Inversion of Distributed-TemperatureSensing Logs To Measure Zonal

Coverage During and After Wellbore

Treatments With Coiled Tubing
P.M.J. Tardy, SPE, P. Ramondenc, SPE, X. Weng, SPE, R. Burgos, SPE, F. Baez, SPE, and
K. Yekta-Ganjeh, SPE, Schlumberger

Summary
Distributed temperature sensing (DTS) is a fiber-optic technology
that provides continuous temperature profiles along the length of
a well. When placing the fiber inside a coiled tubing (CT), one
can monitor the temperature evolution while pumping as well as
during a shut-in period. This evolution, in turn, yields some indications about the fluid-placement performance or zonal coverage. So
far, interpretation of such DTS traces has been mostly qualitative.
The work presented here demonstrates how DTS data can be used,
coupled with an inversion algorithm and a forward model of fluid
injection into a reservoir, to quantify the intake profile of treatment
fluid along the wellbore. Recent field cases of matrix acidizing
treatments in carbonate reservoirs are analyzed to illustrate the
workflow and how it may yield valuable information.
Introduction
Temperature logging has been used extensively in oil fields with
the goal of determining downhole fluid-injection and production
profiles, and various temperature models have been proposed to
explain downhole temperature profiles (Hill 1990). It is possible to
measure temperature using fiber-optic technology (Lpez-Higuera
2002), and, since the early 1990s, fiber optics was considered to
measure downhole temperatures (Lequime et al. 1991). Logging
the full length of the well at regular and high-frequency time
and space intervals without hardware movement followed, allowing engineers to pinpoint the time and position of temperature
changes as they occur (Brown et al. 2000; Brown and Hartog
2002; Erlandsen et al. 2003; Brown 2008). In Witterholt and Tixier
(1972), the use of temperature logging is studied for flow profiling in water-injection wells, both during and after injection. It is
stressed that limitations in the interpretation may arise because of
shut-in durations being too small for the temperature measurement
to distinguish between moderate and deeper fluid invasions. It is
also shown that transversal heat conduction may smear the actual
flow profile when injection is long enough. These findings are also
supported in Smith and Steffensen (1975), where the effects of the
wellbore arrangement and injection history are also identified as
important factors for the interpretation accuracy. These conclusions will be reinvestigated here in the context of CT treatments.
In Glasbergen et al. (2009, 2010) and Sierra et al. (2008), the
use of DTS is proposed to monitor fluid placement in real time.
A succession of DTS snapshots is taken during the pumping and
shown to yield information on fluid placement and fluid-diversion
effectiveness. This technique is suitable for relatively moderate to
low injection rates during bullheading, where temperature front
movements may be seen with sufficient accuracy by the DTS. This
technique does not yet apply to treatments being spotted through
a moving and DTS-carrying CT nor to DTS acquired during a
post-injection shut-in, as we investigate here. The analysis of DTS
Copyright 2012 Society of Petroleum Engineers
This paper (SPE 143331) was accepted for presentation at the SPE Coiled Tubing and
Well Intervention Conference and Exhibition, The Woodlands, Texas, USA, 56 April 2011,
and revised for publication. Original manuscript received for review 11 April 2011. Revised
manuscript received for review 20 July 2011. Paper peer approved 27 July 2011.

78

logs acquired during a post-injection shut-in has been performed

previously to estimate acid placement (Garzon et al. 2010) and
also successfully in real time (Cantaloube 2010), but always on
a qualitative basis.
The method proposed here particularly applies to chemical
treatments with CT and DTS deployment, during which fluid
placement is of the utmost importance. One of the methods main
benefits is to give the operator the ability to assess zonal coverage during the job, thus allowing monitoring the efficacy of the
treatment while on site. In turn, this further enables adjusting
the remaining stages of the job to optimize the treatment being
pumped. Poor zonal coverage during chemical treatments often
means poor later performance of the well and, ultimately, money
lost by both operator and service company. One of the keys to
improving the quality of such jobs is to assess treatment efficacy
in real time with the crew still on site.
Using the method described here, one uses DTS logs acquired
during a post-injection shut-in to quantify the treatment zonal
coverage. To yield a reliable and fast inversion of the temperature
profiles, the right balance had to be found between inversion
algorithms and modeling of the physical phenomena responsible
for temperature changes. The paper also shows the limitations of
the proposed technique. The sequel to this paper focuses on matrix
acidizing treatments, particularly in horizontal wells, but can be
generalized to other treatments.
Description of the Concept
The ability to move the CT along the wellbore improves the chances
of spotting treatments into the required zones. This is particularly
true in long openhole horizontal wells. In an effort to optimize zonal
coverage, engineers often try to estimate whether all the zones of
the reservoir have been treated successfully. Taking advantage of
its enclosed DTS optic cable, the engineers bring the CT to total
depth and observe a shut-in period just after the injection. During
the shut-in, the DTS logs the wellbore temperature profile continuously. On the basis of the temperature profile and its evolution in
time, engineers identify which zones have been treated and which
have not. This information may lead engineers to design and pump
a new treatment where diverters and acids are spotted where needed
to ensure maximum contact with the other zones. The procedure
may be repeated until the sought result is obtained.
One key to this concept is the ability to identify thief zones
from the temperature profiles. When a fluid is pumped from the
surface, in most cases, it reaches the bottomhole at a temperature
lower than that of the reservoir. The opposite scenario may occur
in shallow reservoirs with higher surface temperatures. If a cooler
fluid is injected, the zones taking more fluids are likely to cool
down more than the others. Additionally, because they contain a
larger volume of cooler fluid, the rate at which they warm back
to their original value will be lower. These observations can be
reversed if a warmer fluid is injected. These features may be seen
on the DTS logs. Named by some as cold spots or hot spots,
eyeballs, or anomalies, they provide the basis of qualitative DTS
log interpretation after injection. In order to obtain quantitative
estimations of the zonal coverage, some new mathematical and
February 2012 SPE Production & Operations

t1

Temperature
tj tnt

Injected volume per unit length

Measured depth

MD1

DTS
Inversion

MDi
MDns
DTS logs during shun

Zonal coverage log

Fig. 1Illustration of the concept: transforming DTS logs acquired

during a post-injection shut-in into a zonal-coverage log.

