Basics of Manufacturing-1

Basic of Manufacturing Industry
MEEG
M.Tech in Health, Safety & Environment Engineering
Educational Qualification Improvement Programme

(EQUIP)
Indian School of Petroleum & Energy

in association with
University of Petroleum & Energy Studies

S.NO.
CHAPTER NAME
UNIT-I
Mechanical components operations
UNIT-II
MEEG
PAGE NO.
Glass manufacturing Industry
3
20
UNIT-III
Paint manufacturing industry
38
UNIT-IV
Automobile manufacturing industry
43
UNIT -V
Metal manufacturing industry

Aluminium
53
Iron
56
Stainless steel
61
Copper
68
UNIT-VI
Sugar manufacturing industry
79
UNIT-VII
Beer manufacturing industry
86
UNIT-VIII
Paper manufacturing industry
91
UNIT-IX
Petroleum and its products manufacturing
97
UNIT-X
Soap manufacturing industry
104
UNIT-XI
Fertilizer manufacturing industry
109
UNIT-XII
Tyre manufacturing industry
116
UNIT-XIII
Phosphoric acid industry
122
UNIT-XIV
Sulfuric acid industry
126
UNIT-XV
Pesticides manufacturing industry
130
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Basics of manufacturing
Manufacturing is the use of machines, tools and labor to make things for
use or sale. The term may refer to a range of human activity, from handicraft to
high tech, but is most commonly applied to industrial production, in which raw
materials are transformed into finished goods on a large scale. Such finished
goods may be used for manufacturing other, more complex products, such as
aircraft, household appliances or automobiles, or sold to wholesalers, who in
turn sell them to retailers, who then sell them to end users the "consumers".
Modern manufacturing includes all intermediate processes required for

the production and integration of a product's components. Some industries,
such as semiconductor and steel manufacturers use the term fabrication
instead.
In
this
subjects
we
are
dealing
with
mechanical
components
manufacturing, glass, Automobile, paint, metals such Al, iron and stainless
steel and copper manufacturing .
Petroleum, Petrochemical products such as fertilizers, soaps, tyre and
chemical & process industry products like sugar, pesticides, paper, acids and
beer are manufactured huge quantities in our country. This material discusses
the basics of manufacturing of these products.
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1. MECHANICAL COMPONENTS MANUFACTURING

1.1 CASTING
Cupola melting This method uses a furnace in stack form as shown in
Figure. In this method is used to produce iron plates or rods from the steel
scraps. Fuel and metal to be melted are in direct contact. The stack is lined
with refractory material and alternate layers of coke and metal are placed in it.
Some minerals, primarily limestone (CaC03), are included with the metals to be
melted. Air is blown through the stack from the bottom through openings
called tuyeres. The bottom layer of coke is ignited initially. Heat from the
burning coke melts the metal, which flows to the bottom of the cupola from
where it can be removed by opening a tap hole. Slag is also removed from the
bottom, from an exit hole just above
the one used to remove molten metal.
As the coke is consumed and the
metal charge melts, the burning
gradually
proceeds
upward.
The
upper layers are preheated by the

flow of hot gases. Additional metal,
coke, and limestone can be added
from a charging door in the upper
part of the stack as the operation
proceeds. Metal charges may consist
of steel scrap, cast iron scrap or pig
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iron, or, more commonly, a combination of them. The molten metal absorbs
carbon from the coke, so cupola melting is generally restricted to cast,
malleable, and ductile iron. The above picture shows the cross section of
cupola for melting cast iron.
SAND CASTINGS
In sand mold casting the mold is made of packed sand. Molten metal is
poured into a cavity in the sand. When the metal cools and solidifies, it has the
shape of the cavity. The sand is removed, normally by a shaking action that is
vigorous enough to cause the mold to break apart. The casting is then cleaned
of sand; flashing and sprues are cut off and any jagged or sharp edges are
ground smooth. The sand mold includes binders to hold the packed sand
together and other additives. Bentonite clay is one of the most common
binders. Organic materials and a certain amount of water are also used. The
sand is either shoveled into the mold flask, dropped or blown from an overhead
chute, or thrown by a sand slinging machine. The sand mixture is packed
around a pattern which duplicates the shape wanted in the cast part. Various
hand and machine approaches are used to compact the sand. Ramming,
squeezing, slinging, and jolting are done before add molten metal. After the
sand has been compacted, the pattern is removed, leaving a cavity that retains
the inverse of the patterns shape. The sand is held together strongly enough so
that it withstands the pressure and any eroding effects of the melted metal; is
porous enough to allow gases to escape; yet it is weak enough to yield to
shrinkage forces when the metal solidifies, and can be broken up and removed
easily from the finished casting. The pattern can be of almost any material. In
low quantity production situations, it may be made of wood. For repetitive
manufacture, steel is more common. Plastics, aluminum, and other materials
are also used. The pattern has the same shape as the desired cast part, but is
slightly larger to provide a shrinkage allowance for the metal as it cools.
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A typical sand mold is shown in figure and is normally made in two

halves. The pattern is
correspondingly split. The top half of the mold is called
the cope; the bottom half

the drag. Both are held in
a box-like container called
flasks.
channel
An
for
entrance
the
molten
metal into the mold is

provided by a basin and
sprue formed in the cope
half. Runners and gate are
normally in the drag half. If the casting has some hollow or undercut elements,
one or more additional sand pieces, called cores may be used. If a core is
used, it is inserted in the mold cavity. The cope half of the mold is made
similarly to the drag half and, after the pattern is removed, is inverted and
placed over the drag. Pins in the flask insure alignment of the mold cavity. The
two mold halves are held together with a clamp or weight. Sand mold casting
can be used to make simple and complex parts from a wide variety of metals,
though cast iron is the most common. Shapes with undercuts, contours, reentrant angles and other complications of shape can be cast. Castings weighing
only one ounce to those of many tons can be cast with the process.
Typical applications of sand mold casting are: automotive engine
blocks, cylinder heads, connecting rods, crankshafts and transmission cases,
machine tool bases and other mechanical components.
METAL FORMING PROCESS
Many metal forming operations can be performed with the workpiece
metal either hot or cold. The operations performed on workpiece material that
has been heated to make it more malleable for the operation involved. Metals
that are to be hot formed are heated above their recrystallization temperature,
one that varies with each material but is normally about 0.6 times the melting
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temperature on the Kelvin (absolute temperature) scale. For example, steels

require a temperature above about 980C. Warm forming involves heating to a
temperature 30 to 60 percent of the melting point, while cold forming takes
place when the metal temperature is below 30% of the melting temperature.)
1.2 HOT ROLLING
It is commonly applied to convert steel ingots to blooms, billets, or slabs,
and to make these shapes into suitable forms. In the process, heated metal is
passed between two rollers whose spacing is less than the thickness of the
metal. The rotation of the rollers moves the metal forward, squeezing and
elongating it. Figure illustrates the process. The process extends and refines
the grain structure of the rolled material. A number of passes may be required,
depending on the thickness desired and the thickness of the entering material.
Reversing rollers are often used to facilitate multiple passes. Thin sheet or foil
is best rolled with small-diameter rollers that are backed up with larger rollers
to provide the necessary rolling force.
As many as twelve rollers in a
cluster may be used. Shaped
rollers can produce material
with
various
cross
sections
including those of structural

shapes
or
special
cross
sections. Low-alloy or plaincarbon steel is heated to about

1200C before rolling and after
being preheated in a soaking
pit.
In
addition
to
ferrous
metals, aluminum, copper and copper alloys, magnesium, nickel, titanium,

and zinc alloys are hot rolled.
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1.3 PRESS OPERATIONS IN INDUSTRY

Press brakes, as illustrated in Figure, are mechanical or hydraulic
presses with long, narrow, stationary beds. The bed lengths range from 2 or 3
ft to 30 ft and press tonnages from 10 to several thousand. The ram stroke is
short but adjustable. Dies are long, narrow, and often simple V-dies. Both
sharp and gentle bends can be made, depending on the shape of the dies.
Piercing, notching, forming, shearing, edge curling, beading, hemming,
corrugating, and tube forming can be performed with suitable dies. In
bending, sheet metal, placed between the bed and the ram is most commonly
bent once with each press stroke. The bend occurs when a shaped punch,
attached to the press brake ram, descends against the workpiece, forcing it
into a suitablyshaped die, fastened to the press brake bed. Multiple bends are
made by repositioning the workpiece sheet between press strokes. Press brakes
are used in the bending of long, narrow workpieces and for other workpieces
made in small quantities where standard press brake tooling can be employed.
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1.4 WELDING
Welded connections and assemblies represent a very large group of
fabricated steel components. The welding process itself is complex, involving
heat and liquid-metal transfer, chemical reactions, and the gradual formation
of the welded joint through liquid-metal deposition and subsequent cooling into
the solid state, with attendant metallurgical transformations.
The material in this section will provide the student with an overview of
the most important aspects of welded design. In order that the resulting welded
fabrication be of adequate strength, stiffness, and utility, the designer will often
collaborate with engineers who are experts in the broad area of design and
fabrication of elements.
ARC WELDING
Arc welding is one of several fusion processes for joining metal. By the
generation of intense heat, the juncture of two metal pieces is melted and
mixeddirectly or, more often, with an intermediate molten filler metal. Upon
cooling and solidification, the resulting welded joint metallurgically bonds the
former separate pieces into a continuous structural assembly (a weldment)
whose strength properties are basically those of the individual pieces before
welding.
In arc welding, the intense heat needed to melt metal is produced by an
electric arc. The arc forms between the workpieces and an electrode that is
either manually or mechanically moved along the joint; conversely, the work
may be moved under a stationary electrode. The electrode generally is a
specially prepared rod or wire that not only conducts electric current and
sustains the arc, but also melts and supplies filler metal to the joint; this
constitutes a consumable electrode. Carbon or tungsten electrodes may be
used, in which case the electrode serves only to conduct electric current and to
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sustain the arc between tip and workpiece, and it is not consumed; with these
electrodes, any filler metal required is supplied by rod or wire introduced into
the region of the arc
and
melted
Filler
metal
separately,
there.
applied
rather
than via a consumable

electrode,
does
not
carry electric current.

Most
steel
welding
operations
are
performed
with
consumable
electrodes. The figure shows the typical welding arrangement.
WELDING CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENT
An ac or dc power source fitted with necessary controls is connected by a
work cable to the work piece and by a hot cable to an electrode holder of
some type, which, in turn, is electrically connected to the welding electrode.
When the circuit is energized, the flow of electric current through the electrode
heats the electrode by virtue of its electric resistance. When the electrode tip is
touched to the workpiece and then withdrawn to leave a gap between the
electrode and workpiece, the arc jumping the short gap presents a further path
of high electric resistance, resulting in the generation of an extremely high
temperature in the region of the sustained arc.
The temperature reaches about 6,500F, which is more than adequate to
melt most metals. The heat of the arc melts both base and filler metals, the
latter being supplied via a consumable electrode or separately. The puddle of
molten metal produced is called a weld pool, which solidifies as the electrode
and a rc move along the joint being welded. The resulting weldment is
metallurgically bonded as the liquid metal cools, fuses, solidifies, and cools. In
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addition to serving its main function of supplying heat, the arc is subject to
adjustment and/or control to vary the proper transfer of molten metal to the
weld pool, remove surface films in the weld region, and foster gas-slag
reactions or other beneficial metallurgical changes Filler metal composition is
generally different from that of the weld metal, which is composed of the
solidified mix of both filler and base metals.
Shielding and Fluxing High-temperature molten metal in the weld pool
will react with oxygen and nitrogen in ambient air. These gases will remain
dissolved in the liquid metal, but their solubility significantly decreases as the
metal cools and solidifies. The decreased solubility causes the gases to come
out of solution, and if they are trapped in the metal as it solidifies, cavities,
termed porosities, are left behind. This is always undesirable, but it can be
acceptable to a limited degree depending on the specification governing the
welding. Smaller amounts of these gases, particularly nitrogen, may remain
dissolved in the weld metal, resulting in drastic reduction in the physical
properties of otherwise excellent weld metal.
Notch
toughness
is
seriously
degraded
by
nitrogen
inclusions.
Accordingly, the molten metal must be shielded from harmful atmospheric gas
contaminants. This is accomplished by gas shielding or slag shielding or both.
Gas shielding is provided either by an external supply of gas, such as carbon
dioxide, or by gas generated when the electrode flux heats up. Slag shielding
results when the flux ingredients are melted and leave behind a slag to cover
the weld pool, to act as a barrier to contact between the weld pool and ambient
air. At times, both types of shielding are utilized.
In addition to its primary purpose to protect the molten metal, the
shielding gas will significantly affect arc behavior. The shielding gas may be
mixed with small amounts of other gases (as many as three others) to improve
arc stability, puddle (weld pool) fluidity, and other welding operating
characteristics. In the case of shielded-metal arc welding (SMAW), the stick
electrode is covered with an extruded coating of flux. The arc heat melts the
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flux and generates a gaseous shield to keep air away from the molten metal,
and at the same time the flux ingredients react with deleterious substances,
such as surface oxides on the base metal, and chemically combine with those
contaminants, creating a slag which floats to the surface of the weld pool. That
slag crusts over the newly solidified hot metal, minimizes contact between air
and hot metal while the metal cools, and thereby inhibits the formation of
surface oxides on the newly deposited weld metal, or weld bead.
When the temperature of the weld bead decreases, the slag, which has a
glassy consistency, is chipped off to reveal the bright surface of the newly
deposited metal. Minimal surface
surface oxidation will take place at lower
temperatures, inasmuch as oxidation rates are greatly diminished as ambient

conditions are approached.Fluxing action also aids in wetting the interface
between the base metal and the molten metal in the weld pool edge, thereby
enhancing uniformity and appearance of the weld bead.
1.5 GAS CUTTING
Oxyfuel Cutting (OFC) Oxyfuel cutting is used to cut steels and to
prepare bevel and vee grooves. In this process, the metal is heated to its
ignition temperature, or kindling point, by a series of preheat flames. After this
temperature is attained, a high-velocity stream of pure oxygen is introduced,
which causes oxidation or burning to occur. The force of the oxygen steam
blows the oxides out of the joint, resulting in a clean cut. The oxidation process
also generates additional thermal energy, which is radially conducted into the
surrounding steel, increasing the temperature of the steel ahead of the cut. The
next portion of the steel is raised to the kindling temperature, and the cut
proceeds. Carbon and low-alloy steels are easily cut by the oxyfuel process.
Alloy steels can be cut, but with greater difficulty than mild steel. The level of
difficulty is a function of the alloy content. When the alloy content reaches the
levels found in stainless steels, oxyfuel cutting cannot be used unless the
process is modified by injecting flux or iron-rich powders into the oxygen
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stream. Aluminum cannot be cut with the oxyfuel process. Oxyfuel cutting is
commonly regarded as the most economical way to cut steel plates greater than
12 in thick. A variety of fuel gases may be used for oxyfuel cutting, with the
choice largely dependent on local economics; they include natural gas,
propane, acetylene, and a variety of proprietary gases offering unique
advantages. Because of its role in the primary cutting stream, oxygen is always
used as a second gas. In addition, some oxygen is mixed with the fuel gas in
proportions designed to ensure proper combustion.

Plasma Arc Cutting (PAC)
The plasma arc cutting process was developed initially to cut materials
that do not permit the use of the oxyfuel process: stainless steel and
aluminum. It was found, however, that plasma arc cutting offered economic
advantages when applied to thinner sections of mild steel, especially those less
than 1 in thick. Higher travel speed is possible with plasma arc cutting, and
the volume of heated base material is reduced, minimizing metallurgical
changes as well as reducing distortion.
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PAC is a thermal and mechanical process. To utilize PAC, the material is

heated until molten and expelled from the cut with a high-velocity stream of
compressed gas. Unlike oxyfuel cutting, the process does not rely on oxidation.
Because high amounts of energy are introduced through the arc, PAC is
capable of extremely high-speed cutting. The thermal energy generated during
the oxidation process with oxyfuel cutting is not present in plasma; hence, for
thicker sections, PAC is not economically justified. The use of PAC to cut thick
sections usually is restricted to materials that do not oxidize readily with
oxyfuel.
WELDING SAFETY
Welding is safe when sufficient measures are taken to protect the welder
from potential hazards. When these measures are overlooked or ignored,
welders can be subject to electric shock; overexposure to radiation, fumes, and
gases; and fires and explosion. Any of these can be fatal. Everyone associated
with welding operations should be aware of the potential hazards and help
ensure that safe practices are employed. Infractions must be reported to the
appropriate responsible authority.
Oxygen is incorrectly called air in some fabricating shops. Air from the
atmosphere contains only 21 percent oxygen and obviously is different from the
100 percent pure oxygen used for cutting. The unintentional confusion of
oxygen with air has resulted in fatal accidents. When compressed oxygen is
inadvertently used to power air tools, e.g., an explosion can result. While most
people recognize that fuel gases are dangerous, the case can be made that
oxygen requires even more careful handling
1.6 LATHE AND OTHER OPERATIONS
Lathe operations
It produce, with a cutting action, surfaces of rotation (surfaces having a
round or partly-round cross section), both external and internal, in a work
piece. The work piece is rotated in a lathe, screw machine, or chucking
machine. It is held between centers or in a chuck or collet, or fastened to a face
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place. The cutting tool is fed into the work or along the work, or both, to
produce a part of the desired shape. There are several basic types of lathes and
related machines as described below and many varieties of tools that can be fed
against the workpiece. These machines are used extensively in the production
of parts that contain surfaces of rotation. The basic operations performed on
lathes are the following:
Turning - is the most prevalent lathe operation. In its most common form, a
single-point cutting tool is moved on a precise path with respect to a rotating
workpiece. When the tool moves parallel to the axis of rotation, straight turning
takes place and the surface machined is cylindrical or part of a cylinder. When
the cutting tool moves uniformly closer or farther from the axis of rotation as it
moves longitudinally, a tapered surface is generated
Grooving - The cutting tool, usually ground to the width and bottom shape
required, is fed into the work, cutting a groove of the desired dimensions.
Groves can be cut into any external or internal surface that such a cutting tool
can reach. (Internal grooves are usually called recesses.)
Knurling - is not really a machining (cutting) operation because the knurl is
formed, not cut, in the workpiece. Knurling is a common lathe or screw
machine operation. The hardened hurling tool rolls against the cylindrical
surface of the rotating workpiece with high pressure, causing the surface
material of the workpiece to flow into peaks and valleys according to the
pattern of the hurling tool.
Facing - produces flat surfaces whose plane is at right angles to the axis of
rotation of the part As the part rotates in the lathe, the cutting tool moves
radially toward the axis of rotation, removing material as it advances. It can
also move outward from the center, but the other direction is much more
common. The operation is used to produce flat surfaces on castings and other
parts that usually also require turning or some other lathe operation
Cutting off (parting) - When parts are made in lathes and screw machines
from bar stock, the final operation is to sever the part from the remaining bar
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material. This is accomplished by advancing the cutoff tool, a narrow grooving

tool, radially into the work. When the cutting edge advances to the axis of
rotation of the part, the part is severed and falls to the bed of the machine.
Some machines, which make blanks for further machining or other operations,
are designed to perform only cut off operations and other simple ones on bar
and tubular stock.
Common Lathe operations are shown in figure.

