges for different gases are shown in Figure 13.27. Acetylene has
a relatively large flammable range and is considered to be more hazardous than
the other gases shown.
The fire triangle shows that fuel, oxygen, and a source of heat or ignition are
needed to start a fire. When working with pure oxygen, just about anything can
be a fueleven your own clothing (see Figure 13.28).
414

2.1%
Propane
9.5%
2.8%
Natural
Gas
17%
2.5%
Acetylene
80%
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Flammable Ranges in Air
Figure 13.27Flammable Ranges for Different Gases
el
He
at
Fu
Oxygen
Figure 13.28Fire Triangle
Oxygen Safety
Never substitute oxygen for air
Do not let your cloths become filled with oxygen
Never use lubricants on any oxyfuel equipment
Never handle oxygen cylinders with greasy or oily hands and gloves
Keep oxyfuel systems free from oil, grease, dust, or any other combustible
material
Cylinders
Here are important things to remember when storing, handling, and using
cylinders.
415

Cylinder Storage (see Figure 13.29)

Store in a secure and well ventilated area
Protect cylinders from ice, snow, water, etc.
Store in an upright position
Store oxygen and fuel gases separately.
See standards for distance or fire wall
requirements.
Mark empty cylinders and store them
separately
Store with valve caps on
Store cylinders and fittings away from grease
and oil
When in use, always secure cylinders with a
suitable chain
Figure 13.29
Cylinder Handling (see Figure 13.30)

Do not move cylinders with regulators
attached.
Make sure valve cap is in place before moving
a cylinder
Use appropriate racks or trolleys for moving
cylinders
Do not sling with ropes or chains
For short distances, cylinders can be tilted
slightly and rolled on the base
Cylinder Use (see Figure 13.31)
Be sure contents are clearly identified before
using
Use only in an upright and chained position
416
Figure 13.30

Crack the cylinder momentarily to blow out any dirt before attaching a
regulator. Stand to one side when performing this operation
Never strike an arc on a cylinder
Keep welding cables and the welding circuit away from cylinders
Store with valve caps on
Always leave some gas (50 psi) in the cylinder to prevent contamination or
mixing of gases.
Figure 13.31
Working with High Pressure Cylinders

Because high pressure gas cylinders store a tremendously high level of energy,
serious injury can result (see Figure 13.32). See page 410 for storage and
handling recommendations.
417

Figure 13.32High Pressure Gas Cylinders Store High Levels of Energy
Working in
Confined Space
Confined spaces present greater hazards to the worker. Almost all of the previously mention hazards are magnified in a confined space situation. Typical
confined spaces are pressure vessels, bins, pipelines, ship compartments, etc.
(see Figure 13.33).
Figure 13.33Dealing with Containers That Have Held Hazardous Materials
418

In confined space, special safety measures are required to ensure:

Minimal risk of fire or explosion
Adequate breathing air
The provision of a rescue system
Welding on
Containers that
Have Held
Hazardous
Materials
Containers that have held hazardous materials present the risk of fire or explosion during cutting or welding operations. Workers sometimes make the mistake of assuming that no danger is present if the container seems empty.
However, it is the vapors from the contents that present the real hazard and
gaseous materials generally cannot be seen. Vapors can also be released from
the heat produced during the welding or cutting process. Special procedures
are needed to clean containers prior to welding (see Figure 13.34). AWS F4.1,
Recommended Safe Practices for the Preparation for Welding and Cutting of
Containers and Piping, should be used as a guide for these types of operations.
Never weld until the prior contents

are known and proper cleaning
has been done.
Figure 13.34Dealing with Containers That Have Held Hazardous Materials
Reference
ANSI Z49.1, Safety in Welding, Cutting, and Allied Processes