numerical models have been developed here. While it may be

useful to develop a full thermal model into a comprehensive
treatment-placement simulator that integrates fluid and flow distribution at all depths and times during a treatment, the typical
computational times and uncertainty levels in the required inputs
prohibit this approach. Instead, for a fast on-site interpretation of
the DTS data, a new approach has been developed that consists of
analyzing each temperature measurement along the DTS (up to a
few thousands along the production interval) independently for the
full duration of the shut-in time (typically between 30 minutes and
3 hours). Such an approach may lead to results much faster while
encompassing enough physics to yield meaningful results. Fig. 1
illustrates this concept. The temperature measurements acquired
during shut-in at successive time intervals t1, t2, tnt , and at the
measured depths MD1, MD2, , MDns along the wellbore may
be analyzed and transformed into a zonal-coverage log providing
the fluid invasion achieved at the end of the pumping for each
measured depth MDi (i = 1, ns).
Description of the Inversion Methodology
and the Model
The Forward Model. We denote MDi the measured depth of
Sensor i (i = 1, ns). For each MDi, the forward model simulates
the injection of a user-dened uid into the matrix using the userdened wellbore arrangement and reservoir properties. Currently,
the model accounts for the following physical phenomena:
Heat-transfer coefficients between CT and annulus or annulus
and rock or casing face accounting for advection, conduction, and
natural convection
Exothermic-reaction model when acid reacts with the formation mineral
Heat advection and diffusion in the rock through pore fluids
and matrix grains
Heat transfer between pore fluids and matrix grains (including
thermal nonequilibrium between fluid and grains)
Change of temperature in the formation through the JouleThomson (JT) effect
A forward model (Tan et al. 2009) has been proposed for temperature prediction during acid treatments in carbonates, but this
model does not support CT operations and heat-transfer mechanisms between CT, wellbore, and completion materials. The model
used in this paper, including the exothermic reaction and all the
heat-transfer mechanisms, is the subject of a separate publication
(Tardy and Chang 2011). When low pressure drops are observed
during pumping, the JT effect may be neglected to avoid having to
solve the pressure and to reduce computation time. The sequence
of events is the following:
1. Simulate injection of the user-defined fluid at a constant rate
qinj(MDi), at a constant temperature Tinj(MDi), and for a duration
equal to tinj(MDi) at z = MDi.
February 2012 SPE Production & Operations

2. Stop injection, initialize TCT_sim(0, MDi) and annulus temperature Tan_sim(0, MDi) to Tinj(MDi).
3. Set the reservoir flow velocity to qres(MDi) if required.
4. Simulate the shut-in for a duration equal to tsh(MDi) using
the formation-temperature profile calculated at the end of Step 1
as the initial temperature condition in the reservoir.
5. Record TCT_sim (tj,MDi) at the exact times tj( j =1, nt) at which
TDTS_act is known.
The Inverse Model. On the basis of the forward model, a model
is developed to simulate the injection of the treatment uid into
the reservoir at a xed measured depth, denoted MD, followed by
a shut-in period. At z = MD, during the injection, injection temperature and rate into the reservoir may vary with time. The nature
of the injected uid may change, too. Accounting for such changes
requires the use of time-consuming placement simulators, which
was previously discarded. The rst simplication consists of trying
to achieve a match of the temperature evolution observed by the
DTS at z = MD during shut-in, with these two parameters:
An apparent constant injection temperature, denoted
Tinj(MD)
An apparent and constant injection rate per unit length of
well, denoted qinj(MD)
These two constant and unknown parameters may be seen as
averages of the actual rate and temperature history at z = MD.
As for the injected fluid, it is assumed that its thermal properties
(heat-capacity, heat-conductivity, JT, and thermal-expansion coefficients) are constant in time. This is not a significant limitation in
practice because most treatment fluids are water-based (including
most acids). Assuming that the relevant reservoir properties and the
initial reservoir temperature, denoted Tres, are known at z = MD,
the process of injecting a fluid at a rate qinj, for a duration tinj and
at a temperature Tinj, followed by a shut-in, for a duration tsh is
simulated with a forward model to yield the temperature distribution in the reservoir, in the annulus, and in the CT at z = MD and
at any time t during the shut-in. The simulated temperature inside
the CT, denoted TCT_sim can be compared to the actual DTS data
TDTS_act. Modifications to qinj and Tinj can be made iteratively until
the following match condition is achieved:
For all time t between tinj and tinj + tsh ,
TCT _ sim ( t , MD ) TDTS_act ( t , MD ) < 

, . . . . . . . . . . . . (1)

where is some small number. When Eq. 1 is satisfied, Tinj is stored

with the local injected volume per unit length, vinj:

 inj ( MD ) = qinj ( MD ) tinj. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (2)