1.7 DRILLING OPERATION
Drilling - The most common tool for drilling, a twist drill, is a rod with helical
flutes and two or more cutting edges at the end. It is rotated about its axis and
fed axially into the work. As it advances, it produces or enlarges a round hole
in the workpiece. The chips are carried away from the hole by the flutes in the
drill. When drilling an axial hole with a lathe, the workpiece rotates rather than
the drill.
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There are other types of drills that may not have helical flutes. Others may
have only one cutting edge. The drilling process is very common and is used
with a wide variety of machines ranging from the most sophisticated computer
controlled or multiple spindle machines to hand-held electric or crank-driven
drills.
1.8 GRINDING AND ABRASIVE MACHINING
At the point where the cutting takes place, grinding is very similar to other
machining operations, the difference being that the workpiece is cut by the
sharp edges of small pieces of abrasive material, rather than the edge of a
hardened steel or carbide cutting tool. The irregularly-shaped abrasive particles
may be bonded to a wheel or coated belt, or may be used loose. The particles
commonly consist of aluminum oxide, silicon carbide, cubic boron nitride,
diamond, or other hard materials. The individual abrasive grains are each
smaller than a conventional metalworking cutting tool, and the grains on a
typical wheel make a multitude of minute cuts (Some grains, depending on
their shape, do not cut but instead rub or slightly deform the surface of the
workpiece.) Cutting speeds are high but the depth of cut from each grain is
shallow. A water or water-oil emulsion is often sprayed on the wheel and
workpiece to control the dust that otherwise arises and to overcome the heating
effect of the operation.
Grinding wheels are often porous, especially those designed for use with softer
materials. As the wheel cuts, it wears, causing some abrasive particles to
become smooth but causing others to fracture, exposing new sharp edges. New
wheels, and those that have become worn, are dressed with a diamond tool
that removes some of the abrasive material and bonding agent, exposing sharp
edges of new abrasive grains and providing a straighter, more uniform, cutting
surface. Grinding is most commonly a finish-machining operation to provide a
smoother surface or greater dimensional accuracy, particularly with hardened
materials. When used as the primary metal removal method, the term, abrasive
machining is often used.
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1.9 MILLING
Milling is a means of creating a desired surface with a rotating multi-toothed
cutter. Each tooth of the cutter removes material as the workpiece advances
against it. The axis of rotation of the cutter may be either horizontal or vertical.
The cutter can provide cutting action on its side or at its end (face), or both.
The cutter rotates rather rapidly and its position is normally stationary; the
work moves past the cutter with a suitable depth of cut at a relatively slow feed
rate. Milling is the most common machining operation for producing flat
surfaces, but slots, and contoured or stepped surfaces and screw threads can
also be produced.
The different types of millings are face milling, peripheral milling, slab milling,
form milling, gand milling, straddle milling, fly cutter milling etc.
1.10 SAWING
Sawing is the parting of material through the use of a narrow cutter, a saw,
which contains a series of cutting edges that pass against the work in a
continuous or reciprocating motion. As the cutter is advanced into the work,
material is removed by each tooth, and a slot is formed, eventually extending
through the entire thickness of the workpiece, and severing it into two pieces.
The chip produced by each tooth is carried in the space between the teeth until
the teeth exit the workpiece. The cutter can be in disk, band, or reciprocating
blade form. Cutting teeth are typically set, i.e., offset slightly and alternately
from both sides of the saw blade to provide a slightly wider cut (kerf) than the
thickness of the blade so that there is room for its passage. The operation is
used to cut billets, extrusions, castings, forgings, and various other shapes into
blanks for further operations. Bars of various cross sections, rods, angles, and
various other structural sections are cut to length by sawing.
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Circular sawing - uses a saw in the form of a circular disk, with cutting teeth
on the periphery. As the circular saw rotates, it is fed against the workpiece,
machining a narrow slot in the workpiece and eventually severing it. Circular
saws for metal cutting are sometimes called cold saws because they dont
significantly heat the workpiece as friction saws do. They often have inserted
cutter teeth of carbide rather than teeth formed of the blade material, or have
cutter segments fastened to a center disc. Blades are sometimes large in
diameter to permit the sawing of
bulky
workpieces.
Kerfs
are
considerably wider than those on

band or hack-saws because the
circular blade must be thick
enough
Accurate
to
provide
and
rigidity.
smooth
cut
surfaces are feasible with this

method.
The
circular
saw
process is used to make blanks

for subsequent operations or to
cut structural members to the
desired length. Figure illustrates
a circular cutoff saw (coldsaw).
Band sawing - is most commonly a cut-off operation. Instead of a circular disk,
the saw is an endless steel band with cutting teeth on one edge. The blade
moves as it cuts in one direction.
Cutting is continuous and blade wear is
uniform over the whole length of the blade. Since the blade is normally thin,
little material is lost to chip waste and power requirements are modest. The
work piece or the blade can be fed manually or mechanically.
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2.0 GLASS MANUFACTURING

2.1 INTRODUCTION
Glassmaking involves three basic steps: batching, melting, and forming.
Batching is the preparation of a mixture of sand and stabilizing oxides, all in
fine granular form. Melting involves the heating of the mixture to change it into
a liquid and to further homogenize the various ingredients. Forming is the
creation of useful objects or products from the molten mixture before it has
completely solidified. The process can be carried out on either a batch or
continuous-flow basis, the latter being used in mass production situations.
Normally,
forming
operations
take
place
immediately
after
the
basic
glassmaking, with the molten glass being cooled to increase its viscosity for
forming.
There are many different kinds of glass. Soda lime glass is used for bottles,
window panes and drinking glasses. Lead-alkali silicate glass has lead oxide in
place of much of the calcined lime and is used for highly worked shapes
including decorative glassware (lead crystal) that is engraved. Borosilicate
glasses, which contain boric oxide, are used when chemical and temperature
change resistance is important, for example, in pharmaceutical containers,
chemical process components and lamp envelopes. Aluminosilicate glasses are
used where high temperature conditions exist. Several other mixtures may be
used when optical properties are important.
2.2 RAW MATERIALS
Silica sand (SiO2) is the most common glass ingredient and has excellent
resistance to attack, low thermal expansion, and resistance to devitrification
(crystallization which impairs the optical and mechanical properties). However,
in its unalloyed state, silica sand is difficult to process because of its high
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melting temperature and high viscosity when melted. Various other oxides are
added to silica to improve its processibility and modify the properties of the
finished glass. When soda-lime glass, the most common variety, is made, the
ingredients consist of about 73 percent sand (SiO2), about 14 percent soda ash
or sodium carbonate (Na2C02) and about 13 percent limestone (CaC03). Sodium
oxide, (Na20) is an effective fluxing agent, i.e., a means for reducing the melting
temperature, but too much can produce glass that is water soluble. Calcium
oxide, calcined lime (CaO), increases the hardness and resistance of the glass
to moisture. Alumina (A1203) improves durability and reduces thermal
expansion. Potassium oxide (K20) from potash, increases durability and helps
prevent devitrification, which has adverse effects. Other glass ingredients
include borax or boric acid for boric oxide (B203), fluorspar (CaF), litharge or
lead oxide (PbO), barium carbonate (BaC03), magnesium oxide (MgO), zinc
oxide (ZnO), and other inorganic materials, some of which are colorants. Glass
cullet (factory scrap or recycled glass), may be added to the mixture. It provides
fluxing action and reduces the energy required for melting. About 30 to 40%
cullet provides the maximum furnace efficiency. In some mixtures, cullet
content can reach 66 percent. A typical commercial mixture has from 7 to
about 12 different minerals, 4 to 6 of which are major ingredients.
2.3 COLORING MATERIALS - Glass is colored by adding small quantities
(usually less than 0.5 percent) of certain metal oxides or other metallic
compounds to the glass batch. Copper produces light blue; chromium - green
and yellow; iron - bluish green or yellowish brown; cobalt - intense blue; nickel
grayish brown, yellow, green, blue or violet depending on the glass matrix;
neodymium - reddish violet; manganese - violet; vanadium - green or brown.
2.4 BATCHING - involves weighing, milling as necessary, and mixing to
produce the glass furnace charge, a blend that can be melted to provide the
composition desired. Quality control, including chemical analyses, must
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precede these steps to insure that each raw material is of the proper
composition with impurities within limits. and of the proper grain size. Grain or
particle size is important and must be controlled so that materials do not
segregate during mixing, storage, and handling and so that they melt properly.
Overly-fine particles of some materials may retard the elimination of gas
bubbles from the melted charge. Milling and screening of raw materials may be
required for some mixtures, though the common practice is to have suppliers of
raw materials provide them with the desired grain size and size distribution.
Water may be added to the batch to the extent of 2 to 4 percent to prevent
segregation prior to melting. More recently, methods have been developed to
consolidate the batch material in a form that more easily preserves the
uniformity of the batch mixture, provides easier handling, improved melting,
and better uniformity of the glass mixture during melting.
These consolidation methods usually involve the following steps:
1. reducing and controlling the grain size of the batch materials by various
milling operations and screening, mixture,
2. adding wetting and binding agents to the
3. thoroughly mixing the mixture and additives,
4. consolidation - briquetting, pelletizing or other means of holding the mixture
into a stable but easily handled form, and
5. preheating the consolidation before melting.
Alc. melting - Melting the glass materials, known as the batch, enables the
ingredients to be completely blended to produce glass of the desired properties
and puts the glass in condition for forming. Typical melting temperatures are
approximately 1450 to 1600. Heat is provided by gas, oil or electricity. Natural
gas is the major fuel; propane is used as a standby. When quantities are small,
melting is performed on a batch basis in pot furnaces or day tanks. High
production melting is done in continuous furnaces that have output levels
ranging to several hundred tons per day. Pots are made of refractory clay and
are heated in brick furnaces. Day tanks are larger pots for batch production
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and are typically run on a one-day cycle, with melting at night and production
and refilling the next day. Ten tons is a typical daily production quantity. Pots
are typically round crucibles made of one piece of refractory material with
individual capacities of one to two tons of glass. Several pots may occupy one
furnace. Day tanks are made from refractory blocks. Continuous furnaces are
used for flat glass and for mass-produced containers and other highproduction
items. They are lined with refractory ceramics and are divided into a large
melting section and a small refining section called a forehearth. The forehearth
is used to cool glass from the melt temperature to a suitable temperature for
whatever forming operation follows. Daily production levels are on the order of
100 to 400 tons of glass.
The glass charge is fed from one end of the melting area. Temperatures in the
melting area are as high as the glass mixture can tolerate in order to drive off
carbon dioxide, steam, trapped air, and other gases, which could cause
bubbles in the glass. Convection currents in the molten glass, which result
from natural unevenness of heating and cooling from side walls, provide
stirring that helps the
glass mixture to become homogeneous. The molten
glass that passes to the refining section does so through an opening below the
surface of the melt, thus preventing any surface foam or scum from entering
the forehearth. The temperature in the forehearth is typically cooler than that
in the melting section by 100 to 200C.
Furnaces may operate continuously for approximately a year before rebuilding
is necessary. With gas and oil furnaces the glass is heated by exhaust gases
that travel above the molten glass. Air for combustion is preheated by either a
preheating chamber in the furnace or by regeneration where the cold air and
cold gas are made to flow through brickwork that shortly before carried hot
exhaust gases from the furnace. The flow is typically reversed at half-hour
intervals. Immersed electrodes are used when heat is provided by electrical
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resistance. This resistance is that of the glass when current is passed through
the molten glass from electrode to electrode. Electric heating is sometimes used
as a booster in gas- or oilfired furnaces. Electrical heating has quality and
environmental advantages and is more common for batch production of
specialty glasses, particularly those with a volatile component. Electrical
induction heating is used for small quantity work.
2.5 PRIMARY FORMING PROCESSES
Pressing - A gob of molten glass is placed in a mold by an automatic gobfeeding machine. A plunger descends and presses against the gob of glass
which flows upward around the plunger and outward to fill the mold cavity.
When the glass cools and solidifies, the plunger is withdrawn, the mold is
opened, if necessary (because of undercuts in the part), and the part is
removed. In some cases, excess glass may have to be trimmed from the part.
The process is illustrated by Figure. In production situations, a turntable is
used to carry the molds and may have as many as twenty. As the turntable
indexes to new positions, each mold proceeds step by step through the full
cycle of loading, pressing, cooling, trimming, and ejection or removal. Pressing
is used to make drinking glasses and other household glassware, lenses, lamp
globes, and TV tube parts.
Blowing - is similar to blow molding of plastics. As in blow molding of plastics,
there are two operations, one to make the parison and the other to make the
hollow glass object from the parison. The operation can be manual, with or
without a mold to control the shape of the finished part, or automatic with a
number of process variations.
Hand blowing into the open air, without a mold, but with shaping of the bubble
with the aid of hand tools, has been practiced for centuries. The basic process
with molds is illustrated in Figure. Blowing is used extensively in the
production of glass bottles, containers, and vases and jars.
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Electrically heated
Typical glass pot furnace for melting glass.

Manual blowing - The skilled artisan uses a glassworkers blowpipe consisting
of a metal tube with a wooden handle and mouthpiece at one end and a nose or
gathering head at the other end. Making a container, vase, drinking glass, etc.
with purely manual methods, involves the following steps:
1. Gathering - The nose end of the blowpipe is immersed in melted glass and is
rotated slowly. The viscous glass sticks to the end of the blowpipe. For large
objects, several repeats of gathering may be required.
2. The blowpipe is continually rotated to keep the gob of glass centered and the
artisan blows a small amount of air from the mouth through the pipe, making
a bubble in the center of the glass gob and thereby creating a parison.
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3. Marvering - The parison (hollow gob) is rolled against a surface of metal or

stone or wet wood, cooling the surface and imparting a straight or curved side
to the object.
4. The parison is enlarged by further blowing. Further contact of the parison
with the work surface and with hand-held shaping tools in a series of steps,
gradually produces the desired shape.
Some reheating may be required and continual rotation of the blowpipe is
carried out to keep the workpiece circular and centered. Selective cooling or
heating, cutting with shears, and attachment of glass handles or other
elements may be carried out before the object is completed. Figure illustrates a
typical sequence in making a glass pitcher. Figure shows a collection of
glassblowers hand tools. For repetitive blowing of some particular object, the
glassworker may blow the parison into a mold made from water-soaked wood
(beechwood has been traditionally used), graphite, or cast iron. This reduces or
eliminates much of the tool and workpiece manipulation required, speeds the
operation, and reduces the skill required by the glassworker. Because of the
high level of skill required, the use of manual methods of blowing has declined
in favor of machine blowing except for artistic work. The method is still used
for art work, prototypes, and mall quantity production of bottles, containers,
laboratory vessels, and other specialty glassware.
Lampworking (lamp blowing, and scientific glass blowing) - is the forming of
glass articles from tubing and rods by heating in a gas flame (lamp). The
operation i s essentially manual, but differs from the manual glass blowing
described above in that it starts with a tube or rod rather than a gob of molten
glass. Its primary application is the fabrication of laboratory apparatus and
instruments. Medical, veterinary, food processing, and chemical industries
require apparatus that use glassware made with this approach. The tubing or
rod is heated by a gas flame and then formed by any of a variety of manual
operations including blowing, bending, flaring, cutting, sealing, joining, and
working with a large number of hand tools. In higher production situations, the
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end of a glass rod is heated and placed in a die that presses the softened
material into a small part and severs it from the rod. Tubing can be similarly
heated at the end, which can then be formed by blowing in a suitable mold.
Scientific glass blowing has broadened in recent years to include working with
flat and powdered glass as well as tubing and rods, and working with a variety
of glass types and surface treatments.
Machine blowing Automatic machine blowing is used in the production of
glass bottles, jars, drinking glasses, and other glass containers that are
manufactured in mass-production quantities. Machine blowing methods have
the following elements:
1. equipment for feeding a gob of melted glass to the machine,
2. a means for converting the gob into a parison, i.e., introducing a hollow in
the gob for later blowing,
3. inflation of the hollow gob (parison) against the inner surfaces of a mold,
4. a means for forming the elements at the open end of the object molded,
5. a means for trimming any excess material from the finished object, and,
6. annealing the finished product.
Material in process may be reheated during the operation sequence. Notable
machine methods are the press-blow, blow-blow, suck-blow and rotarymold (paste mold) processes.
SUCKFLOW PROCESS
The original machine developed by M. J. Owens was put into production
around 1904 but has been much further developed since then. The glass is
brought into the parison mold by suction, hence the name, suck-blow process.
The work is performed on a large rotary table. Motion of molds and other
elements is controlled by cams.
The operating sequence is as follows: The parison mold, with an open bottom,
is lowered into the surface of molten glass. Suction applied to the top of the
mold draws glass into the mold cavity. A pin with a rounded end puts The neck
portion of the bottle is also formed in this mold.
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The parison mold is lifted and a knife passes across the bottom of the mold,
severing any excess glass from the parison. At the same time, the rounded pin
at the top is withdrawn, and air pressure in the resulting opening enlarges the
top of the parison, forming a bubble. The mold opens, freeing the parison
which is held by neck rings at its upper end. The parison is out in the open as
the machine table rotates. The parison elongates from the effects of gravity and
from several puffs of air into the bubble.
The parison enters the blow mold, which closes around it. Air is blown into the
bubble, expanding the parison against the mold walls The neck rings open and
the mold with the bottle inside drops below the pot as the table continues to
rotate. The mold and bottle cool. mold opens and the bottle is discharged.
Figure illustrates the molding action schematically. The machine is used for
largescale production. With smaller bottles, double and triple molds are used
so that each cycle of the machine produces two or three bottles.
Suck flow
process
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FLAT CLASS PROCESS:

Drawing sheet glass (the Fourcault process) - The Fourcault process was the
first successful mechanized production method for drawing sheet glass directly
from a tank. It was first carried out on a production basis in 1914. Prior to
that, the production of flat glass was at least partly a manual operation. The
method is keyed to the debiteuse, a long clay block with a lengthwise slot.
The block floats on the molten glass but, when it is pressed slightly down, into
the molten glass, some glass rises out of the slot. This glass is grasped by an
iron bait and is pulled upward past a cooling station and into an annealing
tower. The tower contains rollers that draw the glass upward and the operation
is thereafter continuous. The rate of drawing, among other factors, determines
the thickness of the glass. (Slower drawing yields greater thickness.) The length
of
the
slot
in
the
debiteuse
determines the width of the ribbon.

Width is maintained by pairs of
knurled rollers at the edges that
maintain a constant side pull on the
ribbon. The drawback of the process
is
tendency
toward
small
amount of waviness in the sheet,

which cannot be avoided. There may
also be fine marks on the glass
surface left by the rollers and some
tendency to devitrification caused by
the refractory material from which
the
debiteuse
is
made.
Figure
illustrates the process
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Drawing sheet glass (the Colburn or Libby-Owens process) - This process,

seen in Figure, is similar to the Fourcault process but does not use the
debiteuse. Instead, the initial ribbon of glass is picked up from the tank with a
metal bait and
immediately
controlled
by
chilled rollers at
the edges. It also
is diverted into a
horizontal
direction
by
polished
after
roller
traveling
upward
only
about 27 in (70
cm).
It
is
stretched, flattened, and supported by transporting rollers as it moves into a

200 ft (60 m) annealing l hr. The drawing speed with the Colburn process is
twice that used with Fourcault.
Manufacturing Sequence for Plate glass

1) Raw materials are received and stored
2) Materials are weighed and mixed
3) Batch is fed to furnace and melted
4) Molten glass flows from the furnace through forming rolls to form a rough,
continuous ribbon
5) Ribbon is stretched slightly to improve flatness
6) Ribbon travels through annealing l hr
7) Both top and bottom surfaces are ground flat by a series of vertical spindle,
large-disc grinding machines as the ribbon travels past them
8) Both surfaces are polished with similar machines using finer abrasive
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9) An acid wash removes grinding residue

10) Sheets are cut from the ribbon
11) Sheets are inspected and sent to storage for later final cutting and
shipment
STEAM BLOWING
Steam blowing - Streams of molten glass flowing from a melting tank through
sievelike platinum bushings are impinged upon by jets of steam. The jets
approach the glass streams at a small included angle, and push them at a
faster rate, causing them to draw into finer fibers. If the steam jets are strong
enough, the fibers will break into shorter lengths. The strength of the steam
jets determines how discontinuous and fine the final fibers will be. The fibers
can be processed in several ways. When used to make thick pads or wool,
they are sprayed with a binder and fall on to a conveyor where they pile up into
wool. The binder is dried and the wool is cut into discrete batts of fibrous glass.
Figure illustrates this process. When made into glass mat, the fibers are
allowed to fall into a thin, web-like mat that is then immersed into a bath of
binder and then passed through a drying oven. A major use for such mat is the
reinforcement of fiber glass-reinforced plastic products.
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PORCELAN
The term porcelain refers to a wide range of ceramic products that have
been baked at high temperatures to achieve vitreous, or glassy, qualities such
as translucence and low porosity. Among the most familiar porcelain goods are
table and decorative china, chemical ware, dental crowns, and electrical
insulators. Usually white or off-white, porcelain comes in both glazed and
unglazed varieties, with bisque, fired at a high temperature, representing the
most popular unglazed variety.
Raw Materials
The primary components of porcelain are clays, feldspar or flint, and
silica, all characterized by small particle size. To create different types of
porcelain, craftspeople combine these raw materials in varying proportions
until they obtain the desired green (unfired) and fired properties. Although the
composition of clay varies depending upon where it is extracted and how it
To make porcelain, the raw materials such as clay, felspar, and silica are first
crushed using jaw crushers, hammer mills, and ball mills. After cleaning to
remove improperly sized materials, the mixture is subjected to one of four
forming processes soft plastic forming, stiff plastic forming, pressing, or casting
depending on the type of ware being produced. The ware then undergoes a
preliminary firing step, bisque-firing.
It is treated, all clays vitrify (develop glassy qualities), only at extremely high
temperatures unless they are mixed with materials whose vitrification
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threshold is lower. Unlike glass, however, clay is refractory, meaning that it

holds its shape when it is heated. In effect, porcelain combines glass's low
porosity with clay's ability to retain its shape when heated, making it both easy
to form and ideal for domestic use. The principal clays used to make porcelain
are china clay and ball clay, which consist mostly of kaolinate, a hydrous
aluminum silicate.
Feldspar, a mineral comprising mostly aluminum silicate, and flint, a type of
hard quartz, function as fluxes in the porcelain body or mixture. Fluxes reduce
the temperature at which liquid glass forms during firing to between 1,000 and
1,300 degrees Celsius. This liquid phase binds the grains of the body together.
Silica is a compound of oxygen and silicon, the two most abundant elements in
the earth's crust. Its resemblance to glass is visible in quartz (its crystalline
form), opal (its amorphous form), and sand (its impure form). Silica is the most
common filler used to facilitate forming and firing of the body, as well as to
improve the properties of the finished product. Porcelain may also contain
alumina, a compound of aluminum and oxygen, or low-alkali containing
bodies, such as steatite, better known as soapstone.
The Manufacturing Process
After the raw materials are selected and the desired amounts weighed, they go
through a series of preparation steps. First, they are crushed and purified.
Next, they are mixed together before being subjected to one of four forming
processessoft plastic forming, stiff plastic forming, pressing, or casting; the
choice depends upon the type of ware being produced. After the porcelain has
been formed, it is subjected to a final purification process, bisque-firing, before
being glazed. Glaze is a layer of decorative glass applied to and fired onto a
ceramic body. The final manufacturing phase is firing, a heating step that
takes place in a type of oven called a kiln.
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Crushing the raw materials

