The missing law of gravitation: Keplers fourth law

A. I. Arbab

(a)

Department of Physics, College of Science, Qassim University, P.O. Box 6644, Buraidah
51452, KSA

PACS

Abstract A law relating (exo)planets primary parameters is derived. The law predicts the missing
parameters of exoplanets that are mostly synchronous with their parent stars. It complements the
three existing gravitation laws of Kepler and Newton. The law represents a statement of the spin
and angular momenta balance for a star-planet system.

Introduction.

From the orbital motion of the solar system, Kepler had derived his

three laws of gravitation. The first law deals with the geometrical form of the orbit. The
second law deals with state of motion of the orbiting planet. It is an statement of conservation of angular momentum of the orbiting planet. The third law is a quantitative law which
is extensively used to determine the characteristics of the planetary motion of planets about
the Sun. These parameters include the planets distance from the Sun, its orbital period
about the Sun, and the mass of the Sun. These laws are obtained from the observations
of the planets motion about our Sun only. Newton generalized the third law to include all
stars and not only our Sun.
We employ in this work the analogy existing between electromagnetism and gravitation
[1].

We extend this analogy to include all phenomena occurring at atomic level, and

assume that they also occur at the gravitation level, and are governed by analogous rules
(equations).
The spin-orbit interaction that exists in hydrogen atom, due to the magnetic field created
by the nucleus motion and the electron spin, also exists at the gravitational level, if we
introduce the concept of gravitomagnetic field that is analogous to the ordinary magnetic
field. We have seen that the spin-orbit interaction is the same interaction that Einstein
(a) arbab.ibrahim@gmail.com

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A. I. Arbab1

attributed to the curvature of the space [2]. And since all planets do have spin, the spinorbit interaction is intrinsically prevailing in all star-planet systems. Bear in mind that
some atoms can have zero total spin angular momentum.
Equating the gravitational energy of the a star-planet system to the spin-orbit interaction
yields a formula that relates the primary star-planet system parameters to each other.
Moreover, we found that such a system exits only if the spin and orbital angular momenta
are proportional to the planet mass to the star mass ratio. This condition represents a
dynamical balance between the two angular momenta. We call the resulting equation the
Keplers fourth law which represents the missing equation (law) to determine a star-planet
system completely.
Kepler third law.

The Keplers third law relating the orbital period (T ) of a planet

about the Sun, the semi-major axis (a) and the Suns mass (M ), is casted in the form
T2 =

4 2 3
a .
GM

(1)

However, the Newtons version of this law reads

T2 =

4 2
a3 ,
G(M + m)

(2)

where m is the mass of the orbiting planet and M is the mass of the star. It the law which
is now in use. The mass of star can be obtained from stars luminosity when compared
with the Sun. This is determined using the Hertzsprung-Russel diagram. The period of
motion can be determined from the observation of the planet motion, and consequently the
semi-major axis can be determined using Eq.(2). A parallax method can also be used to
calculate the planet distance from its parent star.
Extrasolar planetary (exoplanets) motion .

Astronomers have now spotted many new

planets orbiting stars other than our Sun. These new planets are called exoplanets. They
are generally very close to their parent stars, and therefore experience some tidal locking.
The first Jupiter-like exoplanet orbiting a Sun-like star was discovered by Didier Queloz
and Michel Mayor [3]. Planets had previously been discovered around pulsars [4]. Stars
are generally very far from our Earth. The nearest stars system to the Earth is the AlphaCentauri which is at a distance of 4.3 light years. Other stars lie at far distances that are
thousands of light years away from us. This poses a problem of observing planets belonging
to such stars. Moreover, our galaxy (the Milky Way) contains hundred billions of stars.
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The missing law of gravitation: Keplers fourth law