Once the match is obtained at z = MD, the next sensor on
the DTS string, located at z = MD+z may be considered. The
process of adjusting Tinj and qinj until Eq. 1 is satisfied constitutes
the inverse model. Additional and optional parameters may be
considered by the inverse model when considered uncertain:
tinj (MD): the local apparent injection duration at z = MD
Tres (MD): the local apparent reservoir temperature at z =
MD
qres (MD): a local apparent residual reservoir flow rate per
unit length during shut-in, at z = MD
For each given depth z = MD, several solutions may be found to
provide a satisfying match. These solutions may be stored to provide a range of potential scenarios to the engineer as well as error
bars on those parameters. The inversion algorithm is illustrated in
Fig. 2. To solve Eq. 1, at a given depth z = MD, a method of least
squares is used to measure the error between TCT_sim (t, MD) and
TDTS_act (t, MD) for all t corresponding to the shut-in. Then, the error
is minimized using the LevenbergMarquardt algorithm (LMA)
(Levenberg 1944). The LMA automatically adjusts Tinj(MD) and
qinj(MD) [and tinj (MD), Tres (MD), and qres (MD) if selected] until
Eq. 1 is satisfied.
79

annulus

Step #

CT

w
0

Action
Simulated and actual temperature for Sensor i, Iteraon k

Input reservoir properes, wellbore properes for sensor i

DTS cable

w
1

Temperature

TDTS_act,i
Sensor i

Inial guess (k=0): (Tinj,qinj,tinj,Tres,qres)i,k=0

z=MD

w
2

Simulate injecon with (Tinj,qinj,tinj, Tres,qres)i,k

w
3

Simulate shun aer injecon with (qres)i,k

w
4

Compare TCT_sim,i,k with TDTS_act,i during shun

no

k=k+1, new guess (Tinj,qinj,tinj,Tres,qres)i,k

Goto step 0

TCT_sim,I,k

yes
Match?

Next sensor: i = i+1

store(Tinj,qinj,tinj,Tres,qres)i,k
no
yes

More
soluons?

t
tinj 1

t2

t3

t4

tN-2

tN-1 tN=tinj+tsh

Time during shun

(a)

(b)

Fig. 2DTS inversion algorithm for a given Sensor i along the DTS cable (a) and example of simulated vs. actual temperature
evolution during shut-in for Sensor i at Iteration k (b).

Rock type: Limestone ( = 0.1, s = 2750 kg/m3, Cp,s = 830

J/kg.K, s = 3.3 W/m/K)
No residual flow during shut-in (qres = 0 m3/s)
The initial piston-like temperature profile (a sharp temperature
discontinuity between Tres and Tinj), before shut-in, used here for
Question 1, assumes that fluid placement is fast so that conduction
is negligible during injection. In reality, and particularly in CT
treatments of long wells, conduction will spread the temperature
profile radially in the matrix. Neglected here for simplicity, the
effect is studied later for Question 3. Thus, this sensitivity analysis
is conservative, and the warmback times illustrated in Fig. 3 may
be significantly smaller in practice. In this context, Fig. 3 shows
that, for fluid invasions beyond approximately 1.3 m, the shut-in
time must exceed 5 hours for the DTS to detect any warmback. It
also shows that heat transfer within the wellbore levels the annulus
and CT temperature within approximately 1 hour (mostly because
of natural convection). This implies that the exact position of the
fiber cable in the CT and that of the CT in the wellbore does not
affect temperature evolution significantly past 1 hour (see discussion on eccentricity later).
To answer Question 2, the ideal situation is to have some
flowmeter data acquired during injection or during post-treatment
flowback. Because DTS is used here as a means to determine

Validation of the Concept

In order to evaluate the limits of these models, the following questions are considered:
1. How long does the shut-in have to be for a reliable interpretation?
2. Can it be proved that the correct invasion can be determined?
3. What are the limits under which the model is capable of
determining the zonal coverage?
To answer Question 1, a dimensional analysis of the problem
may be performed to evaluate the time scales controlling the temperature evolution during a shut-in. The dimensionless parameters
of the model are numerous and because of the complexity of the
wellbore-heat-transfer model, it seems more informative to perform a series of simulations with typical field conditions, and with
the following parameters for sensitivity analysis:
Shut-in time up to 5 hours
Initial piston-like fluid invasion with rinv up to 2 m
Temperature contrast TresTinj = 1 K, 10 K (needed by the
model for natural convection calculations in the wellbore)
Open hole, wellbore radius rw = 8.54 cm
Injected fluid: Water ( f = 0.5 cp, f = 1000 kg/m3, Cp,f = 4180
J/kgK, f = 0.6 1/K, f = 0.7 W/m/K)
1

1
15 min
15 min
30 min
30 min
1 hour
1 hour
2 hours
2 hours
3 hours
3 hours
4 hours
4 hours
5 hours
5 hours

0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0

15 min
15 min
30 min
30 min
1 hour
1 hour
2 hours
2 hours
3 hours
3 hours
4 hours
4 hours
5 hours
5 hours

0.9

Dimensionless Temperature

Dimensionless Temperature

0.9

0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.2

1.4

1.6

1.8

0.2

(a)

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.2

1.4

1.6

1.8

Fluid Invasion Radius, m

Fluid Invasion Radius, m

(b)

Fig. 3Conservative dimensionless temperature recovery in the CT {green, [(TCT_simTinj)/(TresTinj)]} and next to rock face {red,
[(TrwTinj)/(TresTinj)]} during the post-injection shut-in and for various fluid-invasion radii and shut-in times tsh ranging from 15
minutes to 5 hours. (a) TinjTres = 10 K. (b) TinjTres = 1 K.
80

February 2012 SPE Production & Operations

Simulated Fluid Invasion

Depth A er Injec on

Simulated DTS logs

durin

Reservoir

334

Two examples of warmback curves

TCT_sim(z=2012m) and
TCT_sim(z=2085m)

332

2000

10 md
2010

330

328

100 md
2020

Temperature, K

20 md
0

2030

5 md
0

MD, m

2040

10 md
0

2050

1 md
0

2060

1 md

326

324

322

320
0

2070

30 md

318
0

2080

0.1 md

316
0

2090

30 md
0

314
314

316

318

320

322

324

326

328

330

332

334

0.5

1.5

Temperature, K

2.5

3.5

4
x 10

Time, seconds

Fig. 4Case 1.