First, the raw material particles are reduced to the desired size, which involves
using a variety of equipment during several crushing and grinding steps.
Primary crushing is done in jaw crushers which use swinging metal jaws.
Secondary crushing reduces particles to 0.1 inch (.25 centimeter) or less in
diameter by using mullers (steel-tired wheels) or hammer mills, rapidly moving
steel hammers. For fine grinding, craftspeople use ball mills that consist of
large rotating cylinders partially filled with steel or ceramic grinding media of
spherical shape.
Cleaning and mixing
The ingredients are passed through a series of screens to remove any under- or
over-sized materials. Screens, usually operated in a sloped position, are
vibrated mechanically or electromechanically to improve flow. If the body is to
be formed wet, the ingredients are then combined with water to produce the
desired consistency. Magnetic filtration is then used to remove iron from the
slurries, as these watery mixtures of insoluble material are called. Because iron
occurs so pervasively in most clays and will impart
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After bisque firing, the porcelain wares are put through a glazing operation,
which applies the proper coating. The glaze can be applied by painting,
dipping, pouring, or spraying. Finally, the ware undergoes a firing step in an
oven or kiln. After cooling, the porcelain ware is complete.
Forming the body
Next, the body of the porcelain is formed. This can be done using one of four
methods, depending on the type of ware being produced:
Soft plastic forming, where the clay is shaped by manual molding, wheel
throwing, jiggering, or ram pressing. In wheel throwing, a potter places the
desired amount of body on a wheel and shapes it while the wheel turns. In
jiggering, the clay is put on a horizontal plaster mold of the desired shape; that
mold shapes one side of the clay, while a heated die is brought down from
above to shape the other side. In ram pressing, the clay is put between two
plaster molds, which shape it while forcing the water out. The mold is then
separated by applying vacuum to the upper half of the mold and pressure to
the lower half of the mold. Pressure is then applied to the upper half to free the
formed body.
Stiff plastic forming, which is used to shape less plastic bodies. The body is
forced through a steel die to produce a column of uniform girth. This is either
cut into the desired length or used as a blank for other forming operations.
Pressing, which is used to compact and shape dry bodies in a rigid die or
flexible mold. There are several types of pressing, based on the direction of
pressure. Uniaxial pressing describes the process of applying pressure from
only one direction, whereas isostatic pressing entails applying pressure equally
from all sides.
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slip casting, in which a slurry is poured into a porous mold. The liquid is
filtered out through the mold, leaving a layer of solid porcelain body. Water
continues to drain out of the cast layer, until the layer becomes rigid and can
be removed from the mold. If the excess fluid is not drained from the mold and
the entire material is allowed to solidify, the process is known as solid casting.
Bisque-firing
After being formed, the porcelain parts are generally bisque-fired, which entails
heating them at a relatively low temperature to vaporize volatile contaminants
and minimize shrinkage during firing.
Glazing
After the raw materials for the glaze have been ground they are mixed with
water. Like the body slurry, the glaze slurry is screened and passed through
magnetic filters to remove contaminants. It is then applied to the ware by
means of painting, pouring, dipping, or spraying. Different types of glazes can
be produced by varying the proportions of the constituent ingredients, such as
alumina, silica, and calcia. For example, increasing the alumina and
decreasing the silica produces a matte glaze.
Firing
Firing is a further heating step that can be done in one of two types of oven, or
kiln. A periodic kiln consists of a single, refractory-lined, sealed chamber with
burner ports and flues (or electric heating elements). It can fire only one batch
of ware at a time, but it is more flexible since the firing cycle can be adjusted
for each product. A tunnel kiln is a refractory chamber several hundred feet or
more in length. It maintains certain temperature zones continuously, with the
ware being pushed from one zone to another. Typically, the ware will enter a
preheating zone and move through a central firing zone before leaving the kiln
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via a cooling zone. This type of kiln is usually more economical and energy
efficient than a periodic kiln.
During the firing process, a variety of reactions take place. First, carbon-based
impurities burn out, chemical water evolves 100 to 200 degrees Celsius, and
carbonates and sulfates begin to decompose 400 to 700 degrees Celsius. Gases
are produced that must escape from the ware. On further heating, some of the
minerals break down into other phases, and the fluxes present (feldspar and
flint) react with the decomposing minerals to form liquid glasses 700 to 1,100
degrees Celsius. These glass phases are necessary for shrinking and bonding
the grains. After the desired density is achieved 1,200 degrees Celsius, the
ware is cooled, which causes the liquid glass to solidify, thereby forming a
strong bond between the remaining crystalline grains. After cooling, the
porcelain is complete.
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3. PAINT MANUFACTURING
Paint is a term used to describe a number of substances that consist of a
pigment suspended in a liquid or paste vehicle such as oil or water. With a
brush, a roller, or a spray gun, paint is applied in a thin coat to various
surfaces such as wood, metal, or stone. Although its primary purpose is to
protect the surface to which it is applied, paint also provides decoration.
Perhaps the greatest paint-related advancement has been its proliferation.
The first step in making paint involves mixing the pigment with resin, solvents,
and additives to form a paste. If the paint is to be for industrial use, it usually
is then routed into a sand mill, a large cylinder that agitates tiny particles of
sand or silica to grind the pigment particles, making them smaller and
dispersing them throughout the mixture. In contrast, most commercial-use
point is processed in a high-speed dispersion tank, in which a circular, toothed
blade attached to a rotating shaft agitates the mixture and blends the pigment
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MEEG
into the solvent. Today, paints are used for interior and exterior housepainting,
boats, automobiles, planes, appliances, furniture, and many other places
where protection and appeal are desired.
Raw Materials
A paint is composed of pigments, solvents, resins, and various additives. The
pigments give the paint color; solvents make it easier to apply; resins help it
dry; and additives serve as everything from fillers to anti fungicidal agents.
Hundreds of different pigments, both natural and synthetic, exist. The basic
white pigment is titanium dioxide, selected for its excellent concealing
properties, and black pigment is commonly made from carbon black. Other
pigments used to make paint include iron oxide and cadmium sulfide for reds,
metallic salts for yellows and oranges, and iron blue and chrome yellows for
blues and greens.
Solvents are various low viscosity, volatile liquids. They include petroleum
mineral
spirits
and
aromatic
solvents such as benzol, alcohols,

esters, ketones, and acetone. The
natural resins most commonly used
are lin-seed, coconut, and soybean
oil, while alkyds, acrylics, epoxies,
and polyurethanes number among
the most popular synthetic resins.
Additives
serve
many
purposes.
Some, like calcium carbonate and

aluminum silicate, are simply fillers
that
give
substance
the
paint
without
body
changing
and
its
properties. Other additives produce certain desired characteristics.

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Paint canning is a completely automated process. For the standard 8 pint paint
can available to consumers, empty cans are first rolled horizontally onto labels,
then set upright so that the point can be pumped into them. One machine
places lids onto the filled cans while a second machine presses on the lids to
seal the cons. From wire that is fed into it from coils, a bailometer cuts and
shapes the handles before hooking them into holes precut in the cans.
In
paint, such as the thixotropic agents that give paint its smooth texture, driers,
anti-settling agents, anti-skinning agents, defoamers, and a host of others that
enable paint to cover well and last long.
Design
Paint is generally custom-made to fit the needs of industrial customers. For
example, one might be especially interested in a fast-drying paint, while
another might desire a paint that supplies good coverage over a long lifetime.
Paint
intended
for
the
consumer
can
also
be
custom-made.
Paint
manufacturers provide such a wide range of colors that it is impossible to keep

large quantities of each on hand. To meet a request for "aquamarine," "canary
yellow," or "maroon," the manufacturer will select a base that is appropriate for
the deepness of color required. (Pastel paint bases will have high amounts of
titanium dioxide, the white pigment, while darker tones will have less.) Then,
according to a predetermined formula, the manufacturer can introduce various
pigments from calibrated cylinders to obtain the proper color.
Making the paste
Pigment manufacturers send bags of fine grain pigments to paint plants. There,
the pigment is premixed with resin (a wetting agent that assists in moistening
the pigment), one or more solvents, and additives to form a paste.
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Dispersing the pigment

The paste mixture for most industrial and some consumer paints is now routed
into a sand mill, a large cylinder that agitates tiny particles of sand or silica to
grind the pigment particles, making them smaller and dispersing them
throughout the mixture. The mixture is then filtered to remove the sand
particles.
Instead of being processed in sand mills, up to 90 percent of the water-based
latex paints designed for use by individual homeowners are instead processed
in a high-speed dispersion tank. There, the premixed paste is subjected to
high-speed agitation by a circular, toothed blade attached to a rotating shaft.
This process blends the pigment into the solvent.
Thinning the paste
Whether created by a sand mill or a dispersion tank, the paste must now be
thinned to produce the final product. Transferred to large kettles, it is agitated
with the proper amount of solvent for the type of paint desired.
Canning the paint
The finished paint product is then pumped into the canning room. For the
standard 8 pint (3.78 liter) paint can available to consumers, empty cans are
first rolled horizontally onto labels, then set upright so that the paint can be
pumped into them. A machine places lids onto the filled cans, and a second
machine presses on the lids to seal them. From wire that is fed into it from
coils, a bailometer cuts and shapes the handles before hooking them into holes
precut in the cans. A certain number of cans (usually four) are then boxed and
stacked before being sent to the warehouse.
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Byproducts/Waste
A recent regulation concerning the emission of volatile organic compounds
(VOCs) affects the paint industry, especially manufacturers of industrial oilbased paints. It is estimated that all coatings, including stains and varnishes,
are responsible for 1.8 percent of the 2.3 million metric tons of VOCs released
per year. The new regulation permits each liter of paint to contain no more
than 250 grams of solvent. Paint manufacturers can replace the solvents with
pigment, fillers, or other solids inherent to the basic paint formula. This
method produces thicker paints that are harder to apply, and it is not yet
known if such paints are long lasting. Other solutions include using paint
powder coatings that use no solvents, applying paint in closed systems from
which VOCs can be retrieved, using water as a solvent, or using acrylics that
dry under ultraviolet light or heat.
A large paint manufacturer will have an in-house wastewater treatment facility
that treats all liquids generated on-site, even storm water run-off. The facility is
monitored 24 hours a day, and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
does periodic records and systems check of all paint facilities. The liquid
portion of the waste is treated on-site to the standards of the local publicly
owned wastewater treatment facility; it can be used to make low-quality paint.
Latex sludge can be retrieved and used as fillers in other industrial products.
Waste solvents can be recovered and used as fuels for other industries. A clean
paint container can be reused or sent to the local landfill.
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4.0 AUTOMOBILE INDUSTRY

Raw Materials
Although the bulk of an automobile is virgin steel, petroleum-based products
(plastics and vinyls) have come to represent an increasingly large percentage of
automotive components. The light-weight materials derived from petroleum
have helped to lighten some models by as much as thirty percent. As the price
of fossil fuels continues to rise, the preference for lighter, more fuel efficient
vehicles will become more pronounced.
Design
With the help of computer-aided design equipment, designers develop basic
concept drawings that help them visualize the proposed vehicle's appearance.
Based on this simulation, they then construct clay models that can be studied
by styling experts familiar with what the public is likely to accept. Aerodynamic
engineers also review the models, studying air-flow parameters and doing
feasibility studies on crash tests. Only after all models have been reviewed and
accepted are tool designers permitted to begin building the tools that will
manufacture the component parts of the new model.
Automobiles:
The production process for automobiles consists of the manufacture of all the
individual parts, including their finishing with heat treatments, plating and
painting, if used, their assembly into various mechanical subassemblies,
followed by the combination of all these subassemblies and parts into a
finished vehicle. Automatic and robotic equipment is interspersed with human
assemblers.
Many of the components assembled on the line are subassemblies that
were, themselves, manually assembled on lines with some interspersed robotic
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and automatic assembly stations. Examples of these subassemblies are the

chassis, body, bumpers, fuel pumps, piping and tank, radiator, suspension
system, seats, engine, transmission, drive shaft, rear axle, wheel assemblies,
instruments and instrument panel assembly, steering system, brake system
assemblies,
electrical
wiring,
battery,
generator
or
alternator,
starter,
headlights and interior lighting system, as well as auxiliary equipments such

as air conditioning, radio, stereo, and cruise control.
Some subassemblies are put together completely with dedicated (special
purpose), high production equipment, others with a combination of robotic and
dedicated equipment, with or without manual assembly of some components.
Robotic operation is common for such operations as welding, painting,
windshield assembly, and placement of heavy components like the engine,
transmission and body assembly. Fully automatic assembly with dedicated
equipment is most common with components such as spark plugs, hydraulic
brake cylinders, shock absorbers and other subassemblies that are used in
multiples in the car.
Automobile engines - are assemblies of many precision cast, stamped,
forged, and machined parts, some of which are electroplated or painted. Except
for specialty situations where only a very limited number of a particular engine
is built, assembly takes place on an assembly line. Some portions of the
assembly operation may be robotic or mechanized with special equipment.
The basic engine block is normally an iron casting made in sand molds.
It is then machined extensively by milling, drilling, boring, reaming, grinding,
and honing.The crankshaft is either forged or cast , and is turned and ground.
Connecting rods are usually forged, bored and honed. Pistons are sand cast or
permanent mold cast of aluminum and turned on special machines. Valves are
forged, turned, and ground. Camshafts are forged or cast, and turned and
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ground on special machines. Manifolds are cast and machined by milling and
other operations.
Machine screws to fasten parts together are usually cold headed with
rolled threads. the engine factory or purchased, are included in the assembly.
These include parts that may be stamped from sheet metal, die cast, or molded
from plastics. They also include spark plugs, electrical wiring, oil and air filters.
bearings, seals, insulators, electronic ignition and fuel metering parts,
carburetors, fuel injection parts, coils, drive belts, and pulleys. After assembly,
the engine is tested for correct operation and power at a test stand. If
satisfactory, it is moved to the final assembly line for installation in an
automobile. Due to the high production volumes that typically accompany
automotive production, many of the parts making operations are highly
automatic and engineered specifically for the component in question. Special
machines and transfer lines are often part of the parts-making operations.
Automobile bodies - Auto body parts are made from sheet steel
although, increasingly, fiberglass reinforced polyester plastic and formed
thermoplastic sheet parts are finding their way into current designs. With the
sheet steel parts, blanking, forming, and deep drawing operations are
performed. These operations are performed on high-production equipment with
compound dies and progressive dies, where applicable, with robotic unloading
of the stamped parts. Body parts are fastened together by resistance welding
and some arc welding, most of it robotic. Weld joints are made smooth by
application of high-lead body solder, sanded smooth. The welded body
assembly is dipped in a cleaning bath and then given a zinc phosphate
treatment to aid in corrosion resistance. Plastic sealers are applied in locations
where moisture can be trapped. The complete metal body assembly is then
painted. The first coat is often applied with the electrophoretic method, dipping
the body into a vat of water based paint. The selected color is often applied with
robotically-manipulated, electrostatic paint guns, with some manual spray
application to selected or difficult-to-cover areas. A final clear coating is applied
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similarly, and is buffed and polished after it dries. Sound deadening materials
are applied in some areas with rubber-based adhesives.
A polyurethane coating is applied to the bottom surfaces to provide
protection against flying stones gravel and other debris. After painting, doors,
deck lids, hood, trim, windows, doors, bumpers, interior panels, the dashboard
with instruments, seats, lights, radios, speakers, carpeting, and various
hardware items are assembled to the body as part of the final auto assembly
operation. The body is then conveyed to the main assembly line where it is
assembled to the other components that make up the car.
Automobile chassis - the steel frame that supports the car, is used in
many automobiles. However, the more common auto designs now incorporate a
unitized body. With the unitized design, extra members are added to the body
to enable it to support the weight of the vehicle and to withstand road shocks.
The supporting members then, are in the body assembly rather than part of a
separate chassis. Where a separate chassis is used, it is made from heavy
gauge sheet steel that is blanked, formed, and hole-punched. It is assembled
and arc welded with other similarly-made chassis components into a strong
and rigid assembly. Even with a unitized body, however, there normally is a
sub frame, similar to the earlier chassis but only in the front of the vehicle, to
support the engine, transmission, and front suspension. In many designs there
also is a small rear frame to support the rear axle, differential, and suspension.
These frames are also made of heavy gage steel stampings, welded together.
The net effect of the unitized body construction is a reduction in vehicle weight.
Automobile windshields - consist of curved pieces of safety glass. The
glass is made with raw materials including potassium, magnesium, and
aluminum oxides, in addition to the more common materials, to provide
hardness and other properties. The molten glass is fed to float glass equipment
to produce a large, flat glass sheet. Each sheet is cut into smaller, windshieldsize sheets. These are then bent to the desired curvature by heating them and
draping them over. a form of refractory material. Gravity, and the softness of
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the heated sheets, causes them to take the shape of the form. The bent sheet is
tempered cleaned and assembled with an internal layer of plastic and a second
layer of glass. These three assembled pieces are placed in an autoclave, which
provides pressure to force the three layers together and heat to bond the plastic
to the glass surfaces. The finished windshield then undergoes a plastic
injection molding operation where it becomes an insert in an injection mold
and a plastic frame is molded around it. The windshield is then ready for
shipment to the automobile assembly factory.
Components
The automobile assembly plant represents only the final phase in the process
of manufacturing an automobile, for it is here that the components supplied by
more than 4,000 outside suppliers, including company-owned parts suppliers,
are brought together for assembly, usually by truck or railroad. Those parts
that will be used in the chassis are delivered to one area, while those that will
comprise the body are unloaded at another.
Chassis
The typical car or truck is constructed from the ground up (and out). The frame
forms the base on which the body rests and from which all subsequent
assembly components follow. The frame is placed on the assembly line and
clamped to the conveyer to prevent shifting as it moves down the line. From
here the automobile frame moves to component assembly areas where
complete front and rear suspensions, gas tanks, rear axles and drive shafts,
gear boxes, steering box components, wheel drums, and braking systems are
sequentially installed.
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An off-line operation at this stage of production mates the vehicle's engine with
its transmission. Workers use
robotic arms to install these
heavy components inside the
engine
compartment
of
the
frame. After the engine and

