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Chapter 7

Define the process of


o Encoding
Involves forming a memory code
o Storage
Involves maintaining encoded information in memory over time
o Retrieval
Involves recovering information from memory stores
Make analogies between encoding, storage, and retrieval in human beings, and how a
computer works (recognizing that the analogy is not perfect)
o Encoding
Entering data through keyboard
o Storage
Saving date in file on hard disk
o Retrieval
Calling up file and displaying data on monitor
Distinguish between
o Structural
Is relatively shallow processing that emphasize the physical structure of
the stimulus
Ex:
o Registers words flashed on a screen as how the words are
printed (capital, lowercase, how many letters)
o Phonemic
Which emphasizes what a word sounds like
Involves naming or saying the words
o Semantic encoding
Emphasizes the meaning of verbal input
Involves thinking about the objects and actions the words represent
o Which produce better recall?
Semantic encoding
Identify two ways of enriching encoding
o Elaboration
Is linking a stimulus to other information at the time of encoding
o Visual Imagery
The creation of visual images to represent the words to be remembered
Define
o Sensory memory
Preserves information in its original sensory form for a brief time, usually
only a fraction of a second
o Limitations:
An unlimited capacity storage area that holds information for lengthy
periods

Define
o Short-term memory
o Limitations:
Durability
A limited capacity storage area that can hold unrehearsed
information for 20-30 seconds.
Capacity
Holds only about 7 bits of unfamiliar information, +/- 2.
Stretch the limits of short-term memory
o Chunking
Organizing information into larger units that are
familiar in some way
State how the concept of working memory improves on the original concept of short-term
memory
o Four components
Phonological Loop
At work when you use recitation to temporarily hold onto a phone
number
Believed to have evolved to facilitate the acquisition of language
Visuospatial Sketchpad
Permits people to temporarily hold and manipulate visual images
At work when you try to mentally rearrange the furniture in your
bedroom
Central Executive System
Controls the deployment of attention, switching the focus of
attention and dividing attention as needed
Episodic buffer
A temporary, limited capacity store that allows the various
components of working memory to integrate information
Define long-term memory, and state how flashbulb memories illustrate it
o Long-term memory
Is an unlimited capacity store that can hold information over lengthy
periods of time
o Flashbulb memories
Which are unusually vivid and detailed recollections of momentous events
Identify ways in which schemas and semantic networks organize long-term memories
o Schemas
Is an organized cluster of knowledge about a particular object or event
abstracted from previous experience with the object or event
o Semantic Networks
Consists of nodes representing concepts, joined together by pathways that
link related concepts
Identify ways in which cues and reinstating the context can aid retrieval of memories

o Retrieval cues
Stimuli that help gain access to memories such as hints, related
information, or partial recollection
o Context cues
Trying to recall an event by putting yourself back in the context in which
it occurred
Identify the misinformation effect
o Occurs when participants recall of an event they witnessed is altered by
introducing misleading postevent information
State the difference between recall, recognition, and relearning as measures of retention
of memories
o Recall
Requires participants to reproduce information on their own without any
cues
o Recognition
Requires participants to select previously learned information from an
array of options
o Relearning
Requires a participant to memorize information a second time to
determine how much time or effort is saved by having learned it before
Identify five reasons that we forget
o Ineffective encoding
o Decay
Theory proposes that forgetting occurs because memory traces face with
time
o Interference
Theory proposes that people forget information because of competition
from other material
o Retrieval Failure
The encoding specificity principle states that the value of a retrieval cue
depends on how well it corresponds to the memory code
o Motivated Forgetting
Repression refers to keeping distressing thoughts and feelings buried in
the unconscious
Summarize Richard Thompsons evidence that specific memories may depend on
localized neural circuits in the brain
o A number of anatomical structures, neural circuits, and biochemical processes
appear to play a role in memory
o Durable changes in synaptic transmission may be the neural building blocks of
more complex memories as well
State the difference between
o Declarative memory
Handles factual information
o Procedural memory

Houses memory for actions, skills, conditioned responses, and emotional


memories
State the difference between
o Semantic memory
Contains general knowledge that is not tied to the time when the
information was learned
o Episodic memory
Is made up of chronological, or temporarily dated, recollections of
personal experiences