4. Like Case 3 but 50 gal/ft (instead of 100 gal/ft) by continuous pumping at 1 bbl/min
The simulated treatment coverage and DTS are illustrated in
Fig. 4. The large range of permeability offers an opportunity to
test the model in the extremes of shallow and deep treatments.
The parameters inverted here are qinj and Tinj; an average reservoir
temperature Tres = 333 K is assumed in the reservoir. For Case 1,
Fig. 5 shows that using average Tres does not prevent a satisfying
match of the invasion profile, provided that the shut-in time is equal
to 2 hours or more. This shut-in-time lower limit is less than what is
predicted from Fig. 3, and this shows that conduction during injection plays a significant role in reducing the shut-in times required
to estimate the deeper invasion (up to 3 m here). The invasion in
the second, more-permeable zone remains slightly underestimated.
The slight underestimation in the bottom zone, beyond 2 hours,
is because of heat transfer in the wellbore causing the fluid to
warm up more at the bottom than at the top. The same comments
hold for Case 2, showing a small sensitivity on the actual pumping-rate history in the limits tested. Case 3 (Fig. 6) shows more
sensitivity on the injection temperature history [TCT_sim(t, z = CD),
the injected-fluid temperature when it reaches z = CD in the CT].
This history depends on surface temperature and wellbore heat
transfer between surface and the top of the reservoir (a function of
the wellbore arrangement and geothermal profile). Large variations
of the bottomhole temperature (BHT) during pumping may limit
the accuracy of the inversion (Case 3); in particular, it may lead
to an underestimation of the invasion depth where the treatment

inflow profiles, the authors do not possess a field case for which
another production-logging tool is run in addition to the DTS.
Therefore, for this analysis, a synthetic DTS response is created
using a thermal treatment injection simulator. The simulator used
for that purpose is the thermal version of the simulator reported
in Thabet et al. (2009). It may be used to simulate the flow fields
observed in wellbores and reservoirs during treatment injection,
with or without CT, and to simulate the temperature distribution
and evolution in the CT, in the annulus, and in the reservoir. The
following treatment is simulated:
Vertical well producing from a 100-m-long OH section, casing-shoe depth (CD) = 2000 m, total depth (TD) = 2100 m, and
rw = 7.97 cm.
CT starts pumping at z = TD, moves up to z = CD, with an
average coverage of 100 gal/ft of an inert water-based treatment
fluid. The injection duration is 400 minutes.
The reservoir-temperature gradient is 0.025 K/m, Tres(CD) =
331.9 K, Tres(TD) = 334.4 K,  = 0.15, the formation is limestone,
and the zone permeabilities are illustrated in Fig. 4.
Shut-in is simulated for up to 8 hours for sensitivity analysis.
Four different scenarios are considered:
1. Continuous pumping at 2 bbl/min, TCT_sim (t, z = CD) = 315 K
2. Pumping at 1 bbl/min while pulling out of hole (POOH)
and 3 bbl/min while running into hole (RIH), TCT_sim(t, z = CD) =
315 K
3. Like Case 1 but TCT_sim(t, z = CD) declines linearly from 333
to 315.0 K over the injection duration
Fluid Invasion Profile

Fluid Invasion Profile

Fluid Invasion Profile

Fluid Invasion Profile

Fluid Invasion Profile

Fluid Invasion Profile

Fluid Invasion Profile

2000

2010

2010

2020

2020

2030

2030

2040

2050

1 hour

2060

2 hours

MD, m

MD, m

Fluid Invasion Profile

2000

2040

4 hours

2050

8 hours

1 hour

2060

2 hours

4 hours

2070

2070

2080

2080

2090

2090

(a)

8 hours

(b)

Fig. 5(a) Case 1, comparison between actual (green) invasion profiles and inversed ones (black), 1-, 2-, 4-, 8-hour shut-ins. (b)
Case 2, comparison between actual (green) invasion profiles and inversed ones (black), 1-, 2-, 4-, 8-hour shut-ins.
February 2012 SPE Production & Operations

81

Fluid Invasion Profile

Fluid Invasion Profile

Fluid Invasion Profile

Fluid Invasion Profile

Fluid Invasion Profile

2000

2010

2010

2020

2020

2030

2030

2040

2040

2050

1 hour

2060

2 hours

MD, m

MD, m

Fluid Invasion Profile

2000

4 hours

8 hours

2050

100 gal/

2060

2070

2070

2080

2080

2090

2090

50 gal/

4 0

0.5

(a)

1.5

2.5

(b)

Fig. 6(a) Case 3: comparison between actual (green) invasion profiles and inversed ones (black), 1-, 2-, 4-, 8-hour shut-in. (b)
Case 3 (left) vs. Case 4 (right), 4-hour shut-in.

length along the zone. Given that the typical resolution with DTS
is approximately 1 m, then for a thief zone of, say, 1 m, zcond(rw)
does not affect early DTS data significantly if smaller than, say,
10 cm. Fig. 7 shows that zcond(rw) = 10 cm is reached after approximately 3 hours of injection. Thus, it is possible that early shut-in
DTS is affected by smearing, as found in Witterholt et al. (1972).
However, if rT > 10 zcond and if later time DTS can measure rinv,
Eq. 7, derived from Eqs. 3 through 6, may be used determine the
range of rinv affected by smearing for a given injection time. Eq. 7 is
plotted in Fig. 7 with typical values. It shows that the larger rinv is,
the larger tmax can be to obtain a negligible smearing. For instance,
should a maximum rinv = 3 m be detected within a 3-hour shut-in,
the late time DTS would not suffer from smearing if the treatment
is pumped in less than 60 hours. For rinv = 1 m, the treatment would
need to be pumped in less than 7 hours.