transmission are installed, a
On automobile assembly lines,
much of the work is now done
by robots rather than humans.
In the first stages of automobile
manufacture, robots weld the floor pan pieces together and assist workers in
placing components such as the suspension onto the chassis. The worker
attaches the radiator, and another bolts it into place. Because of the nature of
these heavy component parts, articulating robots perform all of the lift and
carry operations while assemblers using pneumatic wrenches bolt component
pieces in place. Careful ergonomic studies of every assembly task have
provided assembly workers with the safest and most efficient tools available.
Body
Generally, the floor pan is the largest body component to which a
multitude of panels and braces will subsequently be either welded or bolted. As
it moves down the assembly line, held in place by clamping fixtures, the shell
of the vehicle is built. First, the left and right quarter panels are robotically
disengaged from pre-staged shipping containers and placed onto the floor pan,
where they are stabilized with positioning fixtures and welded.
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The front and rear door pillars, roof, and body side panels are assembled
in the same fashion. The shell of the automobile assembled in this section of
the process lends itself to the use of robots because articulating arms can
easily introduce various component braces and panels to the floor pan and
perform a high number of weld operations in a time frame and with a degree of
accuracy no human workers could ever approach. Robots can pick and load
200-pound (90.8 kilograms) roof panels and place them precisely in the proper
weld position with tolerance variations held to within .001 of an inch.
Moreover,
robots can also
tolerate the
The body
is built up on a
separate
assembly
line
from
the
chassis. Robots
once
again
perform most of the welding on the various panels, but human workers are
necessary to bolt the parts together. During welding, component pieces are
held securely in a jig while welding operations are performed. Once the body
shell is complete, it is attached to an overhead conveyor for the painting
process.
The
multi-step
painting
process
entails
inspection,
cleaning,
undercoat (electrostatically applied) dipping, drying, topcoat spraying, and

baking.
As the body moves from the isolated weld area of the assembly line,
subsequent body components including fully assembled doors, deck lids, hood
panel, fenders, trunk lid, and bumper reinforcements are installed. Although
robots help workers place these components onto the body shell, the workers
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provide the proper fit for most of the bolt-on functional parts using
pneumatically assisted tools.
Paint
Prior to painting, the body must pass through a rigorous inspection
process, the body in white operation. The shell of the vehicle passes through a
brightly lit white room where it is fully wiped down by visual inspectors using
cloths soaked in hi-light oil. Under the lights, this oil allows inspectors to see
any defects in the sheet metal body panels. Dings, dents, and any other defects
are repaired right on the line by skilled body repairmen. After the shell has
been fully inspected and repaired, the assembly conveyor carries it through a
cleaning station where it is immersed and cleaned of all residual oil, dirt, and
contaminants.
As the shell exits the cleaning station it goes through a drying booth and
then through an undercoat dipan electro statically charged bath of undercoat
paint (called the E-coat) that covers every nook and cranny of the body shell,
both inside and out, with primer. This coat acts as a substrate surface to
which the top coat of colored paint adheres.
After the E-coat bath, the shell is again dried in a booth as it proceeds on
to the final paint operation. In most automobile assembly plants today, vehicle
bodies are spray-painted by robots that have been programmed to apply the
exact amounts of paint to just the right areas for just the right length of time.
Considerable research and programming has gone into the dynamics of robotic
painting in order to ensure the fine "wet" finishes we have come to expect.
The body and chassis assemblies are mated near the end of the production
process. Robotic arms lift the body shell onto the chassis frame, where human
workers then bolt the two together. After final components are installed, the
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vehicle is driven off the assembly line to a quality checkpoint. After the shell
leaves the paint area it is ready for interior assembly.
Interior assembly
The painted shell proceeds through the interior assembly area where
workers assemble all of the instrumentation and wiring systems, dash panels,
interior lights, seats, door and trim panels, headliners, radios, speakers, all
glass except the automobile windshield, steering column and wheel, body
weatherstrips, vinyl tops, brake and gas pedals, carpeting, and front and rear
bumper fascias.
Next, robots equipped with suction cups remove the windshield from a
shipping container, apply a bead of urethane sealer to the perimeter of the
glass, and then place it into the body windshield frame. Robots also pick seats
and trim panels and transport them to the vehicle for the ease and efficiency of
the assembly operator. After passing through this section the shell is given a
water test to ensure the proper fit of door panels, glass, and weatherstripping.
It is now ready to mate with the chassis.
Mate
The chassis assembly conveyor and the body shell conveyor meet at this
stage of production. As the chassis passes the body conveyor the shell is
robotically lifted from its conveyor fixtures and placed onto the car frame.
Assembly workers, some at ground level and some in work pits beneath the
conveyor, bolt the car body to the frame. Once the mating takes place the
automobile proceeds down the line to receive final trim components, battery,
tires, anti-freeze, and gasoline.
The vehicle can now be started. From here it is driven to a checkpoint off
the line, where its engine is audited, its lights and horn checked, its tires
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balanced, and its charging system examined. Any defects discovered at this
stage require that the car be taken to a central repair area, usually located
near the end of the line. A crew of skilled trouble-shooters at this stage analyze
and repair all problems. When the vehicle passes final audit it is given a price
label and driven to a staging lot where it will await shipment to its destination.
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5.0 METAL MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY

5.1 Aluminum
aluminum - is produced from the aluminum ore, bauxite, in two steps:
1) Refining the bauxite. This produces alumina (A1203), and separates it from
the oxides of iron, silica, and titanium that are in the bauxite.
2) Producing aluminum from alumina by smelting.
Refining bauxite uses the Buyer process. The bauxite, crushed to powder
form, is mixed with a solution of sodium hydroxide (caustic soda). The mixture
is heated to a temperature of 150 to 250C under pressure for about 1/2 hour.
The alumina dissolves in the caustic soda, forming a solution of sodium
aluminate. The other materials in the bauxite remain in solid form and are
filtered rom the solution in a series of tanks with cloth filters. The solution is
then treated in precipitation tanks by adding crystals of aluminum hydroxide.
After several days, most of the alumina in the solution precipitates and collects
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on the crystals. When precipitation is complete, the solution is filtered to

separate the liquid and the aluminum hydroxide crystals. The crystals are then
heated at 1090 to 1200"C, driving the water from the hydroxide and leaving
alumina in fine white powder form. Figure illustrates the processing of bauxite
to yield alumina.
In the Hall-Heroult smelting process, the alumina is dissolved in a
chemical bath primarily of molten sodium aluminum chloride (cryolite) that
also contains aluminum fluoride and calcium fluoride.
The tanks used are
steel with carbon liners. The solution is heated to 950C. Carbon anodes,
connected to a power source, are lowered into the solution. The lining of the
tank is connected to the power source and becomes the cathode of a direct
electrolytic circuit. Resistance to the passage of electrical current through the
bath generates heat that keeps the bath molten. The electrolytic action
separates the alumina into aluminum and oxygen.
The oxygen combines with the carbon of the anode to form carbon
dioxide gas. The aluminum, in liquid form, collects at the cathode, which is the
carbon tank lining at the bottom of the tank. The process is continuous and
many electrolytic tanks may exist in one factory. Periodically the molten
aluminum is drawn off from each tank into crucibles from which it is poured
into ingot molds. Alumina is periodically added to the bath to replace the
aluminum that has been drawn off. The carbon anodes are eroded by the
process and they are also replaced as necessary as the continuous operation
proceeds. The cost of the electricity needed for the electrolysis is a major
expense in the production of aluminum, leading to the location of aluminum
smelters near dams that produce inexpensive hydroelectric power. Figure
illustrates the electrolytic process and the casting of aluminum ingots.
Since recycling of scrap aluminum requires far less electrical energy than
the processes for making aluminum from bauxite, there is a powerful cost
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advantage in utilizing recycled material. Much present-day aluminum comes

from melting refining scrap aluminum, including aluminum beverage cans.
The above picture shows the electrolytic process manufacturing of aluminum.

Aluminum's light weight makes it useful for applications where weight
reduction is beneficial. Components for aircraft, railroad cars and automobiles
are major applications. However, the greatest tonnage of aluminum is found in
architectural and building applications: doors, windows, screens, downspouts,
gutters, siding, and building panels. Aluminum has been used increasingly for
electrical wires, despite its lower conductivity than copper because of its lighter
weight and lower cost. Beverage can, cookware and foil applications are also
significant.
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5.2 IRON INDUSTRY

Pure iron is a soft, grayish-white metal. Although iron is a common
element, pure iron is almost never found in nature. The only pure iron known
to exist naturally comes from fallen meteorites. Most iron is found in minerals
formed by the combination of iron with other elements. Iron oxides are the
most common. Those minerals near the surface of the earth that have the
highest iron content are known as iron ores and are mined commercially.
Iron ore is converted into various types of iron through several processes.
The most common process is the use of a blast furnace to produce pig iron
which is about 92-94% iron and 3-5% carbon with smaller amounts of other
elements. Pig iron has only limited uses, and most of this iron goes on to a
steel mill where it is converted into various steel alloys by further reducing the
carbon content and adding other elements such as manganese and nickel to
give the steel specific properties.
Raw Materials
The raw materials used to produce pig iron in a blast furnace are iron
ore, coke, sinter, and limestone. Iron ores are mainly iron oxides and include
magnetite, hematite, limonite, and many other rocks. The iron content of these
ores ranges from 70% down to 20% or less. Coke is a substance made by
heating coal until it becomes almost pure carbon. Sinter is made of lesser
grade, finely divided iron ore which, is roasted with coke and lime to remove a
large amount of the impurities in the ore. Limestone occurs naturally and is a
source of calcium carbonate. Other metals are sometimes mixed with iron in
the production of various forms of steel, such as chromium, nickel,
manganese, molybdenum, and tungsten.
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The Ore Extraction and Refining Process

Before iron ore can be used in a blast furnace, it must be extracted from
the ground and partially refined to remove most of the impurities. Historically,
iron was produced by the hot-blast method, or later, the anthracite furnace.
Either way, the fundamental activity in iron making involved a worker stirring
small batches of pig iron and cinder until the iron separated from the slag.
Called "puddling," this was highly skilled work, but was also hot, strenuous,
and dangerous. It required a lot of experience as well as a hearty constitution.
Puddlers were proud, independent, and highly paid.
Extraction
Much of the world's iron ore is extracted through open pit mining in which the
Pure iron is a soft, grayish-white metal. Although iron is a common element,

pure iron is almost never found in nature. Minerals near the surface of the
earth that have the highest iron content are known as iron ores and are mined.
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Refining
The mined ore is crushed and sorted. The best grades of ore contain over
60%
iron.
Lesser
grades
are
treated,
or
refined,
to
remove
various
contaminants before the ore is shipped to the blast furnace. Collectively, these
refining methods are called beneficiation and include further crushing,
washing with water to float sand and clay away, magnetic separation,
pelletizing, and sintering. As more of the world's known supply of high iron
content ore is depleted, these refining techniques have become increasingly
important. The refined ore is then loaded on trains or ships and transported to
the blast furnace site.
The manufacturing Process
Charging the blast furnace
After processing, the ore is blended with other ore and goes to the blast
furnace. A blast furnace is a tower-shaped structure, made of steel, and lined
with refractory, or heat-resistant bricks. The mixture of raw material, or
charge, enters at the top of the blast furnace. At the bottom of the furnace, very
hot
air
is
blown,
or
blasted,
in
through
nozzles called
tuye'res.
The
coke burns in
the
presence
of the hot air.

The oxygen in
the air reacts
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with the carbon in the coke to form carbon monoxide. The carbon monoxide
then reacts with the iron ore to form carbon dioxide and pure iron.
Separating the iron from the slag
The melted iron sinks to the bottom of the furnace. The limestone
combines with the rock and other impurities in the ore to form a slag which is
lighter than the iron and floats on top. As the volume of the charge is reduced,
more is continually added at the top of the furnace. The iron and slag are
drawn off separately from the bottom of the furnace. The melted iron might go
to a further alloying process, or might be cast into ingots called pigs. The slag
is carried away for disposal.
Treating the gases
The hot gases produced in the chemical reactions are drawn off at the
top and routed to a gas cleaning plant where they are cleaned, or scrubbed,
and sent back into the furnace; the remaining carbon monoxide, in particular,
is useful to the chemical reactions going on within the furnace. A blast furnace
normally runs day and night for several years. Eventually the brick lining
begins to crumble, and the furnace is then shut down for maintenance.
Byproducts/Waste
There are a great many possible environmental effects from the iron
industry. The first and most obvious is the process of open pit mining. Huge
tracts of land are stripped to bare rock. Today, depleted mining sites are
commonly used as landfills, then covered over and landscaped. Some of these
landfills themselves become environmental problems, since in the recent past,
some were used for the disposal of highly toxic substances which leached into
soil and water.
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The process of extracting iron from ore produces great quantities of

poisonous and corrosive gases. In practice, these gases are scrubbed and
recycled. Inevitably, however, some small amounts of toxic gases escape to the
atmosphere. A byproduct of iron purification is slag, which is produced in huge
amounts. This material is largely inert, but must still be disposed of in
landfills.
Iron making uses up huge amounts of coal. The coal is not used directly,
but is first reduced to coke which consists of almost pure carbon. The many
chemical byproducts of coking are almost all toxic, but they are also
commercially useful. These products include ammonia, which is used in a vast
number of products; phenol, which is used to make plastics, cutting oils, and
antiseptics; cresols, which go into herbicides, pesticides, pharmaceuticals, and
photographic chemicals; and toluene, which is an ingredient in many complex
chemical products such as solvents and explosives.
Scrap iron and steel in the form of old cars, appliances and even entire
steel-girdered buildings are also an environmental concern. Most of this
material is recycled, however, since steel scrap is an essential resource in
steelmaking. Scrap which isn't recycled eventually turns into iron oxide, or
rust, and returns to the ground.
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5.3 STAINLESS STEEL

Stainless steel is an iron-containing alloya substance made up of two
or more chemical elementsused in a wide range of applications. It has
excellent resistance to stain or rust due to its chromium content, usually from
12 to 20 percent of the alloy. There are more than 57 stainless steels
recognized as standard alloys, in addition to many proprietary alloys produced
by different stainless steel producers. These many types of steels are used in
an almost endless number of applications and industries: bulk materials
handling equipment, building exteriors and roofing, automobile components
(exhaust, trim/decorative, engine, chassis, fasteners, tubing for fuel lines),
chemical processing plants (scrubbers and heat exchangers), pulp and paper
manufacturing, petroleum refining, water supply piping, consumer products,
marine and shipbuilding, pollution control, sporting goods (snow skis), and
transportation (rail cars).
Raw Materials
Stainless steels are made of some of the basic elements found in the
earth: iron ore, chromium, silicon, nickel, carbon, nitrogen, and manganese.
Properties of the final alloy are tailored by varying the amounts of these
elements. Nitrogen, for instance, improves tensile properties like ductility. It
also improves corrosion resistance, which makes it valuable for use in duplex
stainless steels.
The manufacture of stainless steel involves a series of processes. First, the steel
is melted,
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To make stainless steel, the raw materials iron ore, chromium, silicon,
nickel, etc are melted together in an electric furnace. This step usually involves
8 to 12 hours of intense heat. Next, the mixture is cast into one of several
shapes, including blooms, billets, and slabs.
and then it is cast into solid form. After various forming steps, the steel is heat
treated and then cleaned and polished to give it the desired finish. Next, it is
packaged and sent to manufacturers, who weld and join the steel to produce
the desired shapes.
Melting and casting
The raw materials are first melted together in an electric furnace. This
step usually requires 8 to 12 hours of intense heat. When the melting is
finished, the molten steel is cast into semi-finished forms. These include
blooms (rectangular shapes), billets (round or square shapes 1.5 inches or 3.8
centimeters in thickness), slabs, rods, and tube rounds.
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Forming
Next, the semi-finished steel goes through forming operations, beginning
with hot rolling, in which the steel is heated and passed through huge rolls.
Blooms and billets are formed into bar and wire, while slabs are formed into
plate, strip, and sheet. Bars are available in all grades and come in rounds,
squares, octagons, or hexagons 0.25 inch (.63 centimeter) in size. Wire is
usually available up to 0.5 inch (1.27 centimeters) in diameter or size. Plate is
more than 0.1875 inch (.47 centimeter) thick and over 10 inches (25.4
centimeters) wide. Strip is less than 0.185 inch (.47 centimeter) thick and less
than 24 inches (61 centimeters) wide. Sheet is less than 0.1875 (.47
centimeter) thick and more than 24 (61 centimeters) wide.
Heat treatment
After the stainless steel is formed, most types must go through an
annealing step. Annealing is a heat treatment in which the steel is heated and
cooled under controlled conditions to relieve internal stresses and soften the
metal. Some steels are heat treated for higher strength. However, such a heat
treatment also known as age hardening requires careful control, for even small
changes from the recommended temperature, time, or cooling rate can
seriously affect the properties. Lower aging temperatures produce high strength
with low fracture toughness, while higher-temperature aging produces a lower
strength, tougher material.
Though the heating rate to reach the aging temperature 482 to 537
degrees Celsius does not effect the properties, the cooling rate does. A postaging quenching (rapid cooling) treatment can increase the toughness without
a significant loss in strength. One such process involves water quenching the
material in a 1.6-degree Celsius ice-water bath for a minimum of two hours.
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The type of heat treatment depends on the type of steel; in other words,
whether it is austenitic, ferritic, or martensitic. Austenitic steels are heated to
above 1037 degrees Celsius for a time depending on the thickness. Water
quenching is used for thick sections, whereas air cooling or air blasting is used
for thin sections. If cooled too slowly, carbide precipitation can occur. This
buildup can be eliminated by thermal stabilization. In this method, the steel is
held for several hours at 815 to 871 degrees Celsius. Cleaning part surfaces of
contaminants before heat treatment is sometimes also necessary to achieve
proper heat treatment.
Descaling
Annealing causes a scale or build-up to form on the steel. The scale can
be removed using several processes. One of the most common methods,
pickling, uses a nitric-hydrofluoric acid bath to descale the steel. In another
method, electrocleaning, an electric current is applied to the surface using a
cathode and phosphoric acid, and the scale is removed. The annealing and
descaling steps occur at different stages depending on the type of steel being
worked. Bar and wire, for instance, go through further forming steps (more hot
rolling, forging, or extruding) after the initial hot rolling before being annealed
and descaled. Sheet and strip, on the other hand, go through an initial
annealing and descaling step immediately after hot rolling. After cold rolling
(passing through rolls at a relatively low temperature), which produces a
further reduction in thickness, sheet and strip are annealed and descaled
again. A final cold rolling step then prepares the steel for final processing.
Cutting
Cutting operations are usually necessary to obtain the desired blank
shape or size to trim the part to final size. Mechanical cutting is accomplished
by a variety of methods, including straight shearing using guillotine knives,
circle shearing using circular knives horizontally and vertically positioned,
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sawing using high speed steel blades, blanking, and nibbling. Blanking uses
metal punches and dies to punch out the shape by shearing. Nibbling is a
process of cutting by blanking out a series of overlapping holes and is ideally
suited for irregular shapes. Stainless steel can also be cut using flame cutting,
which involves a flame-fired torch using oxygen and propane in conjunction
with iron powder. This method is clean and fast. Another cutting method is
known as plasma jet cutting, in which an ionized gas column in conjunction
with an electric arc through a small orifice makes the cut. The gas produces
extremely high temperatures to melt the metal.
Finishing
Surface finish is an important specification for stainless steel products
and is critical in applications where appearance is also important. Certain
surface finishes also make stainless steel easier to clean, which is obviously
important for sanitary applications. A smooth surface as obtained by polishing
also provides better corrosion resistance. On the other hand, rough finishes are
often required for lubrication applications, as well as to facilitate further
manufacturing steps.
Surface finishes are the result of processes used in fabricating the
various forms or are the result of further processing. There are a variety of
methods used for finishing. A dull finish is produced by hot rolling, annealing,
and descaling. A bright finish is obtained by first hot rolling and then cold
rolling on polished rolls. A highly reflective finish is produced by cold rolling in
combination with annealing in a controlled atmosphere furnace, by grinding
with abrasives, or by buffing a finely ground surface. A mirror finish is
produced by polishing with progressively finer abrasives, followed by extensive
buffing. For grinding or polishing, grinding wheels or abrasive belts are
normally used. Buffing uses cloth wheels in combination with cutting
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MEEG
compounds containing very fine abrasive particles in bar or stick forms. Other
finishing methods include tumbling, which forces
The initial steel shapes blooms, billets, slabs, etc.are hot rolled into bar,
wire, sheet, strip, and plate. Depending on the form, the steel then undergoes
further rolling steps (both hot and cold rolling), heat treatment (annealing),
descaling to remove buildup), and polishing to produce the finished stainless
steel.
Manufacturing at the fabricator or end user
After the stainless steel in its various forms are packed and shipped to
the fabricator or end user, a variety of other processes are needed. Further
shaping is accomplished using a variety of methods, such as roll forming, press
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MEEG
forming, forging, press drawing, and extrusion. Additional heat treating