419

Guides and
Exercises
To obtain maximum benefit from this program, it is recommended that you

follow this guide and complete the exercises. It is important that you thoroughly study each section carefully before moving to the next section. The
exercises are designed to give you an indication of whether you understand the
material presented. If you get a question wrong, go back and read that section
again.
1. Information on the potential hazards of welding can be found in:
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
Product labeling
Material safety data sheets (MSDSs)
Manufacturers information
ANSI Z49.1
A and B
All of the above
2. True or False?
Welding can be hazardous to your health unless proper safety rules are
followed. True False
3. True or False?
The output of a welding power source is never dangerous because of the
low welding voltages used. True False
4. True or False?
It is good practice to always attach the work return clamp as close as
possible to the point of welding. True False
5. True or False?
AC is more dangerous than DC. True False
6. True or False?
The ground and work lead are the same thing in a welding circuit.
True False
7. True or False?
Attachment of the work return cable is not critical when welding on a
structure supported with a chain-type lifting device. True False
8. True or False?
Arc radiation burns on the skin are similar to sunburn.
420
True False

9. True or False?
Reflection of arc radiation off surrounding surfaces is not a problem.
True False
10. True or False?
Welding causes premature eye failure even with the proper protective
equipment. True False
11. Clear plastic lens can offer protection from:
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
All types of arc radiation

Cataract formation
Retinal lesions
Visible light
None of the above
12. Which of the following are required for fire watch duties?
A. Shall be maintained for at least 1/2 hour after welding and cutting
operations are complete
B. Personnel shall be properly trained in the use of fire extinguishing
equipment
C. Can be terminated after welding operations are complete
D. A and B
E. All of the above
13. What is the minimum recommended shade number for a welders helmet
when using GMAW at 250 amps?
__________________________________________________________
14. True or False?
A dust mask provides adequate safety in hazardous fume situations.
True False
15. Metal fume fever is caused by exposure to fume produced by welding on:
A.
B.
C.
D.
Carbon steel
Carbon steel coated with zinc or copper
Stainless steel
Manganese compounds
16. True or False?

Coatings on base metals are not an important source of welding fume.
True False
421

17. Which of the following is important regarding welding fume health and
safety?
A.
B.
C.
D.
Total fume generation

The concentration of each type of fume chemical or component
The welding travel speed
A and B
18. True or False?

The UV radiation from the welding arc can produce hazardous gases.
True False
19. True or False?
Argon is noncombustible and nonexplosive so it is completely safe.
True False
20. True or False?
Containers that have held flammable liquids just need a water rinse before
welding or cutting on them. True False
21. The following shielding gases used in GMAW are heavier than air and are
dangerous as simple asphyxiants:
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
Argon
Carbon dioxide
Nitrogen
Helium
A and B
A and B and C
22. Oxygen cylinders in storage shall be separated from fuel gas cylinders by:
A. 15 ft
B. A noncombustible partition (5 ft high) having a fire resistance of at
least 1/2 hour
C. 20 ft
D. A wall of any type
E. B or C
23. True or False?
Working in confined space is no different than working in an open room.
True False
422

24. What three things are needed to start a fire?

__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
25. True or False?
Once the regulator is installed, it is not necessary to chain a compressed
gas cylinder. True False
26. True or False?
Acetylene has the highest explosion limit of commonly used fuel gases.
True False
423

Answers
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
19.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
F
True
False
True
True
False
False
True
False
False
E
D
#10
False
B
False
D
True
False
False
E
E
False
Heat, Fuel, and Oxygen
False
True
424