goes the deepest. This is because of Tinj(z = MD) being strongly

influenced by the late values of TCT_sim(t, z = CD), because they
control what the early DTS logs show. The first DTS starting
closer [TCT_sim(tinj+tsh, z = CD)] forces the model to choose this
value as a good approximation for Tinj(z = MD). Thus, in order to
match the warmback rate, invasions shallower than reality must
be used. Unless a more detailed injection-temperature history is
used instead of a constant Tinj(z = MD), the model may be better
understood as a tool to provide the invasion profile of the cooler
portion of the fluid at latter time, how cool being defined by Tinj(z =
MD).
Finally, Case 4 (Fig. 6) shows that, for a lower overall coverage,
the effect seen in Case 3 may be reduced. Lower volumes lead to
earlier injection temperature to be detected sooner by the DTS.
Question 3 has already been answered partially. Other limitations will be documented when considering the case studies. One
potential limitation reported in Witterholt and Tixier (1972) relates
to the smearing of temperature profiles by transversal conduction
and its effect on depth estimation. If we consider the case of injecting, at a rate qinj, for duration tinj(rinv), a fluid into a thief zone of
thickness h, up to an invasion radius rinv, then, if conduction is negligible during injection, the temperature front rT in the thief zone is
given by Eq. 3. Assuming that reservoir fluids have heat-transport
properties similar to that of the injected fluid, a length scale zcond
for the transversal conduction into the surrounding lower-permeability zones is given by Eq. 5 and zcond is the average conduction

10

10

 pm =  f + (1  ) s ,  pmC p, pm =  f C p, f + (1  ) sC p,ss .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (4)

120

-1

-2

10

qinjtinj ( rinv )
 f C p, f qinjtinj ( rinv )
, rinv = rw2 +
 pmC p, pm
h
h .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (3)

Maximum Pumping Time, hours

zcond, m

10

rT ( rinv ) = rw2 +

-1

10

10

t (hours)

10

100

80

60

40

20

0.5

1.5

2.5

3.5

rinv, m

Fig. 7Conduction length and maximum pumping time computed from Eqs. 3 through 7 with typical values.
82

February 2012 SPE Production & Operations

<- More s m.

baseline

baseline
4600

4600

4800

4800

er diversion ->
0

5000

5000

5200

5200

Plugged by diverter
<- More s m. a er diversion ->

MD, m

MD, m

<- More s m. a er diversion ->

5400

<- More s m. a er diversion ->

0

5400

No temperature
perturba on below
this line.
DTS inversion not
possible

5600

5600

CT stop at 5660 m

5800

5800

6000

6000

6200

6200

345

350

355

360

365

370

375

380

385 5

Temperature, K

350

355

360

365

370

375

380

385

(a)

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25 0

m3/m

Temperature, K

No temperature
data below this line
due to wellbore
obstru on

0.2

0.4

0. 6

m3/m

(b)

Fig. 8Well A. (a) Shut-in DTS after Treatment 1 (left) and after Treatment 2 (right). First DTS log in blue, last in red. Green lines
indicate TBHA measured by a CT-mounted gauge during the RIH before shut-in. The baseline DTS is in light blue (left graph). (b)
Logs of invasion profiles after shut-in DTS inversion for Treatments 1 and 2.

z cond ( r )

pm tinj ( rinv ) tinj ( r )

 pmC p, pm

,rrw r rT ( rinv ) , zcond

pm
rT ( rinv )
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(5)
 pmf C p, pm
3

pm = f s1.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (6)

2
 f C p, f 2 rinv

rw 2 1 .
 p,m
rw

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (7)

max
rT > 10 zcond tinj ( rinv ) < tinj
= 0.09

In this study, the CT/wellbore arrangement is assumed to be

concentric. In reality, it may have any unknown degree of eccentricity at any z = MD. However, it should be noted that, as long as
the shut-in lasts more than 1 hour (Fig. 3), the CT and rock-face
temperatures should be close and the sensitivity on the eccentricity vanishes. Studies published in Zagromov and Lyalikov (1966)
and in Kuehn and Goldstein (1976) suggest that, as long as the
CT does not touch the rock face or casing, the eccentricity has
a minimal effect on the wellbore heat transfer. If it does touch,
a 1-hour or longer shut-in should be used to minimize potential
interpretation errors.
Finally, it must be recognized that the current forward model
assumes a uniform matrix flow at the depth under consideration
(z = MDi), an assumption that may not be valid in the presence of
natural fractures. In this case, the temperature distribution around
the wellbore may deviate from a uniform profile and the temperature during shut-in may evolve differently. The effect of natural
fractures on the interpretation methodology proposed here is the
subject of current research activities.
Case Studies
For the following two wells, before the pumping of any treatment
fluids, a baseline DTS is acquired during a shut-in observed after
the CT reaches TD for the first time. This baseline DTS provides
some indication of the initial reservoir-temperature profile, Tres
(MD). Though the following wells may be described as horizontal,
the TVD difference between toe and heel is significant and may
February 2012 SPE Production & Operations

cause the original reservoir temperature to vary by several degrees

from CD to TD. In the following, the accuracy of the inversion
is measured by the error function e. We report results of the DTS
inversion only when e < 10%, a threshold below which the results
are considered accurate in this work.