(annealing), machining, and cleaning processes are also often required.
There are a variety of methods for joining stainless steel, with welding
being the most common. Fusion and resistance welding are the two basic
methods generally used with many variations for both. In fusion welding, heat
is provided by an electric arc struck between an electrode and the metal to be
welded. In resistance welding, bonding is the result of heat and pressure. Heat
is produced by the resistance to the flow of electric current through the parts to
be welded, and pressure is applied by the electrodes. After parts are welded
together, they must be cleaned around the joined area.
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5.4 COPPER MANUFACTURING

SMELTER PROCESS DESCRIPTION
RAW MATERIALS:
Copper Concentrate, The Copper Concentrate used will be containing 2732% Cu and will be sourced globally. Limestone, Silica
Limestone, Silica will
be charged into the furnace to achieve desired chemistry of the slag. All these
will be sourced indigenously.
Liquid fuels, Furnace Oil & High Speed Diesel, These are used in Smelting
Furnace
Lance, Smelting Furnace Burners, Converters and Anode Furnace
Burners.
MANUFACTURING PROCESS:
First stage Smelting:
The Copper Concentrate containing about 28 - 32% Copper is mixed with
required fluxes like limestone, silica are fed to the smelting furnace. This feed
is smelted in the Smelt Furnace with the help of Oxygen & air supplied through
the lance. The products of Smelting are Matte containing 62 - 65% Copper and
Slag containing mostly Iron in Iron silicate form.
The matte/slag mixture is tapped from the smelting furnace into a Rotary
Holding Furnace where the matte & slag are separated because of difference in
density . Slag is directly tapped into the Slag Granulation System and
granulated by high pressure water. Matte is tapped into ladles and charged
into the converters for further enrichment of Copper.
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MEEG
Second Stage Smelting (Converter / Anode furnace):

The clean matte treated in converters for further enrichment of copper. The
matte is oxidised in the converters by means of the air supplied by the blowers
along with flux in the form of silica (Quartz).
The process air is injected into the converters through the arrangement called
tuyers. The product from the converter is called as Blister Copper.
Composition of Blister Copper
Copper
98.5%
Iron
0.7%
Sulphur
0.1%
Oxygen
0.5%
The slag generated from the converters is fed into the Slag Cleaning Furnace.
In the slag cleaning furnace the matte is segregated from the slag by gravity
separation. The clean slag is granulated and the segregated matte is returned
back to the Converters for recovering the copper.
The blister is taken to the anode furnaces for final purification. In the anode
furnace the blister copper is initially oxidised with process air to remove the
traces of SO2. IN this process some oxygen gets dissolved in the copper bath.
So LPG is used as a reducing agent to remove the oxygen dissolved in the
copper bath. The refined copper is casted in the shape of anodes. These anodes
are dispatched to the refinery unit for further refining.
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The Operating temperature and Pressure in various furnaces are detailed

below:
Sl.No
Name
of
the Operating
Pressure
Furnace
Temperature (deg C)
1.
ISA Furnace
1170 ~ 1200
- 10 ~ 15
2.
RHF
1170 ~ 1200
-8
3.
Converter
1170 ~ 1250
+3 ~ -3
4.
Anode Furnace
1170 ~ 1200
-10
(mmWC)
INTERMEDIATE PRODUCTS:
Matte and Slag are intermediate products in the smelting process.
MATTE: Composition
Copper
60 to 65 %
Iron
20.25 %
Sulphur
23.64 %
SiO2
< 0.1 %
CaO
< 0.1 %
SLAG: COMPOSITION
Copper
0.50 %
Iron
33.70 %
Sulphur
0.20 %
70

SiO2
CaO
MEEG
32.00 %
6.30 %
OFF GAS FROM THE PROCESS:

Sulphur Dioxide SO2 bearing gas generated during the Smelting Process are
cooled in gas coolers and sent to electrostatic precipitators for removal of dust.
The cleaned gas is sent to Sulphuric Acid Plant for production of Sulphuric
Acid. The SO2 gas from the off gas of the smelting is converted into Sulphuric
Acid. The fugitive gases (SO2) are scrubbed in scrubber and vented through a
Stack.
The fugitive gases (SO2) from Converter are collected by double hood system
and then scrubbed in Secondary Gas Scrubber and vented through stack. The
off gas from the Anode Furnaces (oxidation process) & Slag Cleaning Furnaces
are scrubbed and vented through a Stack. Uninterrupted alternate power
supply to the Scrubbing system including the scrubbing cooling circuits
ensured. In the event of failure of scrubbing system, the interlock will trip the
Production process.
INDUSTRIAL WASTE:
SOLID: Slag is produced at an average of 1700 tonnes per day which is a
totally inert material, will be used for shot blasting, land filling and road
building activities. A portion of the slag generated is sold and the rest are
dumped in the storage yard. The ESP dust is collected in the electrostatic
precipitator & Dust collected from Gas cooler are recycled back in the smelting
process immediately.
LIQUID: From the smelter liquid effluent generation will be mainly cooling
tower blow down which is recycled back into the system and Scrubber bleed off
which is treated by ETP.
SAFETY MEASURES:
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MEEG
ISA FURNACE
In case of emergency, it is important to either to stop the fuel supply into the
Furnace or to restrict the movement of the Lance. Following are the
Instrumental controls provided.
Emergency stop has been provided both in the Field (In Feed Floor) and in DCS
to stop the Fuel supplies. On actuating any of these, Rapid raise of the Lance
will occur and smelting will stop.
Emergency stop has been provided in three places (Feed floor, Charging
platform and in DCS) to lockout stop for Lance. On actuating any one of the
above will restricts the movement of the lance and not allow the lance to move
in any of the direction.
SLAG GRANULATION SYSTEM:
This is important in Slag granulation system to ensure the Pressure and
Temperature conditions of the water to avoid any mishaps. Interlock has been
provided to allow the granulation when the supply water pressure is above 1.2
KSC and temperature is above 6500C.
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5.5 COPPER REFINERY PLANT

The main purpose of the refinery is to convert impure Copper Anodes
(99.5% copper) of smelter, to pure Electro grade copper of purity 99.99%
(Copper Cathodes) by Electro-refining process.
Specification:
PARAMETER
COPPER ANODE
COPPER
CATHODE
Copper (%)
99.5
99.99
Oxygen (ppm)
1000 - 1800
BDL
Sulphur (ppm)
20 - 50
BDL
Iron (ppm)
< 20
BDL
Impurities (ppm)
2000
< 10
Manufacturing process of copper refining:

Introduction
The technology adopted for refining is most advanced permanent cathode
process. By refining, the purity of copper improves from 99.5% (anode) to
99.99% (cathode). This is necessary for achieving the required electrical
conductivity and mechanical strength for further processing.
By electro-refining impurities such as silver, bismuth, antimony, selenium and
others, which have great impact on properties of copper are removed. These
impurities are recovered as by-products-called Slime which contains precious
metals such as silver, gold, platinum, palladium, rhodium etc.
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Anode preparation cycle:

Anode received from the smelter is first send through
Machine (APM). APM
Anode Preparation
is a machine that checks anode weight, dimension &
straightness etc and then trims it to required specifications and then sent to
Electro-refining cells. Anodes and stainless steel cathode plates are suspended
alternately in electrolytic cell.
Electrolytic Cells:
The electrolyte is copper sulphate and sulphuric acid and is circulated
continuously in the cells. The DC current (2 V) is passed in the cells to
facilitate electro-refining. Reagents like glue, thiourea and avitone are added to
the electrolyte for good deposition.
Electrolysis and cathode stripping:
The copper dissolves from the anode and pure copper gets deposited on
stainless steel cathode plates. The copper deposited is then removed in the
form of thin plates from the stainless steel cathode plates in cathode stripping
machine.
Anode Scrap removal and washing:
At the end of electro refining cycle, residual anodes from cells (approx. 15% of
the original weight) called scrap anodes, are removed, washed free of electrolyte
and slime in anode scrap washing machine, and then sent back to smelter for
remelting and recast as anodes for reuse.
Slime Filtration and drying
The insoluble impurities (slimes-with precious metals) settled at the bottom of
the cells are filtered, dried and bagged for sales, to recover the precious metal
values.
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End Products:
The copper cathodes produced are sent to Continuous Cast Rod (CC Rod)
plant to produce wire rods which are sold in the market. These CC rods are the
basic raw material for the manufacture of jelly filled telephone cables, electric
cables, transformer strips, winding wire manufacturing, electrodes lugs
manufacture etc.
OFF GAS FROM THE PROCESS:
No off gases from this process
INDUSTRIAL WASTE:
SOLID:
There is no solid waste generated from this process. The anode scrap and
Cathode stripping scrap generated are immediately reused in Anode furnace of
Smelter.
LIQUID:
The soluble impurities gets build up in electrolyte and after 2 years of
operation, the level reaches the critical limits. During this time, the electrolyte
is consistently bled from the system to ETP to remove impurities.
CONTINUOUS COPPER ROD Plant.
The CCR plant (Continuous rod plant) converts Copper Cathodes into Wire
rods by melting and rolling.
Copper cathodes contain around 99.99 plus % coppers and is one of the purest
forms of commercially available copper. Their copper cathodes are processed
and made into rods of varying sizes to make them amenable for wire drawing.
A brief description of the process is as under:
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Raw Material feed:

The raw material for the process are Copper Cathodes of LME (London Metal
Exchange) Grade A Quality. These cathodes along with pure in-process scrap
are used for melting.
The quality of input is important since there is no
removal of impurities in the process.
No refining is done anywhere in the
system. The raw materials are washed to remove dust and dirt, which could
have accumulated during storage.
Shaft Furnace;
The cathodes are melted in the shaft furnace. The cathodes are charged at the
top. At the bottom burners are provided whose combustion is controlled by
computer.
The flame hits the cathodes and melts the same. Since there a
column of Cathodes above the burners the hot gases pass through the
cathodes and transfers sensible heat to the descending charge thus increasing
thermal efficiency.
The fuel used is free from sulphur (<5 ppm) as LPG / Propane is used.
Consequently there is no pollution of any nature because of Shaft furnace. One
specialty of the furnace is that there is no molten metal in the furnace and the
metal as it melts freely flows out and the temperature is kept very low to
prevent hydrogen pick up.
The metal is transferred to the holding furnace
though heated launders.

Holding Furnace and launder system.
The holding furnace acts as buffer between melting and casting systems. The
holding furnace has a capacity of around 7 MT and is heated by using Propane
or LPG. The same fuel heats the launders. The temperature is kept as low as
possible to prevent over oxidation and pick up of Hydrogen.
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MEEG
The molten metal falls in a tundish whose level is automatically controlled.

The tundish has a spout through which metal is transferred. An automatic
metal transfering system regulates the spout flow.
ROLLING MILL
The forming of copper rod is carried out on Properzi Rolling Wheel.
The
grooved wheel is made of copper alloy. A Steel band covers the groove and this
becomes a cavity.
Water sprays cool the band and wheel and the heat is
removed from the system.
Carbon Soot layer is applied by using an oxy-
acetylene burner on the wheel and the steel band to act as parting material
between Wheel / band and molten metal. The copper rod is then trimmed and
sent to the rolling mill.
The copper rod is then rolled in rolling mill to produce wire rods. To facilitate
rolling, soluble oil emulsion is used as a lubricant. Copper gets oxidized in the
process and is collected in the form of mill scale, which is highly pure material.
This is sold to manufacturers of copper powder and chemicals. During rolling,
the surface of the rod is cleaned by using isopropyl alcohol. The clean rod is
then coated with wax to prevent it from tarnishing. The coil is then coiled and
wrapped with Polythene before dispatch.
Operating Temperature:
The temperature of the metal being maintained in various stages are detailed
below and :
Sl.No
Equipment
Operating Temperature (Deg
C)
1.
Shaft Furnace
1200 ~ 1230
2.
Holding Furnace
1180 ~ 1210
77

3.
Launder
1140 ~ 1200
4.
Before Rolling Mill
820 ~ 850
5.
After Rolling Mill
480 ~520
6.
After Quenching
45 ~ 50
MEEG
Effluents:
The only effluent generated in the process is the emulsion containing 5 %
soluble oil. Discarding of emulsion is after 6 months depending upon roll life of
the mill. The moisture in the effluent is removed by evaporation and the soluble
oil is sold as secondary oil.
AIR POLLUTION
The gases from the Shaft Furnace do not contain any sulphur since the fuel
(LPG) used is free of sulphur. The NOx content is negligible since combustion is
at a very low temperature. There is no SPM as no soot formation takes place
and the metal being melted is only a pure sold copper cathode.
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6.0 SUGAR INDUSTRY

Raw Materials
Sugar is a broad term applied to a large number of carbohydrates present in
many plants and characterized by a more or less sweet taste. The primary
sugar, glucose, is a product of photosynthesis and occurs in all green plants. In
most plants, the sugars occur as a mixture that cannot readily be separated
into the components. In the sap of some plants, the sugar mixtures are
condensed into syrup. Juices of sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum) and sugar
beet (Beta vulgaris) are rich in pure sucrose, although beet sugar is generally
much less sweet than cane sugar.
Other sugar crops include sweet sorghum, sugar maple, honey, and corn
sugar. The types of sugar used today are white sugar (fully refined sugar),
composed of clear, colorless or crystal fragments; or brown sugar, which is less
fully refined and contains a greater amount of treacle residue, from which it
obtains its color.
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Planting and harvesting
Sugarcane
requires
an
average
temperature
of
23.9
degrees
C.
Normally the harvesting of both cane and sugar beet is done primarily by
machine, although it is also done by hand. The harvested cane stalks and
beets are loaded mechanically into trucks or road cars and taken to mills for
processing into raw sugar. Once there, they are cleaned, washed, milled to
extract juice, filtered, and purified. The result is a clear, sugar-filled juice.
Sugarcane takes about seven months to mature in a tropical area and about
12-22 months in a subtropical area. At this time, fields of sugarcane are tested
for sucrose, and the most mature fields are harvested first.
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Preparation and processing

After the cane arrives at the mill yards, it is mechanically unloaded, and
excessive soil and rocks are removed. The cane is cleaned by flooding the
carrier with warm water (in the case of sparse rock and trash clutter) or by
spreading the cane on agitating conveyors that pass through strong jets of
water and combing drums (to remove larger amounts of rocks, trash, and
leaves, etc.). At this point, the cane is clean and ready to be milled.
After being purifed, the clear juice undergoes vacuum evaporation to remove
most of the water. In this process, four vacuum-boiling cells are arranged in
series so that each succeeding cell has a higher vacuum. The vapors from one
body can thus boil the juice in the next one, a method called multiple-effect
evaporation. Next, the syrupy solution is vacuum-crystallized to form sugar
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crystals. The remaining liquid is removed using centrifugaling and drying, and
the sugar is packaged.
Juice extraction pressing
Two or three heavily grooved crusher rollers break the cane and extract a large
part of the juice, or swing-hammer type shredders (1,200 RPM)shred the cane
without extracting the juice. Revolving knives cutting the stalks into chips are
supplementary to the crushers. (In most countries, the shredder precedes the
crusher.) A combination of two, or even all three, methods may be used. The
pressing process involves crushing the stalks between the heavy and grooved
metal rollers to separate the fiber (bagasse) from the juice that contains the
sugar.
As the cane is crushed, hot water (or a combination of hot water and recovered
impure juice) is sprayed onto the crushed cane counter currently as it leaves
each mill for diluting. The extracted juice, called vesou, contains 95 percent or
more of the sucrose present. The mass is then diffused, a process that involves
finely cutting or shredding the stalks. Next, the sugar is separated from the cut
stalks by dissolving it in hot water or hot juice.
Purification of juice clarification and evaporation
The juice from the mills, a dark green color, is acid and turbid. The clarification
(or defecation) process is designed to remove both soluble and insoluble
impurities (such as sand, soil, and ground rock) that have not been removed by
preliminary screening. The process employs lime and heat as the clarifying
agents. Milk of lime (about one pound per ton of cane) neutralizes the natural
acidity of the juice, forming insoluble lime salts. Heating the lime juice to
boiling coagulates the albumin and some of the fats, waxes, and gums, and the
precipitate formed entraps suspended solids as well as the minute particles.
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The sugar beet solution, on the other hand, is purified by precipitating calcium
carbonate, calcium sulfite, or both in it repeatedly. Impurities become
entangled in the growing crystals of precipitate and are removed by continuous
filtration.
The muds separate from the clear juice through sedimentation. The non-sugar
impurities are removed by continuous filtration. The final clarified juice
contains about 85 percent water and has the same composition as the raw
extracted juice except for the removed impurities.
To concentrate this clarified juice, about two-thirds of the water is removed
through vacuum evaporation. Generally, four vacuum-boiling cells or bodies
are arranged in series so that each succeeding body has a higher vacuum (and
therefore boils at a lower temperature). The vapors from one body can thus boil
the juice in the next onethe steam introduced into the first cell does what is
called multiple-effect evaporation. The vapor from the last cell goes to a
condenser. The syrup leaves the last body continuously with about 65 percent
solids and 35 percent water.
The sugar beet sucrose solution, at this point, is also nearly colorless, and it
likewise undergoes multiple-effect vacuum evaporation. The syrup is seeded,
cooled, and put in a centrifuge machine. The finished beet crystals are washed
with water and dried.
Crystallization
Crystallization is the next step in the manufacture of sugar. Crystallization
takes place in a single-stage vacuum pan. The syrup is evaporated until
saturated with sugar. As soon as the saturation point has been exceeded, small
grains of sugar are added to the pan, or "strike." These small grains, called
seed, serve as nuclei for the formation of sugar crystals 1,600 grams of white
sugar into the bowl of a slurry machine and mixing with 3.3 parts of a liquid
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mixture: 70 percent methylated spirit and 30 percent glycerine. The machine

runs at 200 RPM for 15 hours. Additional syrupis added to the strike and
evaporated so that the original crystals that were formed are allowed to grow in
size.
The growth of the crystals continues until the pan is full. When sucrose
concentration reaches the desired level, the dense mixture of syrup and sugar
crystals, called massecuite, is discharged into large containers known as
crystallizers. Crystallization continues in the crystallizers as the massecuite is
slowly stirred and cooled. Massecuite from the mixers is allowed to flow into
centrifugals, where the thick syrup, or molasses, is separated from the raw
sugar by centrifugal force.
Centrifugaling
The high-speed centrifugal action used to separate the massecuite into raw
sugar crystals and molasses is done in revolving machines called centrifugals.
A centrifugal machine has a cylindrical basket suspended on a spindle, with
perforated sides lined with wire cloth, inside which are metal sheets containing
400 to 600 perforations per square inch. The basket revolves at speeds from
1,000 to 1,800 RPM. The raw sugar is retained in the centrifuge basket
because the perforated lining retains the sugar crystals. The mother liquor, or
molasses, passes through the lining (due to the centrifugal force exerted). The
final molasses (blackstrap molasses) containing sucrose, reducing sugars,
organic nonsugars, ash, and water, is sent to large storage tanks.
Once the sugar is centrifuged, it is "cut down" and sent to a granulator for
drying. In some countries, sugarcane is processed in small factories without
the use of centrifuges, and a dark-brown product (noncentrifugal sugar) is
produced.
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Drying and packaging

Damp sugar crystals are dried by being tumbled through heated air in a
granulator. The dry sugar crystals are then sorted by size through vibrating
screens and placed into storage bins. Sugar is then sent to be packed in the
familiar packaging we see in grocery stores, in bulk packaging, or in liquid form
for industrial use.
Byproducts
The bagasse produced after extracting the juice from sugar cane is used as fuel
to generate steam in factories. Increasingly large amounts of bagasse are being
made into paper, insulating board, and hardboard, as well as furfural, a
chemical intermediate for the synthesis of furan and tetrahydrofuran.
The beet tops and extracted slices as well the molasses are used as feed for
cattle. It has been shown that more feed for cattle and other such animals can
be produced per acre-year from beets than from any other crop widely grown in
the United States. The beet strips are also treated chemically to facilitate the
extraction of commercial pectin.
The end product derived from sugar refining is blackstrap molasses. It is used
in cattle feed as well as in the production of industrial alcohol, yeast, organic
chemicals, and rum.
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7.0 BEER INDUSTRY