Chapter 14Work Reports and Records
Chapter 14WORK REPORTS AND RECORDS

Introduction
As detailed in previous chapters of this manual, the welding supervisors primary roles are to support, monitor, and evaluate the welders quality and productivity throughout each day.
Welding Quality/Productivity reports should be generated on a timely basis to
permit the supervisor and management to be proactive in addressing issues that
affect the welders quality and productivity. It is important that these reports
are written so they are easily understood; and the recipients can take meaningful corrective action; rather then toss them aside as old or non-relevant information. All reports should be kept for future reference so that reoccurring
patterns can be analyzed.
During the shift, welding supervisors, for accounting and production control purposes, may be required to fill out reports that record material
usage, order completions, and work completed by individual welders.
They may also have to fill out missing and defective parts reports and
inventories. This recorded data can be used as the input for the daily
report to supervisors and managers, which is called the Welding Quality/
Productivity Report.
The most important information that a welding supervisor must have and
understand is the engineering specifications as how they relate to the welders
qualifications and the Welding Procedure Specifications (WPS) that are used
for the welding in their department.
Supervisors should know which welds require a specific WPS and then assure
that the welders are following them as required. The supervisor should monitor
the welders to verify they are following the required Welding Procedure
Specifications.
The supervisor should know before assigning a welder to weld a specific weld
requiring a WPS, that he is qualified to weld to that specific welding procedure
and understands the effect and control of the essential welding variables (see
Figure 14-1).
One of the major uses of the daily Welding Quality/Productivity report is to
help the supervisor or manager determine how well his welding operations are
using the Five Welding Dos Goals to improve. The following is an example of
how the information might be used for improvement.
425

Figure 14.1Monitoring of Welding by Supervisor will Help to Verify that

Welders are Using and Controlling the Essential Welding Variables
Quality Metric
Welding Dos Goal 3, Reduce Rejects, Rework, and Scrap

The supervisor should monitor the quality of the parts received into each welding workstation for dimensional accuracy and proper fitup. The supervisor
must have confidence that the welders are following the work method and
welding procedures, especially the essential welding variables of the welding
process and the proper weld sequence. A portion of the report should include
the visual quality observed, including discontinuities or defects observed and
the corrective actions taken. The supervisor should also note which input parts
required grinding before use, which were unusable, and which had to be sent
back for rework. These types of occurrences should be detailed in the report.
Cost Metric
Welding Dos Goals 1, 2, 4, and 5

1. Reduce Weld Metal Volume (overwelding)
5. Reduce Motion and Delay Time (wasted motion)
426

NOTE: Welding Dos Goal 3, Reduce Rejects, Rework, and Scrap, does not
appear under the Metric of Cost because of its use in the Quality Metric.
The supervisor, throughout the course of the work shift, should monitor the
welders to assure that they are following the above listed Welding Dos Goals
to assure that the welding metric of cost is addressed (see Figure 14.2).
Figure 14.2Reviewing Welding Requirements

with Welder will Help Prevent Costly Mistakes
Welding Dos Goal 1Reduce Weld Metal Volume (Overwelding)

The supervisor needs to ensure that the size of the welds specified on the engineering print is the size being made by the welders. A random sampling of
fillet and groove weld reinforcement sizes can verify that the welders are
neither overwelding nor underwelding. The number of random samples done
during the shift and the results should be recorded to document for management the level of compliance and to help identify cases where welders might
need to be retrained on controlling weld sizes. Recording of over welding can
also help identify fitup issues that often lead to the need for overwelding to
compensate for loss of weld strength due to gaps in weld joint fitups. This can
be done by having the welders identify the need for overwelding when it
occurs as being the result of poor fitup.
427

Welding Dos Goal 2Reduce Arc Time Per Weldment

The welding supervisor should monitor the welders each day to assure they are
welding in accordance with the approved welding procedure for a given application and using the maximum amperage/wire feed speed and corresponding
arc voltage. The maximum deposition rate can be achieved for a particular
welding process by using the highest optimum amperage/wire feed speed
while maintaining quality welding results. A high deposition rate will reduce
the arc time and thereby increase productivity. To assist in this effort, the
supervisor should randomly sample the amperages and arc voltages being used
by the welders to verify that the average amperages remain consistently high as
planned. This awareness will permit the supervisor to identify situations where
the amperages may be decreasing. The supervisor can then take steps to
address the situations that are causing the decrease in deposition rate.
Welding Dos Goal 4Reduce Work Effort
To support the welders and increase productivity, supervisors should always
be aware of the activities performed by the welders that have a high level of
difficulty. Difficult activities or work conditions include such things as:
Difficult to reach welds that cause the welder to get into awkward welding
positions,
Grinding of parts to achieve correct material fitup before welding,
Pounding and hammering parts into correct orientation before welding,
Excessive difficulty in removing slag after welding is completed,
Repetitious raising and lowering of the face-shield while making weld