1
e=

ns nt i =1,ns , j =1,nt

TCT _ sim ( t j , MDi )

TDTS _ act ( t j , MDi )

.
max j TDTS _ act ( t j , MDi )

min j TDTS _ act ( t j , MDi )

. . . . . . (8)

In the following cases, only Tinj and qinj were calculated, while
other parameters may have been used for sensitivity analysis.
Well A. Well A is a 1945-m-long openhole gas producer drilled
in a dolomitic formation, located in the Turner Valley in Alberta,
Canada. TD is at 6370 m, and the average BHT is approximately
380 K. The TVD difference between toe and heel is 260 m.
Treatment-1 Description. The wellbore was first treated with
150 m3 of 15% hydrochloric acid (HCl), pumped at 2 bbl/min both
while POOH and RIH. A temperature gauge on the outside of the
bottomhole assembly (BHA) at the end of the CT and linked to
surface by an optic cable measured the annulus temperature TBHA,
next to the BHA, during the whole job. The first DTS was logged
20 minutes after the CT reached TD, at which time the pump was
stopped. The DTS logs plotted in Fig. 8 were acquired for 2 hours
and averaged over 2-minute intervals with a spatial resolution of
1 m. Fig. 8 clearly indicates that, beyond 5475 m, no warmback
or coolback occurred during the post-Treatment-1 shut-in. Beyond
5475 m, all temperatures measured during the job appear to coincide: the DTS during the shut-in, the baseline DTS, and TBHA during the Treatment-1 RIH. This seems to indicate that heat transfer
to the CT fluid is sufficient to bring its temperature close to the
reservoir temperature beyond this distance. Therefore, DTS interpretation cannot be performed beyond 5475 m in this case because
it relies on analyzing the perturbations generated by injecting fluids
at a temperature different from that of the reservoir. A cold spot
could be seen on the baseline DTS between 5700 m and 5800 m,
suggesting the presence of a thief zone. Additionally, it must be
noted that there was no sign of an exothermic effect because of
the acid/rock reaction in the wellbore because the fluid beyond
83

384

1500

383.5

1250

383

1000
750

382.5

TBHA

382

500

pBHA, psi

TBHA, K

pBHA

250

381.5

381
0

20

40

60

80

100

120

Time since TD (min)

Fig. 9JT effect through BHA during first RIH, CT static at

TD, Well B.

5475 m in the wellbore was pumped close to reservoir temperature

and had remained at this temperature in the openhole wellbore
for more than 2 hours, as shown by the DTS and confirmed by
TBHA (not plotted during the shut-in here). The reason is unclear
and may have to do with the nature of the dolomite. Therefore,
the exothermic effect (calibrated on limestone in the model) was
switched off in the present analysis.
Treatment-1 Interpretation by DTS Inversion. The result
of the inversion process of the DTS logs, for the sensors located
between CD (CD = 4425 m) and MD = 5475 m, is plotted in
Fig. 8. The total volume of injected fluid in this upper section, as
determined by the inversion, is 48 m3. If the inversion is accurate,
this suggests that the lower section MD > 5475 m received
approximately 100 m3, and this may correspond to the zone
identified as a cold spot on the baseline (57005800 m). Eqs. 3
through 5 suggest that transversal conduction may have smeared
the injection profile in the upper section. However, the invasion
profile in Fig. 8 should be indicative of the upper-section zonal
coverage. The CPU time for the inversion with 1,050 sensors is
2 minutes. The average relative error e is approximately 3%. The
coverage obtained after Treatment 1 is compared with that obtained
after Treatment 2.
Treatment-2 Description. Suspecting a thief zone, a
viscoelastic self-diverting acid (containing 20% HCl) was spotted
in a second treatment between 5700 and 5800 m. Some diverter
was also spotted in the upper section. Overall, 60 m3 of 15% HCl
and 60 m3 of the self-diverting acid was pumped at a continuous
2 bbl/min during a POOH from TD to CD, followed by 80 m3
of 15% HCl during an RIH stage back to 5660 m. A wellbore
obstruction at MD = 5660 m prevented the CT from reaching

TD, and the DTS could be logged only between CD and 5660 m
during the subsequent 2-hour shut-in. The first DTS was logged
approximately 15 minutes after the pump was stopped. The shut-in
DTS logs are plotted in Fig. 8. The logs indicate little warmback
between 5300 and 5660 m, with temperatures below reservoir
temperature, suggesting that a large volume was injected in this
section. The analysis follows.
Treatment-2 Interpretation by DTS Inversion. Because it is
very unlikely that the reservoir temperatures warmed back to their
initial values after the Treatment-1 shut-in, the reservoir-temperature
profile determined by DTS inversion after the Treatment-1 shut-in
is used to initialize the reservoir temperatures for Treatment 2. The
results of the inversion process of the DTS logs for the sensors located
between CD (CD = 4425 m) and MD = 5560 m are plotted in Fig.
8. As mentioned, little warmback is observed beyond 5300 m, and
this leads to less-accurate temperature inversion in this zone: While
e is approximately 4% above 5300 m, it increases progressively
to 9% at 5660 m. The total estimated volume is 240 bbl, which is
40 bbl more than the injected volume. This error may be because
of some smearing below 5200 m because of the large pumping
time (approximately 10 hours). The volume from CD to 5300 m is
approximately 120 bbl. Despite this, the logs on Fig. 8 suggest that
the diverter fulfilled its task successfully by increasing invasion depth
after Treatment 2 in zones less stimulated after Treatment 1 and by
efficiently plugging the thief zone between 5000 and 5100 m.
Well B. Well B is a 2018-m-long openhole gas producer drilled
in a dolomitic formation, located in the Turner Valley in Alberta,
Canada. TD is at 6607 m, and the average BHT is approximately
380 K. The TVD difference between toe and heal is 253 m.
Treatment-1 Description. The wellbore was first treated with
85 m3 of 15% HCl, pumped at an average rate of 1.4 bbl/min during POOH and RIH. Like for Well A, TBHA was measured during
the full job. A pressure gauge on the outside of the BHA and one
inside the BHA were used to measure the pressure drop pBHA
across the BHA. During the first RIH (water wash) before Treatment 1, with the CT static at TD, Fig. 9 shows that by increasing
pBHA from 500 to 1,300 psi, TBHA increased from 381.7 to 383.2
K. This apparent fluid heating by throttling corresponds to a
downhole JT coefficient of 0.275 K/MPa, close to that of water
(0.24 K/MPa). During Treatment 1, pBHA ranged between 1,100
and 1,300 psi, causing fluid heating through the BHA by approximately 2.052.44 K. The first DTS was logged 10 minutes after the
CT reached TD, at which time the pump was stopped. The DTS
logs plotted in Fig. 10 were acquired for 1.5 hours and averaged
over 2-minute intervals with a spatial resolution of 0.5 m. Fig. 10
indicates that, between 5300 and 6000 m, little evolution occurred