Raw Materials
Beer requires these ingredients for brewing: properly prepared cereal grain
(usually barley and corn or rice), hops (scientific name Humulus lupulus), pure
water, and brewer's yeast. Each ingredient can affect flavor, color, carbonation,
alcohol content, and other subtle changes in the beer. Grains are carefully
stored and handled to promote highest quality. Hops are a form of cultivated
perennial hemp, and the useful portions of the vine, the sticky cones, are
developed from the bloom. About 16 kg of barley malt and 7 kg of grain are
used to make barrel of beer. Large quantities of pure water are extremely
important not only as an ingredient, but for maintaining the cleanliness of the
brewing equipment. In beer, water high in lime or iron can interfere with the
fermentation process and discolor the final product. Yeasts are fungi, which are
microorganisms that reduce sugars to alcohol by fermentation.
Outside of the beer itself, the process also requires various acids and cleaning
chemicals to maintain and sterilize the brewing equipment. The finished
product also requires packaging, which includes card-board products for
boxes, aluminum for cans, glass for bottles, and stainless steel for kegs and
other commercial dispensing equipment. The majority of the brewing
equipment is stainless steel, with the exception of the brew kettles, which are
copper.
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MEEG
The Brewing Process

Malting
Fully ripened barley grains are "steeped," or soaked in cold water until they are
fully saturated. The water is changed once a day, and after 45-72 hours the
grains are placed in shallow tanks. The grain is aerated and stirred, which
causes it to germinate, releasing enzymes such as malt diastase. Malt diastase
converts the starches contained in the grain to sugar for fermentation. As soon
as the germination is adequately complete, usually six days, the grain is
roasted to stop the germination process. The exact point at which the roasting
starts and ends affects the flavor and color of the beer. The product at this
point is referred to as malt.
While amateur brewers swap recipes at will, the commercial recipes for beer
are held tightly as any state secret. Until recent decades, the production of
beer, like wine, was a wonderful combination of art, science, and luck. At the
heart of the process has been the brewmaster, a traditional handcraftsman
wrapped in the lab coat of a scientist and carrying the clipboard of a
production engineer.
Preparing the mash
The malt is crushed using iron rollers and transferred to the mash tank (or
"tun"). This tank is a large copper or stainless steel vessel that mixes the malt
with warm water until it is of porridge-like consistency. This mixture is called
mash. After mixing with similarly prepared cereal grains, the temperature of
the mash is raised incrementally from 38-77C so that the enzymes react. The
enzymes break down the starch in the grain and convert it to simple sugars.
Later, the yeast will convert the sugars into alcohol. Once complete, the mash
is allowed to sit undisturbed so the solids can descend to the bottom of the
tank.
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Beer
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requires
these
ingredients
for
proper brewing:
prepared cereal
grain
(usually
barley and corn

or rice), hops,
pure water, and
brewer's yeast.
Each ingredient
can
affect
flavor,
color,
carbonation,
alcohol content, and other subtle changes in the beer.
Brewing the wort
The liquid contained in the mash is transferred into another tank called a
lauter tun. This is accomplished by drawing the liquid out through the bottom
layer of mash solids, which acts as a filter. Hot water is added to the top of the
mash tank to rinse the remaining liquid, now called wort, from the mash. The
solid remains of the grain are dried and sold by the brewery as animal feed.
The wort travels on to the brew kettles, where it is boiled to sterilize it, and
where the carefully prepared hops are added. The addition of the hops is
important because they contribute to the bitterness of the beer. The brew
kettles are the most impressive equipment in the process. Gleaming copper,
they can be 2-3.6 m in diameter and two stories high. Steam usually provides
the heating energy to the brew kettles. After brewing is complete, the finished
wort is filtered again and pumped to the fermentation tanks.
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Fermenting
In the fermentation tanks, the atmosphere must be carefully controlled to
prevent any "rouge" bacteria from interfering with the yeast. Carefully
maintained yeast (approximately one pound per barrel of wort) is added to the
wort, and the temperature of the mixture is slowly reduced over a period of
days to between 10-15C. In this temperature range, the yeast grows,
consuming the sugar in the wort, and bubbles of carbon dioxide form. The wort
has
become
now
beer.
The new beer is

filtered
and
transferred
once more into
the aging casks,
where
the
temperature
is
controlled for 224 weeks.

Pasteurizing
After aging, the beer can be pasteurized to kill the remaining yeast and prevent
further alcohol production. This is accomplished by heating the beer above
57C). This process, named after Louis Pasteur, is widely known for preserving
milk. Interestingly, Pasteurization, however, is not used in the production of
genuine draft beers. These beers are also known as "ice" beers, since they must
be kept refrigerated to preserve their flavor and slow the remaining yeast
activity. Many consider the draft beers best in aroma as well as taste.
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Packaging
Whether packaged into cans, bottles, or kegs, the beer is always moved gently
through the maze of piping in the bottling area. This is to preserve the natural
carbonation.
During
bottling,
additional
carbon
dioxide
gas
from
the
fermentation kettles is used to improve the aroma of the beer.

High-speed packaging lines can process thousands of cases of beer per day,
and with modern computerized control, the inventory can be tracked
throughout the distribution network. Most beer is delivered from local
distributors who have purchasing contracts with the major breweries.
Byproducts/Waste
Beer brewing produces several byproducts that can be used by other
industries. During the malting of the barley, rootlets form on the grain and drip
off. These can be collected and used for animal feed. The hops that are filtered
out from the finished wort can also be collected and used again as fertilizer.
The residual yeast from the brewing process is a rich source of B vitamins. It
can be put to use by pharmaceutical companies to make vitamins or drugs, or
used as a food additive. Used beer cans and beer bottles are routinely recycled.
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8.0 PAPER INDUSTRY

Paper, whether produced in the modern factory or by the most careful,
delicate hand methods, is made up of connected fibers. The fibers can come
from a number of sources including cloth rags, cellulose fibers from plants,
and, most notably, trees. The use of cloth in the process has always produced
high-quality paper. Today, a large proportion of cotton and linen fibers in the
mix create many excellent papers for special uses, from wedding invitation
paper stock to special paper for pen and ink drawings.
The method of making paper is essentially a simple one mix up vegetable
fibers, and cook them in hot water until the fibers are soft but not dissolved.
The hot water also contains a base chemical such as lye, which softens the
fibers as they are cooking. Then, pass a screen-like material through the
mixture, let the water drip off and/or evaporate, and then squeeze or blot out
additional water. A layer of paper is left behind. Essential to the process are the
fibers, which are never totally destroyed, and, when mixed and softened, form
an interlaced pattern within the paper itself. Modern papermaking methods,
although significantly more complicated.
Raw Materials
Probably half of the fiber used for paper today comes from wood that has been
purposely harvested. The remaining material comes from wood fiber from
sawmills, recycled newspaper, some vegetable matter, and recycled cloth.
Coniferous trees, such as spruce and fir, used to be preferred for papermaking
because the cellulose fibers in the pulp of these species are longer, therefore
making for stronger paper. These trees are called "softwood" by the paper
industry. Deciduous trees (leafy trees such as poplar and elm) are called
"hardwood." Because of increasing demand for paper, and improvements in
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pulp processing technology, almost any species of tree can now be harvested
for paper.
Some plants other than trees are suitable for paper-making. In areas without
significant forests, bamboo has been used for paper pulp, as has straw and
sugarcane. Flax,
Most paper is made by a mechanical or chemical process.

hemp, and jute fibers are commonly used for textiles and rope making, but
they can also be used for paper. Some high-grade cigarette paper is made from
flax.
Cotton and linen rags are used in fine-grade papers such as letterhead and
resume paper, and for bank notes and security certificates. The rags are
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usually cuttings and waste from textile and garment mills. The rags must be
cut and cleaned, boiled, and beaten before they can be used by the paper mill.
Other materials used in paper manufacture include bleaches and dyes, fillers
such as chalk, clay, or titanium oxide, and sizings such as rosin, gum, and
starch.
Making pulp
Several processes are commonly used to convert logs to wood pulp. In the
mechanical process, logs are first tumbled in drums to remove the bark. The
logs are then sent to grinders, which break the wood down into pulp by
pressing it between huge revolving slabs. The pulp is filtered to remove foreign
objects. In the chemical process, wood chips from de-barked logs are cooked in
a chemical solution. This is done in huge vats called digesters. The chips are
fed into the digester, and then boiled at high pressure in a solution of
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sodium hydroxide and sodium sulfide. The chips dissolve into pulp in the
solution. Next the pulp is sent through filters. Bleach may be added at this
stage, or colorings. The pulp is sent to the paper plant.
Beating
The pulp is next put through a pounding and squeezing process called,
appropriately enough, beating. Inside a large tub, the pulp is subjected to the
effect of machine beaters. At this point, various filler materials can be added
such as chalks, clays, or chemicals such as titanium oxide. These additives will
influence the opacity and other qualities of the final product. Sizings are also
added at this point. Sizing affects the way the paper will react with various
inks. Without any sizing at all, a paper will be too absorbent for most uses
except as a desk blotter. A sizing such as starch makes the paper resistant to
water-based ink (inks actually sit on top of a sheet of paper, rather than
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sinking in). A variety of sizings, generally rosins and gums, is available

depending on the eventual use of the paper. Paper that will receive a printed
design, such as gift wrapping, requires a particular formula of sizing that will
make the paper accept the printing properly.
Pulp to paper
In order to finally turn the pulp into paper, the pulp is fed or pumped into
giant, automated machines. One common type is called the Fourdrinier
machine. Pulp is fed into the Fourdrinier machine on a moving belt of fine
mesh screening. The pulp is squeezed through a series of rollers, while suction
devices below the belt drain off water. If the paper is to receive a water-mark, a
device called a dandy moves across the sheet of pulp and presses a design into
it.
The paper then moves onto the press section of the machine, where it is
pressed between rollers of wool felt. The paper then passes over a series of
steam-heated cylinders to remove the remaining water. A large machine may
have from 40 to 70 drying cylinders.
Finishing
Finally, the dried paper is wound onto large reels, where it will be further
processed depending on its ultimate use. Paper is smoothed and compacted
further by passing through metal rollers called calendars. A particular finish,
whether soft and dull or hard and shiny, can be imparted by the calendars.
The paper may be further finished by passing through a vat of sizing material.
It may also receive a coating, which is either brushed on or rolled on. Coating
adds chemicals or pigments to the paper's surface, supplementing the sizings
and fillers from earlier in the process. Fine clay is often used as a coating. The
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paper may next be supercalendered, that is, run through extremely smooth
calendar rollers, for a final time. Then the paper is cut to the desired size.
Environmental Concerns
The number of trees and other vegetation cut down in order to make paper is
enormous. Paper companies insist that they plant as many new trees as they
cut down. Environmentalists contend that the new growth trees, so much
younger and smaller than what was removed, cannot replace the value of older
trees. Efforts to recycle used paper (especially newspapers) have been effective
in at least partially mitigating the need for destruction of woodlands, and
recycled paper is now an important ingredient in many types of paper
production.
The chemicals used in paper manufacture, including dyes, inks, bleach, and
sizing, can also be harmful to the environment when they are released into
water supplies and nearby land after use. The industry has, sometimes with
government prompting, cleared up a large amount of pollution, and federal
requirements now demand pollutionfree paper production.
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9. PETROLEUM AND PETROLEUM PRODUCTS MANUFACTURING

Petroleum - crude oil - is a mixture of solid, liquid and gaseous
hydrocarbons found underground or under the sea bottom in rock deposits.
Refining of petroleum can provide many useful materials including: fuels,
lubricants, solvents, and petrochemicals used in the manufacture of plastics
and other useful products. Refining involves three basic steps: separation,
conversion and chemical treatment. Refineries are normally designed for
specific crude oils and particular products, but must be flexible to adapt to
variations or changes in market demand for particular products and materials
Separation - is the first step in petroleum refining. It divides the crude oil into
constituents, most of which are further processed with different methods that
convert them to salable products. The prime method used to separate the
various fractions (hydrocarbon groups) in petroleum is fractional distillation.
Fractional distillation of crude petroleum
Crude petroleum is first heated to about 120C and treated with fresh
water and an electrical field to remove salt. The crude petroleum is then further
heated, in heat exchangers and a furnace, to a temperature above the boiling
point of most of the fractions it contains, normally between 315 and 385C.
The resulting mixture of gases and liquids is passed to a fractionating tower,
sometimes called a bubble tower. This is a high, vertical, cylindrical chamber.
As the gases rise in this tower, they cool and condense. Condensation takes
place at different levels, depending on the condensation temperature of the
fraction. The condensates collect in trays attached to the tower walls at
different levels, and are piped off to separate storage tanks for further
processing. The cylindrical tower may be as high as 45 m, and have as many as
40 fractionating trays. The heavier fractions condense first. Lighter fractions,
like gasoline, which boils at 40 to 2OO00C, naphtha, jet-fuel, and kerosene
condense at higher levels. Some of the condensed liquid is pumped to the top of
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the tower as reflux. As it descends in the tower, the liquid collects some of the
lighter vapors and absorbs some of the heavier ones. Some vapor fractions do
not condense in the tower, and they are piped off at the top of the tower into a
vapor recovery condenser. Other fractions, that do not reach their boiling point
in the heating chamber, remain in that chamber and are collected at the
bottom. They consist of heavier hydrocarbons such as asphalt, and heavy oils.
Steam is introduced in the bottom of the column to aid in the separation of the
heavier fractions. The fractions produced in fractional distillation of petroleum
are known as straight run products. The output of the tower includes light and
heavy naphtha, kerosene, and light and heavy oil.
When intended to be used for the production of solvents and high-purity
petrochemicals, the fractionating column is of smaller diameter, and has many
more fractionating trays, as many as 100 or more. More reflux is also used.
This approach is called superfractionation.
Vacuum distillation of petroleum fractions - Vacuum distillation, described
above, is used to further distill heavier fractions from the fractionating column,
to produce various lubricants. Vacuum distillation is used to avoid heating
these heavier fractions to the point where cracking would occur. The usual
pressure in this operation is 50 to 100 mm of mercury (6.7 to 13.3 KPa),
allowing a lubricating oil to boil at 250 to 350C instead of at a temperature of
over 315C at normal atmospheric pressure. Residues from this vacuum
distillation may be used as feedstock for cracking other products, or may be
blended to produce fuel oil or asphalt
Absorptionhtripping of petroleum factions - These methods are used to
recover light components from the vapors that exit from the top of the crude oil
fractionating column. Propane, propylene, butylene, and butane are commonly
processed. These vapors are bubbled through, and are absorbed by, heavy
naphtha or kerosene in an absorption tower. Other light gases-hydrogen,
methane, ethylene, and ethane, are not absorbed. The absorption tower is
pressurized to 700 to 1000 KPa. The solvent with its absorbate is then
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processed in a stripping column with heat. This releases the absorbate that is
then condensed to become liquefied petroleum gas (LPG).
Solvent extraction - is used to further separate some of the products of
fractional distillation. A solvent such as benzene, phenol, or furfural is mixed
with the liquid output from one level of the distillation tower. The solvent may
dissolve some of the fractions or cause them to solidify, so they can be
separated from the liquid. A common application is the processing of
lubricating oils by removing heavy aromatic components. This processing yields
an oil with a wider range of temperatures at which the oils viscosity will
remain within the desired range.
Crystallization of petroleum fraction
Contaminants - is a third separation method. Crystallization is used to remove
wax and other semisolid substances from the heavier fractions. A common
application occurs with lubricating oils which must be free from wax.
The oil is mixed with a solvent (usually a mixture of methyl ethyl ketone and
benzene, where both solvents have a function in the process). The mixture is
cooled to about -20C sufficiently low to cause the wax to crystallize. The liquid
is then filtered with rotating cylindrical filters. The wax is deposited on the
cylindrical surface (that is covered with woven filter fabric), and is removed
with metal scrapers after the surface oil is rinsed off with the solvent. The
solvent-oil mixture is then separated by distillation and the solvent is reused.
Conversion - produces more valuable products from some of the less valuable
fractions that result from the separation processes. There are two prime
conversion processes: cracking and combining.
Cracking - produces a lighter product, primarily gasoline, from a heavier
petroleum fraction. It also produces gases: ethane, methane, propylene and
propane that are raw materials in the manufacture of plastics, synthetic
rubber, detergents, textiles and agricultural chemicals. There are two cracking
processes: thermal cracking and catalytic cracking.
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Thermal cracking - In this process, heavy petroleum fractions are subjected to

intense heat and pressure. This breaks the molecular bonds of the large
molecules of heavier fractions, forming smaller and simpler molecules. These
molecules then may spontaneously undergo further changes, or combine with
other molecules to form molecules of naphtha, gasoline, and other lighter
petroleum products. Typical thermal cracking pressures are 700 to 7000 kPa,
and typical temperatures are 450 to 540C. However, thermal cracking is
seldom used since the use of catalysts increases the yield of desired highoctane products and produces less of the undesirable compounds such as
asphalt andcoke-forming constituents.
Catalytic cracking - uses a catalyst to facilitate the breakdown of the large
molecules. Zeolites (types of clay), and other minerals or molecular-sieve
materials are the catalysts used. The heated, heavy fractions come in contact
with the catalysts and are converted to lighter materials. Catalytic cracking
enables pressures in the cracking chamber to be lower, reduces the amount of
energy needed, and produces higher octane (smoother buming) gasoline.
Typical catalytic cracking temperatures are 480 to 550C with pressures of 70
to 140 Kpa. In the fluid-catalytic process, the catalyst is in fine-particle form
that acts as a liquid in the cracking unit. It is suspended in a flow of feed liquid
vapor. After cracking the catalyst particles are separated from the cracked fluid
by cyclone separation. In the fixed-bed process, the feed liquid is passed
through a stationary bed of solidcatalyst particles. With either process, the
catalyst particles become coated with carbon during the cracking operation,
and the carbon is removed with steam and by burning. The heat of burning
prepares the catalyst for reuse. The product from the cracking reactor is
processed by fractional distillation, yielding mostly cracked naphtha, which is
blended with other hydrocarbons to make gasoline. The gaseous products of
the distillation column consist of propylene and butylene which have
petrochemical applications. The balance is consists chiefly of fuel gas and other
gaseous hydrocarbon. When hydrogen is added to the cracking chamber, it
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reacts with the materials present and the yield of desirable products is
increased. The process variation is called hydrogenation, and is the reverse of
cracking. Smaller, simpler molecules of gaseous fractions are put together, to
form longer, morecomplex molecules of more-useful products. Three common
combining processes are polymerization, alkylation and reforming.gaseous
fractions, resulting from cracking, are subjected to high pressure and
temperature while in contact with a catalyst. The molecules combine, forming
longer, more-complex molecules, and the resulting materials are called
polymers. Propylene and butylene fractions are commonly polymerized for
useas components of high-octane gasoline and other products. Pressures of
2800 to 7600 kPa and temperatures of 175 to 230C are employed in the
polymerization chamber. The catalyst usually is phosphoric acid carried on
pellets of a porous sedimentary rock.
Alkyhtion - produces a fraction known as alkylate, which is useful in
producing certain fuels. Alkylate has a high octane rating and is used to
improve unleaded gasoline. The alkylation process is similar to polymerization
and is exothermic. It involves a chemical reaction between a hydrocarbon
carbon (usually isobutane) and an olefin (ethylene, propylene, butylene, or
amylene). The olefin feedstock is obtained from the gases produced during
catalytic cracking; isobutane comes from refinery gases. The reaction between
them takes place with an acid catalyst (hydrofluoric or sulfuric acid) at a
controlled temperature of 2 to 7C in the sulfuric acid process, and between 24
and 46C with the hydrofluoric acid process.
The product of the reaction is a high-octane branched-chain hydrocarbon
Reforming - is a means of raising the octane rating of gasoline. It involves
changing molecules of gasoline and naphtha to aromatic and branched-chain
molecules that have high octane ratings. The molecular changes can substitute
for the addition of lead to gasoline, since that is no longer acceptable because
of
environmental
issues.
The
reforming
process
is
combination
of
isomerization and cracking. Catalytic reforming is the dominant process. One
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major method uses naphtha and hydrogen, which are mixed and fed to a
preheater and then to four reactors in sequence.
Heating takes place before the material is introduced to each reactor. The
reactors contain alumina and a small amount of platinum. They operate at
pressures of 1500 to 7000 kPa and temperatures from 150 to 510C. A series
of complex reactions takes place and the resulting product is cooled and then
fractionated. The final reformed material is used as either an anti-knock
element in gasoline or further fractionated to produce benzene, toluene and
xylene. These aromatic materials are used in the production of synthetic
rubber, plastics and food preservatives.
Chemical and other treatments - of petroleum products include removal of
sulfur and other impurities, addition of various additives, and blending of
several fractions with others to improve product performance.
Sulfur removal (hydrogen treatment) - is accomplished by mixing hydrogen
gas with the fraction involved, heating the mixture to vaporize the oil fraction,
and then passing the mixture over a catalyst. Nickel, tungsten, or a mixture of
molybdenum and cobalt oxides on an aluminum support may be used as the
catalyst. The operation takes place at a temperature normally between
260 and 425C and a pressure of 1400 to 7000 kPa. Hydrogen sulfide is formed
and is removed from the mixture by solvent extraction. The hydrogen sulfide is
used as feed material for the production of high-purity sulfur.
Additive addition - Certain chemical compounds may be mixed with a raw
petroleum product to improve its performance. Small amounts may produce a
major improvement in fuel or lubricant performance. An example would be a
detergent added to a lubricant or gasoline. Others are tetra-ethyl lead added to
gasoline to raise its octane rating, anti-icing agents, organophosphates, to
reduce deposits, and antioxidants as stabilizers. The use of some of these
additives has been stopped or reduced for environmental reasons.
Blending - Petroleum refinery fractions are blended together to produce a
better overall product. One example is lubricating oils, which may be blended
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with different fractions to produce an oil with the desired viscosity. Gasoline
blending is much more complicated, and as many as 15 different hydrocarbon
fractions can potentially be included in finished gasoline. Octane is a key
characteristic that is set by blending different fractions. Other factors that may
be adjusted are color, stability, boiling points, vapor pressure, and sulfur,
olefin, and aromatics content. The cost of the different hydrocarbons, as well as
their properties, must be considered
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10. SOAP INDUSTRY