tacks or intermittent welds.
In cases where the supervisor identifies the above conditions the corrective
actions may be as follows:
Changing equipment,
Correcting defective welding fixtures,
Changing portions of the engineering design,
Improving input component parts,
Using auto-darkening lenses.

428

When the corrective action is taken, the result will be a reduction of work
effort. The actions will not only reduce cycle time, but also result in welders
experiencing less fatigue during their work shift from having to perform difficult tasks.
Welding Dos Goal 5Reduce Motion and Delay Time
Welding supervisors can have a great impact on welder productivity by working with their welders to reduce motion and delay time. From our experience,
the average welder has an arc time per hour of as low as 12% in very low
efficiency work sites to a high of 40%, and in some cases 60%, where mechanization or automation is used. In most welding operations this leaves a considerable amount of non-arc time in the welders workday. This non-arc time
portion of the day consists of a significant amount of unnecessary motion and
delay time. Non-arc time may include such things as:
Waiting for parts or assemblies,
Positioning parts,
Waiting for crane service,
Changing wire/electrode/gun parts,
Availability and condition of equipment,
Delays in receiving work instructions or specifications,
Moving or handling parts,
Excessive hand, foot, and body movements during the weld cycle,
Poorly designed welding fixtures,
Incoming and outgoing parts placement and handling,
Poor work methods,
Improper weld bead axis position.
As a welding supervisor becomes aware that one or more of the conditions

listed above has occurred, he needs to see that they are corrected in a timely
manner. Some of these conditions can be addressed directly by the supervisor.
Others must dealt with by support functions within other areas of the company.
This is one of the reasons that the daily reports are important as they bring
to managements attention conditions that must be corrected by other functional areas to support the welding supervisor in improving welding quality
and productivity.
429

As explained in Chapter 1 of this manual, Management Systems for welding

supervisors, each of the conditions that cannot be corrected by the welding
supervisor becomes the responsibility of one of the Four Critical Functions of
Design Engineering, Manufacturing Engineering, Manufacturing Operations,
or Quality Assurance. The daily report that the supervisor submits detailing
these conditions with the data collected and recorded relative to Welding Dos
Goals 1 and 2, will allow other areas of the company to participate in taking
corrective action. The report will also keep management advised of the
progress being made in the welding operations to achieve quality and productivity improvement.
Figure 14.3, Supervisor Report for Quality and Productivity, provides a
format for the welding supervisor to use to record the data to carry out the daily
reporting and recording.
This report format outlines the type of information that should be collected
daily by the welding supervisor. Once he records the data, it can serve as a
report to management and other departments on the progress that is occurring
in the welding operations. Also, the data in the report can serve as a record of
what occurred during a particular work shift.
The first part of the form, Monitoring Weld Size and Deposition Rate, allows
the supervisor to record the weld sizes and the amperages/wire feed speed
along with other essential welding variables data. This data will serve as an
indication of how well the first and second Welding Dos Goals are being met.
The second part, Visual Inspection of Welds, is one of the most difficult
things for welding supervisors to become accustomed to doing. Throughout
most of their careers, welding supervisors have not been present in the workstation when welding was being done. As a result, this responsibility will take
some time for most supervisors to get used to doing. It cannot be ignored as it
pays big rewards in quality and productivity improvement. It gets the welding
supervisor involved in what is going on in his department.
If the welding supervisor uses a hand face-shield and checks the weld performance against the essential welding variables, this will help him measure the
conformance of the welders in making welds in accordance with the required
welding visual acceptance criteria. It will also tell the supervisor how well each
welder is inspecting his own work before the supervisor checks.
The third part of the report, Delay, Lost Time, or Excessive Work Effort
During the Work Shift, requires the welding supervisor to record for action
any occurrences affecting Welding Dos Goals 4 and 5. This includes any item
that resulted in lost production or delay time in the output of welded components and assemblies during the work shift. This report section serves two purposes, to document how much time was lost in unproductive activities, thus
430