4600

4600

4800

4800

5000

5000

5200

5200

5400

5400

baseline

5800

5800

Perturbaon too 0
small for DTS
inversion between 0
these 2 lines.
Average prole by
volume balance. 0

6000

6000

6200

6200

6400

6400

MD, m

MD, m

baseline

5600

6600
350

6600

355

360

365

370

375

Temperature, K
(a)

5600

380

385

355

360

365

370

375

380

385

More
even
prole
aer
diverter

Perturbaon too
small for DTS
inversion below
this line.
Average prole by
volume balance.

0.05

0.1

0.15

m3/m

Temperature,K

0.2

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

m3/m

(b)

Fig. 10Well B. (a) Shut-in DTS after Treatment 1 (left) and after Treatment 2 (right). First DTS log in blue, last in red. The baseline
DTS is in light blue (left graph). (b) Logs of invasion profiles after shut-in DTS inversion for Treatments 1 and 2.
84

February 2012 SPE Production & Operations

after the first 5 minutes, suggesting that either a large volume of

fluid was injected in this interval or that the injection temperature
was very close to the local reservoir temperature. The cooldown
observed beyond 5800 m is explained by the JT effect mentioned
earlier, with local temperatures up to 2.5 K above initial reservoir
temperatures. Note that, as for Well A, there seems to be a depth
beyond which the fluid exits the CT at the same temperature as
that of the reservoir. In this case, this depth is 5800 m, larger than
the 5475 m of Well A, and this shift may be because of the JT
effect. Beyond 5800 m, the JT effect forced the fluid to cool back
to reservoir temperature during the shut-in while, above 5800 m,
the injection at lower temperatures forced the fluid to warm back
to reservoir temperature.
Treatment-1 Interpretation by DTS Inversion. Attempts to
determine the acid coverage by DTS inversion between 5300 and
6000 m give rise to large values of e, up to 30%. This is because
of the nonuniqueness of the solution when no significant change of
temperature occurs with time. Thus, the DTS logs are not inverted
here between 5300 and 6000 m, and the average volume pumped
in this interval is calculated by volume balance once inversion
on the rest of the well is performed. The zonal-coverage log is
plotted in Fig. 10. The total volume injected where the DTS can
be inverted is predicted to be approximately 30 m3, implying that
approximately 55 m3 was placed between 5300 and 5800 m. Those
55 m3, and the injection temperature being close to the reservoir
temperature between 5300 and 5800 m, explain the little evolution
of the DTS there. The average relative error e above 5300 m is
approximately 4% and is approximately 7% beyond 6000 m. The
coverage obtained after Treatment 1 is compared with that obtained
after Treatment 2 later.
Treatment-2 Description. In the goal of improving zonal
coverage, 70 m3 of viscoelastic self-diverting acid (containing 20%
HCl) and 12 m3 of 15% HCl were pumped during a POOH from TD
to CD, at a rate of 1.6 bbl/min. Then, 53 m3 was pumped at the same
rate during a RIH back to TD. DTS logging started 18 minutes after
the CT reached TD, at which stage the pump was stopped and the
shut-in lasted 1 hour and 12 minutes. The same JT effect through
the BHA occurred during the pumping of Treatment 2, with pBHA
reaching 1480 psi. As with Treatment 1, the temperature evolution
beyond 5800 m was minimal and the average coverage beyond this
depth must be determined by volume balance once inversion on the
rest of the well is performed (see next subsection).
Treatment-2 Interpretation by DTS Inversion. Because the
reservoir temperature cannot have relaxed back to the original
values after Treatment 1, the initial reservoir-temperature profile
for Treatment 2 is taken as that calculated after Treatment 1.
Attempts to determine the acid coverage yield large errors beyond
5800 m because of the minimal temperature evolution. Above
5800 m, the average error e is approximately 4% and the inversion
predicts a total volume of 40 m3 in this zone. By volume balance,
approximately 95 m3 is expected to have been pumped beyond
5800 m. The zonal-coverage log is plotted in Fig. 10 and can be
compared with the one determined after Treatment 1. It shows
that diversion is expected to have taken place mostly from the
53006000 m zone to the 58006600 m zone and that the upper
section was treated more evenly during Treatment 2.
Conclusions
This study shows that DTS may be used during a shut-in subsequent to a CT treatment to reveal the fluid-invasion profile in the
formation and to allow engineers to adjust and optimize the treatment while on site. It shows that important features characterizing
the zonal coverage may not be easily identified by a qualitative
naked-eye interpretation of the DTS and that the proposed method
may be used for a more-accurate and quantitative analysis. Certain
limitations have also been documented and lead to the following
recommendations.
Operational recommendations:
Shut-in times should be at least 2 hours, preferably 3 hours, and
longer if possible.
o To maximize the depth of investigation of the fluid invasion
and to improve inversion accuracy
February 2012 SPE Production & Operations