Soap is a combination of animal fat or plant oil and caustic soda. When
dissolved in water, it breaks dirt away from surfaces. Through the ages soap
has been used to cleanse, to cure skin sores, to dye hair, and as a salve or skin
ointment. But today we generally use soap as a cleanser or perfume.
Raw Materials
Soap requires two major raw materials: fat and alkali. The alkali most
commonly used today is sodium hydroxide. Potassium hydroxide can also be
used. Potassium-based soap creates a more water-soluble product than
sodium-based soap, and so it is called "soft soap." Soft soap, alone or in
combination with sodium-based soap, is commonly used in shaving products.
Animal fat in the past was obtained directly from a slaughterhouse. Modern
soapmakers use fat that has been processed into fatty acids. This eliminates
many impurities, and it produces as a byproduct water instead of glycerin.
Many vegetable fats, including olive oil, palm kernel oil, and coconut oil, are
also used in soap making.
Additives are used to enhance the color, texture, and scent of soap. Fragrances
and
perfumes
are
added
to
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cover the odor of dirt and to leave behind a fresh-smelling scent. Abrasives to
enhance the texture of soap include talc, silica, and marble pumice (volcanic
ash). Soap made without dye is a dull grey or brown color, but modern
manufacturers added color to make required color.
The kettle method of making soap is still used today by small soap
manufacturing companies. This process takes from four to eleven days to
complete, and the quality of each batch is inconsistent due to the variety of oils
used. Nowadays more efficient manufacturing process, called the continuous
process is used. This procedure is employed by large soap manufacturing
companies. Exactly as the name states, in the continuous process soap is
produced continuously, rather than one batch at a time. Technicians have
more control of the production in the continuous process, and the steps are
much quicker than in the kettle method it takes only about six hours to
complete a batch of soap.
The Kettle Process
Boiling
Fats and alkali are melted in a kettle, which is a steel tank that can stand
three stories high and hold several thousand pounds of material. Steam coils
within the kettle heat the batch and bring it to a boil. After boiling, the mass
thickens as the fat reacts with the alkali, producing soap and glycerin.
Salting
The soap and glycerin must now be separated. The mixture is treated with salt,
causing the soap to rise to the top and the glycerin to settle to the bottom. The
glycerin is extracted from the bottom of the kettle.
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Strong change
To remove the small amounts of fat that have not saponified, a strong caustic
solution is added to the kettle. This step in the process is called "strong
change." The mass is brought to a boil again, and the last of the fat turns to
soap. The batch may be given another salt treatment at this time, or the
manufacturer may proceed to the next step.
Pitching
The next step is called "pitching." The soap in the kettle is boiled again with
added water. The mass eventually separates into two layers. The top layer is
called "neat soap," which is about 70% soap and 30% water. The lower layer,
called "nigre," contains most of the impurities in the soap such as dirt and salt,
as well as most of the water. The neat soap is taken off the top. The soap is
then cooled.
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The above illustrations show the continuous process of making soap.

The Continuous Process
Splitting
The first step of the continuous process splits natural fat into fatty acids and
glycerin. The equipment used is a vertical stainless steel column with the
diameter of a barrel called a hydrolizer. It may be as tall as 24 m. Pumps and
meters attached to the column allow precise measurements and control of the
process. Molten fat is pumped into one end of the column, while at the other
end water at high temperature 130C and pressure is introduced. This splits
the fat into its two components. The fatty acid and glycerin are pumped out
continuously as more fat and water enter. The fatty acids are then distilled for
purification.
Mixing
The purified fatty acids are next mixed with a precise amount of alkali to form
soap. Other ingredients such as abrasives and fragrance are also mixed in. The
hot liquid soap may be then whipped to incorporate air.
Cooling and finishing
The soap may be poured into molds and allowed to harden into a large slab. It
may also be cooled in a special freezer. The slab is cut into smaller pieces of
bar size, which are then stamped and wrapped. The entire continuous process,
from splitting to finishing, can be accomplished in several hours.
Milling
Most toiletry soap undergoes additional processing called milling. The milled
bar lathers up better and has a finer consistency than non-milled soap. The
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cooled soap is fed through several sets of heavy rollers (mills), which crush and
knead it. Perfumes can best be incorporated at this time because their volatile
oils do not evaporate in the cold mixture. After the soap emerges from the mills,
it is pressed into a smooth cylinder and extruded. The extruded soap is cut into
bar size, stamped and wrapped.
Byproducts
Glycerin is a very useful byproduct of soap manufacture. It is used to make
hand lotion, drugs, and nitroglycerin, the main component of explosives such
as dynamite.
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11. FETRILIZER
Fertilizer is a substance added to soil to improve plants' growth and
yield. First used by ancient farmers, fertilizer technology developed significantly
as the chemical needs of growing plants were discovered. Modern synthetic
fertilizers are composed mainly of nitrogen, phosphorous, and potassium
compounds with secondary nutrients added. The use of synthetic fertilizers has
significantly improved the quality and quantity of the food available today,
although their long-term use is debated by environmentalists.
Like all living organisms, plants are made up of cells. Within these cells occur
numerous metabolic chemical reactions that are responsible for growth and
reproduction. Since plants do not eat food like animals, they depend on
nutrients in the soil to provide the basic chemicals for these metabolic
reactions. The supply of these components in soil is limited, however, and as
plants are harvested, it dwindles, causing a reduction in the quality and yield
of plants.
Fertilizers replace the chemical components that are taken from the soil by
growing plants. However, they are also designed to improve the growing
potential of soil, and fertilizers can create a better growing environment than
natural soil. They can also be tailored to suit the type of crop that is being
grown. Typically, fertilizers are composed of nitrogen, phosphorus, and
potassium compounds. They also contain trace elements that improve the
growth of plants.
The primary components in fertilizers are nutrients which are vital for plant
growth. Plants use nitrogen in the synthesis of proteins, nucleic acids, and
hormones. When plants are nitrogen deficient, they are marked by reduced
growth and yellowing of leaves. Plants also need phosphorus, a component of
nucleic acids, phospholipids, and several proteins. It is also necessary to
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provide the energy to drive metabolic chemical reactions. Without enough

phosphorus, plant growth is reduced. Potassium is another major substance
that plants get from the soil. It is used in protein synthesis and other key plant
processes. Yellowing, spots of dead tissue, and weak stems and roots are all
indicative of plants that lack enough potassium.
Calcium, magnesium, and sulfur are also important materials in plant growth.
They are only included in fertilizers in small amounts, however, since most
soils naturally contain enough of these components. Other materials are
needed in relatively small amounts for plant growth. These micronutrients
include iron, chlorine, copper, manganese, zinc, molybdenum, and boron,
which primarily function as cofactors in enzymatic reactions. While they may
be present in small amounts, these compounds are no less important to
growth, and without them plants can die.
Many different substances are used to provide the essential nutrients needed
for an effective fertilizer. These compounds can be mined or isolated from
naturally occurring sources. Examples include sodium nitrate, seaweed, bones,
guano, potash, and phosphate rock. Compounds can also be chemically
synthesized from basic raw materials. These would include such things as
ammonia,
urea,
nitric
acid,
and
ammonium
phosphate.
Since
these
compounds exist in a number of physical states, fertilizers can be sold as

solids, liquids, or slurries.
Raw Materials
The fertilizers outlined here are compound fertilizers composed of primary
fertilizers and secondary nutrients. These represent only one type of fertilizer,
and other single nutrient types are also made. The raw materials, in solid form,
can be supplied to fertilizer manufacturers in bulk quantities of thousands of
tons, drum quantities, or in metal drums and bag containers.
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Primary fertilizers include substances derived from nitrogen, phosphorus, and

potassium. Various raw materials are used to produce these compounds. When
ammonia is used as the nitrogen source in a fertilizer, one method of synthetic
production requires the use of natural gas and air. The phosphorus component
is made using sulfur, coal, and phosphate rock. The potassium source comes
from potassium chloride, a primary component of potash.
Secondary nutrients are added to some fertilizers to help make them more
effective. Calcium is obtained from limestone, which contains calcium
carbonate,
calcium
sulphate,
and
calcium
magnesium
carbonate.
The
magnesium source in fertilizers is derived from dolomite. Sulfur is another

material that is mined and added to fertilizers. Other mined materials include
iron from ferrous sulfate, copper, and molybdenum from molybdenum oxide.
Fully integrated factories have been designed to produce compound fertilizers.
Depending on the actual composition of the end product, the production
process will differ from manufacturer to manufacturer.
Nitrogen fertilizer component
Ammonia is one nitrogen fertilizer component that can be synthesized from inexpensive raw materials. Since nitrogen makes up a significant portion of the
earth's atmosphere, a process was developed to produce ammonia from air. In
this process,
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natural gas and steam are pumped into a large vessel. Next, air is pumped into
the system, and oxygen is removed by the burning of natural gas and steam.
This leaves primarily nitrogen, hydrogen, and carbon dioxide. The carbon
dioxide is removed and ammonia is produced by introducing an electric current
into the system. Catalysts such as magnetite (Fe3O4) have been used to
improve the speed and efficiency of ammonia synthesis. Any impurities are
removed from the ammonia, and it is stored in tanks until it is further
processed.
While ammonia itself is sometimes used as a fertilizer, it is often converted to
other substances for ease of handling. Nitric acid is produced by first mixing
ammonia and air in a tank. In the presence of a catalyst, a reaction occurs
which converts the ammonia to nitric oxide. The nitric oxide is further reacted
in the presence of water to produce nitric acid.
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Nitric acid and ammonia are used to make ammonium nitrate. This material is
a good fertilizer component because it has a high concentration of nitrogen.
The two materials are mixed together in a tank and a neutralization reaction
occurs, producing ammonium nitrate. This material can then be stored until it
is ready to be granulated and blended with the other fertilizer components.
Phosphorous fertilizer component

To isolate phosphorus from phosphate rock, it is treated with sulfuric acid,
producing phosphoric acid. Some of this material is reacted further with
sulfuric acid and nitric acid to produce a triple superphosphate, an excellent
source of phosphorous in solid form.
Some of the phosphoric acid is also reacted with ammonia in a separate tank.
This reaction results in ammonium phosphate, another good primary fertilizer.
Potassium fertilizer component
Potassium chloride is typically supplied to fertilizer manufacturers in bulk.
The manufacturer converts it into a more usable form by granulating it. This
makes it easier to mix with other fertilizer components in the next step.
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Granulating and blending

To produce fertilizer in the most usable form, each of the different compounds,
ammonium nitrate, potassium chloride, ammonium phosphate, and triple
superphosphate are granulated and blended together. One method of
granulation involves putting the solid materials into a rotating drum which has
an inclined axis. As the drum rotates, pieces of the solid fertilizer take on small
spherical shapes. They are passed through a screen that separates out
adequately sized particles. A coating of inert dust is then applied to the
particles, keeping each one discrete and inhibiting moisture retention. Finally,
the particles are dried, completing the granulation process.
The different types of particles are blended together in appropriate proportions
to produce a composite fertilizer. The blending is done in a large mixing drum
that rotates a specific number of turns to produce the best mixture possible.
After mixing, the fertilizer is emptied onto a conveyor belt, which transports it
to the bagging machine.
Bagging
Fertilizers are typically supplied to farmers in large bags. To fill these bags the
fertilizer is first delivered into a large hopper. An appropriate amount is
released from the hopper into a bag that is held open by a clamping device. The
bag is on a vibrating surface, which allows better packing. When filling is
complete, the bag is transported upright to a machine that seals it closed. The
bag is then conveyored to a palletizer, which stacks multiple bags, readying
them for shipment to distributors and eventually to farmers.
Byproducts/Waste
A relatively small amount of the nitrogen contained in fertilizers applied to the
soil is actually assimilated into the plants. Much is washed into surrounding
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bodies of water or filters into the groundwater. This has added significant
amounts of nitrates to the water that is consumed by the public. Some medical
studies have suggested that certain disorders of the urinary and kidney
systems are a result of excessive nitrates in drinking water. It is also thought
that this is particularly harmful for babies and could even be potentially
carcinogenic.
The nitrates that are contained in fertilizers are not thought to be harmful in
themselves. However, certain bacteria in the soil convert nitrates into nitrite
ions. Research has shown that when nitrite ions are ingested, they can get into
the bloodstream. There, they bond with hemoglobin, a protein that is
responsible for storing oxygen. When a nitrite ion binds with hemoglobin, it
loses its ability to store oxygen, resulting in serious health problems.
Nitrosamines are another potential byproduct of the nitrates in fertilizer. They
are the result of a natural chemical reaction of nitrates. Nitrosamines have
been shown to cause tumors in laboratory animals, feeding the fear that the
same could happen in humans. There has, however, been no study that shows
a link between fertilizer use and human tumors.
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12. TYRE INDUSTRY

A tire is a strong, flexible rubber casing attached to the rim of a wheel. Tires
provide a gripping surface for traction and serve as a cushion for the wheels of
a moving vehicle. Tires are found on automobiles, trucks, buses, aircraft
landing gear, tractors and other farm equipment, industrial vehicles such as
forklifts, and common conveyances such as baby carriages, shopping carts,
wheel chairs, bicycles, and motorcycles.
Tires for most vehicles are pneumatic; air is held under pressure inside the
tire. Until recently, pneumatic tires had an inner tube to hold the air pressure,
but now pneumatic tires are designed to form a pressure seal with the rim of
the wheel.
Natural rubber is the main raw material used in manufacturing tires, although
synthetic rubber is also used. In order to develop the proper characteristics of
strength, resiliency, and wear-resistance, however, the rubber must be treated
with a variety of chemicals and then heated.
Raw Materials
Rubber is the main raw material used in manufacturing tires, and both natural
and synthetic rubber is used. Natural rubber is found as a milky liquid in the
bark of the rubber tree. To produce the raw rubber used in tire manufacturing,
the liquid latex is mixed with acids that cause the rubber to solidify. Presses
squeeze out excess water and form the rubber into sheets, and then the sheets
are dried in tall smokehouses, pressed into enormous bales, and shipped to
tire factories around the world. Synthetic rubber is produced from the
polymers found in crude oil.
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The other primary ingredient in tire rubber is carbon black. Carbon black is a
fine, soft powder created when crude oil or natural gas is burned with a limited
amount of oxygen, causing incomplete combustion and creating a large amount
of fine soot. So much carbon black is required for manufacturing tires that rail
cars transport it and huge silos store the carbon black at the tire factory until
it is needed.
Sulfur and other chemicals are also used in tires. Specific chemicals, when
mixed with rubber and then heated, produce specific tire characteristics such
as high friction (but low mileage) for a racing tire or high mileage (but lower
friction) for a passenger car tire. Some chemicals keep the rubber flexible while
it is being shaped into a tire while other chemicals protect the rubber from the
ultraviolet radiation in sunshine.
Design
The main features of a tire are the tread, the body with sidewalls, and the
beads. The tread is the raised pattern in contact with the road. The body
supports the tread and gives the tire its specific shape. The beads are rubbercovered, metal-wire bundles that hold the tire on the wheel.
Computer systems now play a major role in tire design. Complex analysis
software acting on years of test data allows the designers to simulate the
performance of tread design and other design parameters. The software creates
a three-dimensional color image of a possible tire design and calculates the
effects of different stresses on the proposed tire design. Computer simulations
allow the tire manufacturers to know the design limitations can be discovered
before a proto-type tire is actually assembled and tested.
In addition to tests of tread design and tire body construction, computers can
simulate the effects of different types of rubber compounds. In a modern
passenger car tire, as many as twenty different types of rubber may be used in
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different parts of the tire. One rubber compound may be used in the tread for
good traction in cold weather; another compound is used to give increased
rigidity in the tire sidewalls.
After the designers are satisfied with computer studies of a new tire,
manufacturing engineers and skilled tire assemblers work with the designers to
produce tire prototypes for testing. When design and manufacturing engineers
are satisfied with a new tire design, tire factories begin mass production of the
new tire.
A tire is manufactured by wrapping multiple layers of specially formulated
rubber around a metal drum in a tire-forming machine. The different
components of the tire are carried to the forming machine, where a skilled
assembler cuts and positions the strips to form the different parts of the
The first step in the tire manufacturing process is the mixing of raw
materialsrubber, carbon black, sulfur, and other materialsto form the
rubber compound. After the rubber is prepared, it is sent to a tire-building
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machine, where a worker builds up the rubber layers to form the tire. At this
point, the tire is called a "green tire."
The first step in the tire manufacturing process is the mixing of raw materials
to form the rubber compound. Railcars deliver large quantities of natural and
synthetic rubber, carbon black, sulfur, and other chemicals and oils, all of
which are stored until needed. Computer control systems contain various
recipes and can automatically measure out specific batches of rubber and
chemicals for mixing. Gigantic mixers, hanging like vertical cement mixers, stir
the rubber and chemicals together in batches.
Each mix is then remilled with additional heating to soften the batch and mix
the chemicals. In a third step, the batch goes through a mixer again, where
additional chemicals are added to form what is known as the final mix. During
all three steps of mixing, heat and friction are applied to the batch to soften the
rubber and evenly distribute the chemicals. The chemical composition of each
batch depends on the tire partcertain rubber formulations are used for the
body, other formulas for the beads, and others for the tread.
Body, beads, and tread
Once a batch of rubber has been mixed, it goes through powerful rolling mills
that squeeze the batch into thick sheets. These sheets are then used to make
the specific parts of the tire. The tire body, for instance, consists of strips of
cloth-like fabric that are covered with rubber. Each strip of rubberized fabric is
used to form a layer called a ply in the tire body. A passenger car tire may have
as many as four plies in the body.
For the beads of a tire, wire bundles are formed on a wire wrapping machine.
The bundles are then formed into rings, and the rings are covered with rubber.
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The rubber for the tire tread and sidewalls travels from the batch mixer to
another type of processing machine called an extruder. In the extruder, the
batch is further mixed and heated and is then forced out through a die a
shaped orifice to form a layer of rubber. Sidewall rubber is covered with a
protective plastic sheet and rolled. Tread rubber is sliced into strips and loaded
into large, flat metal cases called books.
Tire-building machine
After the green tire is made, it is put in a mold for curing. Shaped like a clam,
the mold contains a large, flexible balloon. The tire is placed over the balloon
(bladder), and the mold closes. Next, steam is pumped into the balloon,
expanding it to shape the tire against the sides of the mold. After cooling, the
tire is inflated and tested.
The beads are all delivered to a skilled assembler at a tire-building machine. At

the center of the machine is a collapsible rotating drum that holds the tire
parts. The tire assembler starts building a tire by wrapping the rubber-covered
fabric plies of the body around the machine drum. After the ends of these plies
are joined with glue, the beads are added and locked into place with additional
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tire body plies laid over the beads. Next, the assembler uses special power tools
to shape the edges of the tire plies. Finally, the extruded rubber layers for the
sidewalls and tread are glued into place, and the assembled tire the green tire
is removed from the tire-building machine.
Curing
A green tire is placed inside a large mold for the curing process. A tire mold is
shaped like a monstrous metal clam which opens to reveal a large, flexible
balloon called a bladder. The green tire is placed over the bladder and, as the
clamshell mold closes, the bladder fills with steam and expands to shape the
tire and force the blank tread rubber against the raised interior of the mold.
During this curing process, the steam heats the green tire up to 280 degrees.
Time in the mold depends on the characteristics desired in the tire.
After curing is complete, the tire is removed from the mold for cooling and then
testing. Each tire is thoroughly inspected for flaws such as bubbles or voids in
the rubber of the tread, sidewall, and interior of the tire. Then, the tire is
placed on a test wheel, inflated, and spun. Sensors in the test wheel measure
the balance of the tire and determine if the tire runs in a straight line. Because
of the design and assembly of a modern tire, rarely is one rejected. Once the
tire has been inspected and run on the test wheel, it is moved to a warehouse
for distribution.
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13. PHOSPHORIC ACID