Supervisor Report
for Quality and Productivity
Supervisor ______________________________________________
Date ____________________________
Monitoring: Weld Size and Deposition Rate

Contact Tube
Qty.
0.35 in.
Wire
Qty.
Size: 0.035 in.0.045 in.
0.45 in.
Spool
Welder Name
Employee
Nozzle
0.50 in.
Gun & Cable Exchange
0.62 in.
Barrel
Qty. for Shift
Problem Variables
Weld
Length & Size
Amperage (WFS)
Comments and
Corrective Action
Length:
Acceptable
Unacceptable
_______________________ Arc Voltage

CTTWD
Weld Procedure #
Size:
Acceptable
Unacceptable
_______________________ Travel Speed

Transverse Angle
Settings Found
WFS ___________________
Travel Angle
Wire Position
Arc Voltage ______________

Employee
Inductance
Amperage (WFS)
Length:
Acceptable
Unacceptable
_______________________ Arc Voltage

CTTWD
Weld Procedure #
Size:
Acceptable
Unacceptable
_______________________ Travel Speed

Transverse Angle
Settings Found
WFS ___________________
Travel Angle
Wire Position
Arc Voltage ______________
Inductance
Visual Inspection of Weld

Defects Found
Example: Cracks, Incomplete
Fusion, Undercut, Porosity, etc.
Cause of Defect
Record cause if known, incorrect
gun angles, electrode position,
material fitup, incorrect parts
Corrective Action
Instructed the welder or contacted
engineer or maintenance
Figure 14.3Supervisor Report for Quality and Productivity
431

Delay, Lost Time, or Excessive Work Effort During Work Shift

Occurrences
Corrective Action
Figure 14.3Supervisor Report for Quality and Productivity (Continued)
allowing for an objective evaluation of the non-arc time of the welders, and. to
alert management to problems that are occurring for the welders that are originating outside of the supervisors scope of responsibility. Corrective action can
then be taken to control or eliminate these occurrences in the future.
Conclusion
Most welding supervisors find paperwork an unpleasant and unnecessary task.

In many cases, this is the result of filling out reports in the past that did not
result in any constructive corrective action and no measurable improvement.
What has been presented in this chapter should give the supervisor some real
direction on how to use reporting to effect change to improve the quality, cost,
throughput and safety of welding. Once the welding supervisor begins to use
and see the results from the reporting outlined here, he will wonder how he
supervised his welders in the past without this information.
Review Questions
1. Which of the following Welding Dos Goals will affect the Quality Metric?
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
Reduce Motion and Delay Time

Reduce Arc Time Per Weldment
Reduce Weld Metal Volume
Reduce Rejects, Rework, and Scrap
Reduce Work Effort
2. Which of the following is associated with the Cost Metric?

A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
Reduce Work Effort

Reduce Weld Metal Volume
Reduce Arc Time Per Weldment
Reduce Rejects, Rework, and Scrap
A, B, and C only
432

3. When the welding supervisor monitors the deposition rate for productivity,
which of the following should the supervisor pay particular attention to?
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
The size of welds

Positioning of parts
Moving and handling parts
Poorly design weld fixtures.
4. When monitoring, a welding supervisor should look for the following in

order to improve on lost time and waste?
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
Waiting for parts and assemblies

Pounding and hammering parts
Weld Sizes
B and C only
5. What is one of the hardest things for the welding supervisor to learn when
doing monitoring of the welders?
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
Pick up a pen and fill out a report

Watch the welders, while they are welding
Hunt for missing parts
Drink coffee during the shift
Compliment the welders when they do good work
433

Answers
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
D
E
C
A
B
434

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CERTIFIED WELDING

Jack R. Barckhoff, P.E.