Furthermore, our next neighbour galaxy (the Andromeda) lies at a distance of 2.5 million
year and hence the planetary observations become more severe. In as much as planets
are extremely faint objects compared to their parent stars, they appear to be extremely
faint, or even un seen. Therefore, direct observation of exoplanet is very dicult and some
instrumental method should be devised to make these observations tractable.
To determine the exoplanets characteristics, we need to know their temperature, mass
and radius and the prevailing atmosphere. Their atmosphere can be deduced from the
change in the optical properties of the light coming from the parent star to the Earth
traversing the planet atmosphere. The atmosphere of the exoplanet is related to its mass
and radius through the scape velocity of the gas residing in the exoplanet surface.
Dierent observational techniques are employed to precisely determine the exoplanet
radius. These include transiting of the exoplanet in front of its parent star, radial velocity
detection method, etc. The radius of the exoplanet is determined by observing the drop
in the star brightness occurring when the planet intervenes the light coming to the Earth.
This brightness drop is directly related to the ratio of the planet radius (Rp ) to the radius
of its parent star (RS ). This can be expressed as
Rp2
F
= 2 ,
F
RS

(3)

where F is the star flux. From the star and planet momentum conservation, one can write
M vs = mvp .

(4)

The velocity of the star (vs ) can be obtained from the Doppler measurements of the star
radial velocity, and the planet velocity vp from the planet orbital period and the Keplers
third law. This can be expressed as
M vs T
,
2 a

m=

(5)

where T is determined by Eq.(2).

The mass of the exoplanet can be obtained from the gravitation force that is measure
by the Doppler shift using the radial velocity method. When the mass and the radius are
determined, the density of the planet material can be calculated. The material from which
the exoplanet is made can then be deduced.
Questions related to the possibility that a given exoplanet can harbour life can then be
addressed. This is usually linked to the Habitable Zone around which the exoplanet exists.
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A. I. Arbab2

Keplers fourth law.

In an attempt to generalize the Newtons law of gravitation to

look analogous to the Lorentz law of electromagnetism, we express it in the generalized

form [5]
g ,
FN = mg + mv B

(6)

g is called the gravitomagnetic force that is presumed to exit due to the motion
where B
of planets, and g is the planet acceleration. As in hydrogen atom, which is analogous to
the solar system, there is an interaction between the internal magnetic field arising from
the electron orbital momentum, and its spin angular momentum. This is normally known
as the spin-orbit interaction. The gravitomagnetic field is analogous to the magnetic field
arised from the motion of the electron around the nucleus. This is determined by the
Biot-Savart-law as

= v E ,
B
2
c

= kQ r ,
E
r3

(7)

is analogous to g is the electric field provided by the

where Q is the nucleus charge, E
nucleus, and k is the Coulomb constant. Hence, in terms of the orbital angular momentum,
Eq.(7) reads
= kQ L
,
B
2mc2 r3

= r mv ,
L

(8)

when relativistic correction (Thomas factor) is taken into consideration [6, 7].
The gravitational analogue is given by [1]
g = GM L
.
B
mc2 r3

(9)

The spin-orbit interaction energy in the atomic case is given by [7]

U=

k Qe
LS,
2m2 c2 r3

,
U =
s B

(10)

while in gravitation it will read [1, 5]

Ug = gg

GM 2
LS,
2m2 c2 r3

L=

GM m2 a(1 e2 ) ,

g = gg

M
,
2m

(11)

where gg is gravitational gyromagnetic ratio and g is the gravitomagnetic moment due to

planet spin. This energy can be equated with the gravitational interaction energy that can
be expressed as [1, 5]
Ug =

GM L2
,
3mc2 r3
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(12)

The missing law of gravitation: Keplers fourth law

which in the Einstein theory is attributed to curvature of space [2]. However, the Einstein
term is UE =

GM L2
mc2 r 3

. The equality yields the following equation [8]