13.1 Introduction
The main raw materials for the process are Rock Phosphate and
Sulphuric Acid. The process for the manufacture of the acid is the HemiHydrate Di-hydrate method.. Reaction ,Flash Cooling and concentration units
are equipped with fluorine recovery section. The technology for this plant has
equipped with an efficient scrubbing system to meet stringent environmental
standards.
The following steps are involved in the manufacturing process:
1. Rock Handling
2. Reaction
3. Hemi-hydrate Filtration
4. Transformation
5. Di-Hydrate Filtration
6. Gypsum Handling and Storage
7. Acid Storage
8. Concentration
13.2 ROCK HANDLING:

Rock Phosphate is the main raw material. The rock is unloaded and is brought
to site by trippers, which are offloaded to the unloading conveyor. The Rock
Phosphate has stored in silos and the rock is unloaded into the silos by means
of unloading conveyors. Shovel loaders are used to feed the material to the
reclaim hopper, from which the rock is conveyed to the plant and is stored in a
rock feed hoppers.
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Rock Dust, which emanates from the system is collected, by wet dust scrubber
and dry dust collecting systems.Wet dust scrubber bleed(rock slurry) sent to
the first reactor and dry dust collecting system (2 no.) collected dust is sent
back to unloading conveyors.
REACTION:
There are five agitated reactors in series operation. The reactors are of mild
steel with 10mm thick Butyl Rubber lining followed by carbon brick lining in
three layers. The rock phosphate and recycled slurry from the flash cooler are
fed to the primary reactor.
Slurry from primary Reactor overflows to secondary Reactor and finally enters
main reactor. In main reactor , 98.5% H2SO4 and 36% P2O5 acid are added
with the slurry and the remaining calcium in solution is precipitated. The
system temperature is maintained at 98-100C by means of a low level flash
cooling system through which the slurry is pumped from the main reactor to
the primary reactor .The Off Gas from reaction and flash cooling sections is
scrubbed with hydro fluo silicic acid and fluorine is being recovered as 18%20% hydro fluo silicic acid.
13.3 HEMI HYDRATE FILTRATION:
This comprises of two horizontal belt filters. Slurry from the low level flash
cooler is fed to the filters and washed counter currently.
The acid is collected from the first filtrate is product acid of 43% P2O5. Second
filtrate is return acid of 36% P2O5 which is pumped back to the third reactor.
Before the cake is discharged to the first transformation tank, final washing is
done by 10%-11% P2O5 acid from the dihydrate filter. A vacuum up to 0.4 bar
abs. is maintained by operating two vacuum pumps.
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TRANSFORMATION:
These are three transformation tanks, made up of mild steel rubber lined and
carbon brick lined operating in series. An agitator is mounted for better mixing
and keeping the slurry in suspension. Hemi Hydrate cake Cloth wash liquor
and sulphuric acid are added to tank. The residence time is sufficient to
achieve conversion of hemihydrate to dihydrate under controlled conditions
and the slurry is then fed to the dihydrate filter.
DI-HYDRATE FILTRATION:
This comprises of a horizontal belt filter. Slurry from the transformation tank is
pumped to the filter and it is washed counter currently. The cake undergoes
two washings before it is discharged to the gypsum slurry tank. The first
filtrate of 10%-11% P2O5 is used as final wash for washing the hemi hydrate
filter cloth.
13.4 ACID STORAGE
Acid from the hemi-hydrate filter pumped to the clarifier for removing the solids
present. The clarifier is mild steel rubber lined vessel and acid brick lined at
the conical bottom portion.
These clarifiers are to reduce the solid content in product acid. A centrally
mounted rake mechanism is used for removing the sludge from the acid. The
clear acid from the clarifier top is pumped to the concentrator and the sludge
from the clarifier bottom is pumped back to the fourth reactor for recovering
the entrapped P2O5.
Then the acid is stored in the storage tank. The vessels are made of mild steel
and rubber lined. The tank bottom has a slope towards the pump suction
nozzles.
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Each storage tank is provided with two pumps one for circulation and the other
for transferring acid. The quantity of acid transferred is metered by means of a
flow integrator. The tanks are fitted with the remote level indicator.
CONCENTRATION:
The product acid of 43% P2O5 from the hemihydrate filter is further
concentrated to obtain 54% P2O5 in the concentration section. There are two
concentrators operating in parallel with the fluorine recovery unit.
The concentrator is a mild steel rubber lined cylindrical vessel with a conical
bottom. A graphite heat exchanger is used to raise the acid temperature to
85C by means of low pressure steam 5000 m3 at any point of time.
Acid circulation between the concentrator and the graphite heat exchanger is
done by an axial flow pump of high volume and low head. The concentrated
acid overflows from the concentrator (flash chamber) to a concentrated acid
seal tank and is pumped to the concentrated acid clarifier through three acid
coolers. The clarified acid is then pumped to the acid storage tanks.
The non condensibles are removed by a vacuum jet system consisting of 2
steam jet ejectors operating on 10Kg/Cm2 steam and an inter condenser
operating on cooling water. The ejectors maintain a vacuum of 53mm Hg. (abs).
13.6 INDUSTRIAL WASTE:
SOLID: There is no solid waste generated from this process. Gypsum generated
from the process is sold to a significant level and the rest is stored in the lined
storage pond.
LIQUID: The effluent generated from the process is totally recycled back into
the system immediately.
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14. SULPHURIC ACID PLANT

14.1 INTRODUCTION:
The sulphuric acid plant with the help of a dedicated blower sucks the off gas
from smelter at a temperature of 300 degrees. The gas passes through a gas
cleaning plant and then goes to the acid plant.
14.2 PROCESS DESCRIPTION:
GAS CLEANING SECTION:
For cleaning and quenching of the smelter gases, scrubbing cooling circuits are
used:
1. A primary quench
2. A retention - condensation circuit
3. A venturi scrubber an dew-separator circuit
4. A cooling circuit
To provide condensation of vapour phase material entering the scrubbing
system, a primary Quench Vessel and Retention Vessel are used. These two
primary scrubbing units provide quenching of the hot gas to the saturation
temperature and provide retention time for particle condensation and
coalescence.
These two vessels, in addition to the removal of coarser dust
particles, they also absorb HCl and HF if any.

The gas leaving the Quench Vessel enters the up flow Retention Vessel, which
provides residence time for the entering saturated gas.
Approximately 3.5
seconds retention time is provided in this vessel. The saturated partially

cleaned gases then enter FRP duct work, leading to the Venturi Scrubber,
which provides intensive gas-liquid contact in the annular Venturi throat
section for capture of the entering fine sub-micron particles.
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The mixture of gas and atomised spray is spun into the packed tower, the clean
gases pass through a Collector tray and then to a packed section where the
gases first cool to 360 C and subsequently to 300 C. The liquor is cooled in plate
heat exchangers using cooling water at 310 C and chilled water at 120 C. The
gas is then passed through two wet ESPs to remove SO3 moist and sub-micro
size particles. The outlet of ESP is a clean and optically clear gas, which is then
sent to acid plant for conversion into Sulphuric Acid.
14.3 ACID SECTION:
The gas from the Gas Cleaning section, saturated with water at 350C, is drawn
into the Drying Tower under suction from the Main Blower. Dilution air if
required is added at this point to control the SO2 strength of the gas to the
Converter. The gas is dried by counter-current contact with a stream of 93%
acid in the Drying Tower. The dry gas from the Drying Tower passes to the inlet
of the Main Blower. The dry gas is compressed in the Main Blower.
The gas leaving the Main Blower has been heated to approximately 1150C by
the compression. The gas is further heated in the Cold Exchanger and the Hot
Exchanger before it contacts the catalyst in the converter. In the Converter
Sulphur dioxide reacts with oxygen to form sulphur trioxide. The reaction is:
SO2 + 1/2 O2
= SO3
The rate of reaction is accelerated by use of vanadium pentoxide catalyst. To

activate the catalyst the gas must be heated to above 4100C. The gas is heated
first in the Cold Exchanger using the hot exit stream from the fourth bed of
catalyst. At the exit of the Cold Exchanger the gas will be at approximately
2800C. The gas passes to the internal hot exchanger, which uses the exit
stream from the first bed of catalyst to heat the inlet gas to second Bed to
4200C
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Temperature control of the gas to the first bed of catalyst is achieved by

passing some of the gas exiting Fourth Bed around the Cold Exchanger. The
bypassing gas is cooled in the SO3 Cooler. The exothermic conversion of SO2 to
SO3
in the first bed of catalyst raises the gas stream temperature to
approximately 5950C. In order for the reaction to proceed, the gas must be
cooled. The cooling is achieved in the Hot Exchanger which is contained inside
the Converter. The gas leaving the first bed of catalyst passes through the shell
side of the Hot Exchanger to the inlet of second Bed. The gas is cooled to
approximately 4550C.
The inlet temperature to the second bed of catalyst is controlled by adjustment
of a bypass around the tube side of the Hot Exchanger. Further oxidation of
SO2 to SO3 in the second bed of catalyst again raises the temperature of the
gas to approximately 5000C. At this point approximately 91% of the SO2 has
been converted to SO3. As the concentration of SO3 increases, further oxidation
of SO2 is hindered. The SO3 is removed from the gas by complete absorption in
Sulphuric acid in the Intermediate Absorption Tower.
The gas exiting the second bed of catalyst is cooled in the Inter Reheat
Exchanger by counter-current transfer with the cold gas exit the Intermediate
Absorption Tower. The cooled gas from the Inter Reheat Exchanger at 2150C
passes to the Intermediate Absorption Tower where the SO3 is absorbed in
98.5% acid. The gas leaving the Intermediate absorption Tower at 750C is
heated to the third Bed inlet temperature in the Inter Reheat Exchanger. The
gas enters third Bed at 4200C. Reaction in third Bed raises the gas temperature
to approximately 4340C. The gas from third Bed pass through a divider plate
which causes the gas to mix and ensures a uniform concentration before the
gas passes to fourth Bed. After the fourth Bed the overall conversion of SO2 to
SO3 is greater than 99.7%. The gas leaving fourth Bed will be at 4360C.
The gas leaving bed four is cooled in the Cold Exchanger and in the SO3 Cooler
before passing to the Final Tower. In the Final Absorption Tower the SO3
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formed in the third and fourth beds of catalyst is absorbed in 98.5% acid. The
produced acid is stored in six storage tank of capacity 6000m3 each. The gas
leaves the Final Absorption Tower at 750C and is discharged to atmosphere via
the Stack.
The Pre-heater will also be required during operation in case II conditions of
ISA and ISA plus slag blow. In these two case the gas requires some additional
heating to bring it up to the Bed 1 inlet temperature. The heat is provided by
passing some of the gas through the Pre-heat exchanger.
14.5 OFF GAS FROM THE PROCESS:
The off gases from final absorption tower & pre-heater are vented through
stacks.
INDUSTRIAL WASTE:
LIQUID: The gas cleaning section is the main generation point for the liquid
effluent, which is treated in effluent treatment plant.
Secured Landfill facility:
Secured Landfill facility (SLF) is needed to dispose the waste from the ETP. The
SLF constructed as per the design. The ETP cake generated from the ETP is
Hazardous waste as per Hazardous waste management Rules, 2000 and it has
to be stored in SLF only. The generated ETP cake from ETP is transferred batch
wise to SLF by means of Tractor and stored in the SLF uniformly.
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15. PESTICIDES
15.1 Introduction
The word "pesticide" is a broad term that refers to any chemical that kills
plants or animals that compete for humanity's food supply or are otherwise
undesirable.
Pesticides
include
insecticides,
fungicides,
herbicides,
nematocides (used to kill nematodes, elongated cylindrical worms), and

rodenticides. Of these various pesticides, insecticides have a longer and more
noteworthy history, perhaps because the number of insects labeled "pests"
greatly exceeds the number of all other plant and animal "pests" combined.
Hence, this article focuses on the use of agricultural insecticides.
In pesticide manufacturing, an active ingredient is first synthesized in a

chemical factory. Next, a formulator mixes the active ingredient with a carrier
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(for liquid pesticidel or with inert powders or dry fertilizers (for dust pesticidel,
then bottles or packages it. Liquid pesticides are packaged in drums for large
scale operations or jugs for small scale operations, while dry formulations can
be packaged in 5 to 10 kilogram plastic or plastic-lined bags.
Today, some 900 active chemical pesticides are used to manufacture 40,000
commercial preparations. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).
15.2 Raw Materials
A pesticide consists of an active ingredient coupled with inert ingredients. The
active ingredient kills the pests, while the inert ingredients facilitate spraying
and coating the target plant; they can also contribute other advantages that are
not conferred by the active ingredient alone.
Active ingredients were once distilled from natural substances; now they are
largely synthesized in a laboratory. Almost all are hydrocarbons derived from
petroleum. Most pesticides contain other elements, the type and number of
which depend on the pesticide desired. Chlorine, oxygen, sulfur, phosphorus,
nitrogen, and bromine are most common. Inert ingredients can be many
substances, dependent on the type of pesticide. Liquid pesticides have
traditionally used kerosene or some other petroleum distillate as a carrier,
though water has recently begun to replace kerosene. Emulsifiers (such as
soap) are also added to distribute the active ingredient evenly throughout the
solvent. A powder or dust pesticide will typically contain vegetable matter such
as ground up nut shells or corn cobs, clays such as diatomite or attapulgite, or
powdered minerals such as talc or calcium carbonate as a base. To cause the
pesticide to adhere better
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After receiving the pesiticide, farmers dilute it with water before applying it.
Application can involve crop dusting with small airplanes or using sprinklers or
tractors. Small farmers may even use hand-held sprayers. To the plant or soil,
a material such as cornstarch or flour may be added.
15.3 The manufacturing Process
Manufacturing a pesticide involves at least three separate activities. The active
ingredient is first synthesized in a chemical factory, then formulated in the
same place or sent to a formulator, who prepares the liquid or powder form.
The pesticide is then sent to the farmer or other certified applicator, who
dilutes it before applying it to the fields.
Synthesizing the pesticide
When a new pesticide is first developed, it is manufactured on a small scale in
a laboratory. If the substance proves viable, production begins in the factory.
Batch or continuous manufacturing insures a high volume, perhaps as much
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as 500 kilograms per cycle. Synthesizing a pesticide is a complex chemical

procedure that requires trained chemists and a large, sophisticated laboratory.
The basic procedure entails altering an organic molecule to form a pesticide.
This may involve any of a number of specific reagents and catalysts and often
must take place in a controlled climate (within a certain temperature range, for
example). Once synthesized, the active ingredient is packaged and sent to a
formulator. Liquid insecticides can be shipped in tank trucks or drums.
Transport of the active ingredient follows all regulations for hazardous
materials transportation.
Formulating the pesticide
A formulator accepts the active ingredient, measures out the proper amount,
mixes it with carrier if it is to be a liquid pesticide or with inert powders or dry
fertilizers if it is to be a dust pesticide, then bottles or packages it. Liquid
pesticides are packaged in drums or jugs for small-scale operations. Dry
formulations can be packaged in 5 to 10 kilogram plastic or plastic-lined bags.
An emulsified formulation is usually concentrated to render transport easier
(the active ingredient typically makes up 50 percent of the emulsified
concentrate), but granulated and dry pesticides are ready to use.
Diluting the pesticide
The pesticide might be stored a short time before it is requested. When it is
ready for transport, the estimated necessary amount is sent to the farmer, who
dilutes the emulsified concentrate to create the amount of pesticide desired. In
most instances, the final product consists of only .5 to 1 percent of the original
active ingredient. The pesticide is now ready to be applied.
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Applying the pesticide

There are several ways to apply a pesticide. The method with which Americans
are most familiar is crop dusting, though its use is generally limited to large,
flat areas. Another method is to attach the tanks and booms to a tractor and
spray closer to the ground. For small farmers, the most economical method of
spraying is to use one or more workers with hand-held sprayers attached to
small tanks. A hand pump can be carried on the shoulder; its tank capacity is
only about 3 to 12 liters. Small tanks with a capacity of around 200 liters are
also used. The pesticides are applied with a hand gun. A rough estimate of the
amount applied is 150 to 300 liters per hectare.
15.4 HSE Issues
Pesticides are by their very nature toxic substances; hence, a great deal of
concern has centered on safety. The laws dealing with pesticide safety are very
strict and will become even stricter in the future. Besides legal restrictions,
pesticides are also subject to stringent quality control standards like any other
manufactured product.
When preparing a formulation for application, which in most cases means
diluting it, the applicator should wear protective clothing as directed by the
label. Often, this protective garb includes an apron or coveralls, a broadbrimmed hat, long-sleeved shirt, long socks, unlined neoprene or rubber
gloves, long pants, and unlined neoprene or rubber boots worn over shoes. For
some pesticides, applicators must also wear goggles and/or a respirator.
As an additional precaution, application equipment is calibrated before each
use. To calibrate a sprayer, the applicator measures off a distance in the field,
then sprays it with a neutral substance such as water. The amount of water
used is then checked to see if it is appropriate. All equipment is also checked to
see if spraying is even, and worn equipment is replaced promptly.
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15.5 Byproducts/Waste
When they were introduced, pesticides were seen as a wonderful technology
that would increase crop yields and reduce insect-borne diseases.
Pesticides kill the pests they are aiming for most of the time, yet often they also
kill the pests' natural predators, thereby exacerbating the problem. In some
cases, exterminating a pest merely allows another pest to take its place. After a
period of pesticide use, the insects become resistant to the pesticide, and
stronger or more pesticides must be used to control the population. There is
evidence that pesticides are misused, that their effect in some cases is
negligible, and that applicators are not aware of the proper use of pesticides.
Coupled with these concerns is the worry over blanket spraying of residential
areas and contaminated food.
DDT is the most widely noted case of a pesticide that caused damage far from
the farm. High levels of DDT have been found in birds of prey, causing them to
become endangered because of the effect it has on their eggs. DDT becomes
more concentrated the higher it climbs in the food chain, and many people
have voiced their concern about its possible presence in humans. In 1972, the
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) announced a ban on almost all uses of
DDT.
Several dozen other pesticides have also been banned, or their use restricted by
the EPA. Ironically, these pesticides are still being exported to assist developing
countries, where it is estimated that three million acute cases of pesticide
poisoning occur per year, along with 20,000 deaths directly related to the
misuse of pesticides.
135

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Basic of Manufacturing Industry

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Educational Qualification Improvement Programme

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Basic of Manufacturing Industry

Mechanical components operations

Glass manufacturing Industry

Paint manufacturing industry

Automobile manufacturing industry

Metal manufacturing industry

Sugar manufacturing industry

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Petroleum and its products manufacturing

Soap manufacturing industry

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Basic of Manufacturing Industry

Modern manufacturing includes all intermediate processes required for

Basic of Manufacturing Industry

1. MECHANICAL COMPONENTS MANUFACTURING

upper layers are preheated by the

Basic of Manufacturing Industry

Basic of Manufacturing Industry

A typical sand mold is shown in figure and is normally made in two

correspondingly split. The top half of the mold is called

the cope; the bottom half

metal into the mold is

Basic of Manufacturing Industry

temperature on the Kelvin (absolute temperature) scale. For example, steels

including those of structural

sections. Low-alloy or plaincarbon steel is heated to about

metals, aluminum, copper and copper alloys, magnesium, nickel, titanium,

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1.3 PRESS OPERATIONS IN INDUSTRY

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Basic of Manufacturing Industry

than via a consumable

carry electric current.

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surface oxidation will take place at lower

temperatures, inasmuch as oxidation rates are greatly diminished as ambient

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proportions designed to ensure proper combustion.

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PAC is a thermal and mechanical process. To utilize PAC, the material is

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Basic of Manufacturing Industry

material. This is accomplished by advancing the cutoff tool, a narrow grooving

Common Lathe operations are shown in figure.

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Basic of Manufacturing Industry

Basic of Manufacturing Industry

considerably wider than those on

surfaces are feasible with this

process is used to make blanks

Cutting is continuous and blade wear is

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2.0 GLASS MANUFACTURING