550 N.W. LeJeune Road, Miami, Florida 33126

International Standard Book Number: 0-87171-029-3

Chapter 1MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS FOR THE WELDING SUPERVISOR................. 1

Chapter 4GAS METAL ARC WELDING APPLIED TO MILD STEELS ....................... 87

Partial Penetration Welds.........................................................................................................274

Review Questions ....................................................................................................................363

Acknowledgments for Course Materials

AWS CWS Manual for Quality and Productivity Improvement

Chapter 1MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS FOR THE WELDING SUPERVISOR

In manufacturing and construction companies that use welding as a core

AWS CWS Manual for Quality and Productivity Improvement

AWS CWS Manual for Quality and Productivity Improvement

Lean Manufacturing is a management system that has received much attention

AWS CWS Manual for Quality and Productivity Improvement

AWS CWS Manual for Quality and Productivity Improvement

tion, waste in every function is viewed as an opportunity to improve and

KanbanKanban is the communication process used to ensure that parts

Takt TimeThis is an approach to manufacturing planning that begins by

Standardized WorkThis is used to determine the method and sequence to

AWS CWS Manual for Quality and Productivity Improvement

KaizenA technique used by a team or department to make improvements

Visual ControlThis technique involves the use of lights and/or audible

TeamingThis is the technique of forming teams of six to eight people

AWS CWS Manual for Quality and Productivity Improvement

2. Straightenarrange items in the workstation so that they are easy to find

AWS CWS Manual for Quality and Productivity Improvement

The culture of the organization changesthis is seen most notably at the

AWS CWS Manual for Quality and Productivity Improvement

Greater welder involvement in more aspects of the business by using the

Elimination of rigid constraints that were put in place as a result of earlier

Greater use of technology and more flexibility in solving problems and

Better cooperation with suppliers to improve the quality of materials

Measurable progress in recording, analyzing, and reporting quality

AWS CWS Manual for Quality and Productivity Improvement

AWS CWS Manual for Quality and Productivity Improvement

AWS CWS Manual for Quality and Productivity Improvement

AWS CWS Manual for Quality and Productivity Improvement

Five Welding Dos (Goals)

AWS CWS Manual for Quality and Productivity Improvement

1. Workmanship Standards. Specifying or providing welding production

AWS CWS Manual for Quality and Productivity Improvement

1. Personnel Training and Qualification. Instruction and qualification of

1. Policy and Accountability. Statements of acceptable standards, behavior,

AWS CWS Manual for Quality and Productivity Improvement

Step 4Implementation and Fine-Tuning. In this step, the project is put

When implemented, TWM results in a closed-looped management system that

AWS CWS Manual for Quality and Productivity Improvement

With completion of formal Six Sigma training, formal levels of proficiency

Table 1.1Comparison Chart

AWS CWS Manual for Quality and Productivity Improvement

AWS CWS Manual for Quality and Productivity Improvement

Total Quality Management for Engineers, Mohamed Zairi. 1991. Woodhead

1. Many companies have supervisors doing which of the following?

Supporting the welders activities

2. Which management approach relies on welders teaching welders on the

Total Welding Management

3. In the Lean Manufacturing System, which is not a concept?

AWS CWS Manual for Quality and Productivity Improvement

AWS CWS Manual for Quality and Productivity Improvement

AWS CWS Manual for Quality and Productivity Improvement

AWS CWS Manual for Quality and Productivity Improvement

Chapter 2REQUIREMENTS OF A WELD