S=A

(m)
M

L,

A=

2
,
3gg cos

(13)

where is the angle between L and S. Owing to Eq.(13), one can express the spin of a
planet as S = AGm2 /v. This clearly shows that massive planets spin faster.
This is a balance (equilibrium) equation which states that the spin and orbital angular
momenta of a planet (about its self and its parent star) is distributed by the planet mass
to the star masses ratio. Equation (13) is very interesting since it relates the spin of the
planet to its orbital angular momentum. This has not been found and scientists usually
ask why do planets spin. The answer is now provided! It is also worthy to mentioned that
when the law in Eq.(6) is applied to the motion of stars in spiral galaxies it yields a flat
rotation curve that is consistent with observations, without the need for dark matter that
is required by the ordinary Newtons law [9].
Expressing L and S in terms of planet and star parameters, Eq.(13) yields [8]
( )
( )2
D
1
Rp
M
= 2
,
T
C
a
m

(14)

where D is the planet spin period (day), and C is some constant to be determined. Thus,
only star-planet system satisfying Eq.(14) can exist as a stable system. This law provides the
missing data about any exoplanetary system under investigation. I call this law (formula)
the Keplers fourth law as it complements the three Kepler laws of gravitation.
The Moon is in synchronous orbit around the Earth, and so do most of the exoplanets.
In this case the day and period are equal, and hence the exoplanet mass can be determined
from Eq.(14) as
1
m= 2
C

Rp
a

)2
M.

(15)

For the Moon-Earth-like system, we find C = 0.041. For exoplanets, one finds C = 0.707 ,
and therefore, Eq.(15) becomes

(
m=2

Rp
a

)2
M.

(16)

Equation (16) can be expressed as

m a2 = 2M Rp2 .

(17)

Equation (17) states that an exoplanet is stable when its moment of inertia about the star
is twice that of a star about a distance equals to the exoplanet radius.
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A. I. Arbab3

Equation (17) can be casted in the form

m = 4.77828 104

Rp
a

)2
M,

(18)

where m is measured in mass of Jupiter, R in radius of Jupiter, a in AU and M in mass of

the Sun. If we apply Eq.(15) for the KELT-16b exoplanet discovered on August 2016, we
will find its mass to be 2.77 MJ , while the absolute observational value is 2.75 MJ , where MJ
is the mass of Jupiter which is taken as a reference mass for exoplanets [10].
For Earth-Moon-like exoplanet, Eq.(15) reads
(
m = 0.14212

Rp
a

)2
M,

(19)

where m is measured in mass of Jupiter, R in radius of Jupiter, a in AU and M in mass of

the Sun.
Concluding remarks.

A fourth Kepler law relating the primary parameter of exo-

planets to each other is derived. It is derived from the analogy existing between electromagnetism and gravitation. The spin and the orbital angular momenta of a planet in a
star-planet system are governed by their masses ratio. This law constitutes a dynamical
balance for the system to exist. Moreover, massive planets are found to spin faster than
light ones.
REFERENCES
[1] Arbab, A. I., The Generalized Newtons Law of Gravitation Versus the General Theory of Relativity, J. Mod. Phys. 3, 1231 (2012).
[2] Weinberg, S. Gravitation and cosmology, John Wiley & Sons, 1972.
[3] Mayor, M. and Queloza, D., Jupiter-mass companion to a solar-type star, Nature 378, 355 (1995).
[4] Wolszczan, A. and Frail, D. A., A planetary system around the millisecond pulsar PSR1257 +
12, Nature 355, 145 (1992).
[5] Arbab, A. I., Gravitomagnetism: a novel explanation of the precession of planets and binary
pulsars, Astrophys. Space Sci. 330, 61 (2010).
[6] Thomas, L. H., The Motion of the Spinning Electron, Nature 117, 514 (1926).
[7] Griths, D. J., Introduction to Quantum Mechanics, Prentice Hall, (2004).
[8] Arbab, A. I., et al., The planetary spin and rotation period: a modern approach, Astrophys.
Space Sci. 348, 57 (2013).
[9] Arbab, A. I., Flat rotation curve without dark matter: the generalized Newtons law of gravitation,
Astrophys Space Sci. 355: 2152 (2015).
[10] Oberst, T. E., et al., KELT-16b: A highly irradiated, ultra-short period hot Jupiter nearing tidal
disruption, http://arxiv.org/abs/1608.00618v1

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