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Article history:
Received 21 January 2014
Received in revised form
3 June 2014
Accepted 6 July 2014
Available online 24 July 2014
The environmental impact of photovoltaic panels (PVs) is an extensively studied topic, generally assessed
using the Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) methodology. Due to this large amount of papers, a review seems
necessary to have a clear view of the work already done and what is still to be done.
The objective of this paper is to present an accurate overview of the LCA already performed on PVs.
The analyses are classied by panel type and by impact assessment methodology. When available the
information relative to the PV system (efciency, localization, etc.) is also summarized.
The following main observations are noted:
Keywords:
Life Cycle Analysis
Photovoltaic panels
Review
Environmental impacts
Silicon panels are the mostly studied, thin layers on a lesser extent, while new panel types, such as
organic, are not yet considered.
Regarding the study scope, Balance Of System (BOS) components, although inuential, are often
omitted and their characteristics (efciency, etc.) are sometimes not provided. This is the same for the
End of life.
Most studies focus on energy related indicators such as the Energy Payback Time (EPBT) and
indicators relative to climate change such as CO2 emissions. When impact assessment methodologies
are used, it is generally Eco-Indicator99 and sometimes CML. But, results are, unfortunately,
sometimes expressed only after normalization
Finally, this review underlines the necessity to achieve further LCA on photovoltaic panels, as many
aspects are still in need of evaluation, such as the electronic properties of the panel or BOS components.
& 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Contents
1.
2.
3.
4.
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 748
The LCA methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 748
LCA of PV systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 748
3.1.
Silicon PVs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 748
3.1.1.
Conventional LCA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 748
3.1.2.
Non-conventional LCA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 750
3.2.
Thin layers PVs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 751
3.3.
Miscellaneous PV types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 751
3.3.1.
Energy and emissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 751
3.3.2.
Impact assessment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 752
3.4.
The BOS components. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 752
3.5.
Others. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 752
Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 752
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2014.07.043
1364-0321/& 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
748
5. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 752
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 753
1. Introduction
The use of photovoltaic panels (PVs) for electricity production has
rapidly increased in recent years, even though their environmental
impacts are still not fully determined. A lot of work has recently been
undertaken in this respect, generally with the use of the Life Cycle
Analysis (LCA) methodology. A wide variety of results is obtained,
mainly due to the importance of the PV system (module type,
efciency, etc.) and the way the methodology is applied (functional
unit, boundary, etc.). A summary of the main results of these studies is
presented in this paper.
Reviews on LCA of PVs have already been published [13].
However, they are about specic panel type or specic environmental
indicators. Peng et al. (2013) [3] investigated only energy consumption,
Energy Payback Time (EPBT) and global warming potential (GWP). The
study of Sumper et al. (2011) [1] is focused on emissions of CO2/kW h
and EPBT, and Sherwani et al. (2010) [2] only consider silicon-based
panels. The aim of this paper is to provide an up-to-date review on
LCA of PVs of all the panel types, describing the panels and underlining
the methodology used.
The rst section provides a brief denition of the LCA methodology.
The second part concerns the review where results are divided by PV
types to allow comparison among studies. Some studies compare
different PV types and are cited separately. The last part focuses on the
Balance of the System (BOS) components. These are all the components of a PV system other than the panel itself.
3. LCA of PV systems
The rst LCA publications on PVs appeared in the mid-1970s [6,7],
but are now outdated considering the achieved improvements of PV
technology. This review focuses on studies published after 1990.
3.1. Silicon PVs
Crystalline silicon modules are the most extensively studied PV
type since they are the most largely used. The studies summarized
749
Table 1
Summary of the mains results about silicon PV.
Study Panel type
PV system
Country
[1]
Poly.
Roof-mounted
Spain
[10]
Roof-mounted
US
[11]
Poly. and
amorphous
Poly.
Roof-mounted
[12]
Crystalline
Tracking system
[13]
Mono.
Facade-integrated
[14]
Switzerland
[15]
Poly.
Ground-mounted
[16]
Poly.
Tracking system
[17]
Mono.
[18]
Poly.
[19]
Poly.
Ground-mounted
Germany
12.5%
[20]
Mono.
Tracking system
Italy
13.8%
[23]
South-European
locations
[24]
Crystalline
From 11.5
to 14%
15%
[25]
Amorphous/
nanocrystalline
10%
Roof-integrated
Severals locations
(EU, Austria, US)
South Europe and
North Africa
US
Modules
efciency
From
6.3 to 13%
16%
12.4%
FU
Boundaries
Methodology
Mains results
1 kW h
Production (BOS),
installation and use
Production (BOS) and
use
Production and use
EPBT
EPBT CO2
1 kW h
2
0.65 m
panel
1 kWp
1 kW h
Italy
From 13.2
to 14.8%
14.4%
1 kWp
Spain
13.1%
1 kW h
Netherlands
3 kWp
Production
use
Production
use
Production
use
Production
EoL
Production
EoL
Production
EPBT CO2
(BOS) and
EPBT
(BOS) and
(BOS) and
Eco-Indicator 99 EPBT
(BOS) to
Eco-Indicator 99
(BOS) to
1 kW h
Production (BOS) to
EoL
1 kW h Production (BOS) and
use
1 MW h Production and use
Eco-Indicator 99
Eco-Indicator 99
1 kWp
CML 2000
1 kW h
Production
1 kW h
FU Functional Unit. Boundaries: (BOS): the BOS components are included in the LCA EoL: End of Life. Methodology: (Norm): the results are only expressed after
normalization CO2 CO2 emissions calculation.
750
751
752
[21] whereas data about thin layer cells (CdTe with an efciency of
9%) are from Fthenakis et al. [30] and BOS components data come
from Mason et al. [42]. Thanks to the used of PVs, the GHG
emissions are reduced compared with petrol, coal or natural gas,
but are equal when looking at nuclear.
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Even if there is a high number of papers dealing with LCA of
PVs, this review shows some shortcomings in the topic due to
incomplete studies and lack of published details about the system
and the methodology. Therefore many results strongly differ and
comparisons are difcult.
As a general guideline, the performance of the studied system,
along with the BOS components, should be accurately described,
and the EoL should be integrated in the study and well dened in
light of their high inuence on the results.
Most of the studies only examine energy-related indicators and
GWP, but in order to avoid impact transfers a more exhaustive
753
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