o To minimize the effect of invasion-profile smearing, which

may hide some of the coverage contrasts
o To minimize the interpretation sensitivity on the actual CT/
annulus arrangement
Pumping times should be minimized to reduce smearing and
improve inversion accuracy.
Accurate initial-reservoir-temperature baseline must be recorded
with a sufficiently long shut-in (2 hours or more), and perturbations (such as preflush circulation) should be avoided as much
as possible.
Simulations suggest that
Fluid-invasion depths up to 3 m may be measured by observing
shut-in times of 3 hours or more.
Actual CT pump-rate history and actual CT eccentricity are not
major limitations to the proposed method.
Large BHT variations may lead to errors, but a qualitative profile
may still be obtained and the proposed method still informs about
where the cooler (later) injected fluid was placed.
Smearing can be reduced by reducing injection time as much as
possible, especially for shallower treatments.
Injection-shut-in sequences may affect the interpretation for the
later shut-in stages because of cumulated temperature perturbations in the reservoir and must be accounted for by the inversion
algorithm
The case studies have also proved that, when little temperature
perturbation is achieved, the DTS and its inversion cannot lead
to a detailed description of the coverage. It is recommended to
investigate each scenario before pumping the treatment by using
a simulator able to evaluate how operational parameters, such as
pump rate and shut-in time, may mitigate this effect.
Nomenclature
CD = casing shoe (or reservoir top), MD, m
Cp,f = injected-uid heat capacity, J/kgK
Cp,pm = matrix (grains+uid) heat capacity, J/kgK
Cp,s = matrix-solids heat capacity, J/kgK
e = relative error between actual and simulated DTS
h = zone thickness, m
MD = measured depth, m
MDi = measured depth of DTS Sensor i, m
ns = number of DTS sensors
nt = number of DTS logs during shut-in
qinj = injection rate, m3/s
qres = reservoir ow rate during shut-in, m3/s
rinv = injected-uid invasion radius, m
rT = temperature-front radius, m
rw = wellbore internal radius, m
t = time, seconds
tj = shut-in DTS processing time j, seconds
tinj(r) = injection time to reach uid-invasion r, seconds
max
tinj
= maximum allowed for tinj(r), seconds
Tan_sim = simulated annulus temperature, K
TBHA = bottomhole temperature from CT gauge, K
TCT_sim = simulated CT temperature, K
TD = total depth MD, m
TDTS_act = actual temperature measured by the DTS, K
Tinj = injected-uid temperature, K
Tres = reservoir temperature, K
vinj = local injection volume per unit length of zone, m3/m
z = curvilinear distance along wellbore, m
zcond = transversal-conduction length scale, m
zcond = average transversal-conduction length scale, m
f = injected-uid thermal-expansion factor, 1/K
tinj = injection duration, seconds
tsh = shut-in duration, seconds
pBHA = uid pressure drop through BHA, seconds
z = distance between two successive DTS sensors, m
 = matrix porosity, fraction
85

f
pm
s

f
f
s

=
=
=
=
=
=
=

injected-uid thermal conductivity, W/(mK)

matrix (uid+grains) thermal conductivity, W/(mK)
matrix grains heat conductivity, W/(mK)
injected-uid viscosity, Pas
injected-uid density, kg/m3
matrix-grains density, kg/m3
temperature-convergence tolerance, K

Acknowledgments
We would like to thank Bill Plaxton, completions engineer at Suncor,
and Terry St George, asset manager at Suncor, for allowing us to publish this study using data from the two Suncor-operated wells, as well
as Sam Rogers and Carlos Vargas from Schlumberger for valuable
discussions and for providing information on the job operations.
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Philippe M.J. Tardy, SPE, is a principal engineer in the Modeling
and Mechanics department at Schlumberger in Sugar Land,
Texas, USA. He has 18 years of oil industry experience in the
area of research and development for well services applications, with specific focus on matrix acidizing and DTS for the last
7 years. He has coauthored more than 20 technical papers
and seven patents. He holds two MS degrees and one PhD
degree in applied maths and in mechanics from the University
of Bordeaux and the French Petroleum Institute.
Pierre Ramondenc, SPE, is a modeling engineer for Schlumberger
in Sugar Land, Texas, USA, working on coiled tubing, DTS, and
acidizing topics. He holds a PhD degree in civil and environmental engineering from the Georgia Institute of Technology.
Xiaowei Weng, SPE, is a principal engineer and project manager of modeling and mechanics with Schlumberger in Sugar
Land, Texas, USA. He holds MS and PhD degrees in engineering
mechanics from The University of Texas at Austin. His research
interests include hydraulic-fracture modeling, acid fracturing,
multifractured horizontal well completion and production, wellbore hydraulics, and coiled tubing cleanout.
Rex Burgos, SPE, is a domain expert for coiled tubing interventions with Schlumberger Technology Corporation in Sugar Land,
Texas, USA, and is involved in downhole tool product development activities. He joined Schlumberger in 1983 as a field engineer and has held various positions in field operations, technical
support, and product development. Burgos career has taken
him all over the Far East, the UK, and the US. He currently holds a
director membership position with the Intervention and Coiled
Tubing Association and is an SPE member. Burgos holds a bachelors degree in mechanical engineering from the University of
the Philippines.
Fernando Baez, SPE, joined Schlumberger in 2000. His career
in the industry has focused on the coiled-tubing services.
Currently, Fernando is active domain champion for the fiberoptic-enabled coiled-tubing service in Saudi Arabia, Kuwait,
and Bahrain. Before that, he was part of the engineering, manufacturing, and sustaining team for coiled-tubing software in
Sugar Land, Texas, USA, as a domain expert. Baez has coauthored patents and papers related to his specialized field.
He has worked with Schlumberger in various capacities that
include operations, management, and training. Before moving to Schlumberger, he worked for Ecopetrol, Colombia NOC.
Baez holds an MS degree in mechanical engineer (honors)
from Universidad de los Andes, Colombia.
Kaveh Yekta-Ganjeh, P. Eng., SPE, is a senior technical engineer
in coiled-tubing services at Schlumberger in Calgary. He has 10
years of experience in oilfield industry, all in coiled-tubing services. Yekta-Ganjeh joined Schlumberger in 2001 and has held
different positions in field operation and technical support. He
has worked in Iran, UAE, Libya, and Canada in land and offshore operations. Yekta-Ganjeh holds a BS degree in mechanical engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Iran.

February 2012 SPE Production & Operations