Chapter 8
Identify three types of basic classes of problems
o Problems of inducing structure
o Problems of arrangements
o Problems of transformation
Identify four barriers to effective problem solving
o Irrelevant information
o Functional fixedness
o Mental set
o Unnecessary constraints
Identify four approaches to problem solving
o Trial and error heuristics
o Forming subgoals
o Hill climbing
o Searching for analogies
Identify the reason that intelligence tests were first developed
o First developed to single out youngsters in need of special training
o Avoid complete reliance on teachers evaluations
Identify David Wechslers innovations in IQ testing
o Made his test less dependent on subjects verbal ability than the Stanford-Binet
o Included many items that required nonverbal reasoning
o Formalized the computation of separate scores for verbal IQ, performance IQ, and
full scale IQ
Identify common current uses of intelligence tests
o Screen for mental retardation
o Group students according to their academic ability
o Identify gifted children
o Evaluate educational programs
Identify the kinds of questions that are on intelligence tests
o Generally speaking, examinees are required to manipulate words, numbers, and
images through abstract reasoning
State the function of deviation IQ scores
o Locate respondent precisely within the normal distribution

o Places you at a specific point in the normal distribution of intelligence (based on


the norms for your age group)
Determine whether an example given on the exam shows that a test has reliability
Determine whether an example given on the exam shows that a test has validiy
Know whether IQ tests developed in West (U.S. and Europe) translate well into nonWestern cultures
o Some cultures have different conceptions of what intelligence is and value
different mental skills
o European roots yes
o Most non-Western cultures very little
Define the concept of reaction range, and how it illustrates the interaction of heredity and
the environment in intelligence
o Reaction range
Refers to genetically determined limits on IQ (or other traits)
Current thinking is that heredity may set certain limits on intelligence and
that environmental factors determine where individuals where individuals
fall within these limits
Identify the position on heritable intelligence taken by Arthur Jensen
o Argued that racial differences in average IQ are largely due to heredity
o His analysis suggesting that the heritability of intelligence is about 80%
o Asserted that
Intelligence is largely genetic, in origin
Therefore, genetic factors are strongly implicated as the cause of ethnic
differences in intelligence
Identify the position on an intelligence-based meritocracy, taken by the authors of The
Bell Curve
o The disadvantaged groups cannot avoid their fate because it is their genetic
destiny
Identify an explanation of differences in IQ scores based on socioeconomic disadvantage
o Minority students IQ scores are depressed because these children tend to grow up
in deprived environments that create a disadvantage both in school and on IQ
tests
o In comparison to children from the middle and upper classes, lower-class children
tend to be exposed to fewer books, to have fewer learning supplies, to have less
privacy for concentrated study, and to get less parental assistance in learning.
o Typically, they also have poorer role models for language development,
experience less pressure to work hard on intellectual pursuits, and attend poorquality schools.
Define the concept of practical intelligence
o Involves the ability to deal effectively with the kids of problems that people
encounter in everyday life, such as on the job or at home
Identify ways in which Howard Gardner has expanded the concept of intelligence, and
the eight intelligences in Gardners model

o Gardner suggests the existence of a number of relatively independent human


intelligences
Logical-mathematical
Sensitivity to, and capacity to discern, logical or numerical
patterns; ability to handle long chains of reasoning
Linguistic
Sensitivity to the sounds, rhythms, and meanings of words;
sensitivity to the difference functions of language
Musical
Abilities to produce and appreciate rhythm, pitch, and timbre;
appreciation of the forms of musical expressiveness
Spatial
Capacities to perceive the visual-spatial world accurately and to
perform transformation on ones initial perceptions
Bodily-kinesthetic
Abilities to control ones body movements and to handle objects
skillfully
Interpersonal
Capacities to discern and respond appropriately to the moods,
temperaments, motivations, and desire of other people
Intrapersonal
Access to ones own feelings and the ability to discriminate among
them and draw upon them to guide behavior; knowledge of ones
own strengths, weaknesses, desire, and intelligences
Naturalist
Abilities to recognize and categorize objects and processes in
nature

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