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R

E S E A R C H M E T H O D O L O G Y

Research is

Defined as systematic inquiry directed towards the creation of
knowledge
and is the original contribution to the existing stock of knowledge

Systematic inquiry : - particular information is collected
- how it is categorised ,analysed and presented

Creation of knowledge:
- gaining knowledge through variety of means/strategies
structured in research methodology




Fundamental assumption is that
invariant relationship exists between certain antecedents and certain
consequents

so that under a specific set of conditions a certain consequents can be expected
to follow the introduction of a given antecedent.


antecedent : preceding circumstance, event, object , style, or phenomenon.
consequent :resulting ,following as an effect or result, as a logical conclusion or
progressing logically.


v The manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the purpose of generalizing
to extend, correct or verify knowledge, whether that knowledge aids in
construction of theory or in the practice of an art

D.S. Lesinger and M.Stephenson in the Encyclopedia of Social Sciences,

v Research comprises defining and redefining problems, formulating hypothesis
or suggested solutions; collecting, organizing and evaluating data; making
deductions and reaching conclusions; and at last carefully testing the conclusions
to determine whether they fit the formulated hypothesis.

Clifford Woody of the University of Michigan in an article in the Journal of Social
Studies Research (1927)

v A study of the process ,rather than the product of inquiry.

Abraham Kaplan in the Book the conduct of Inquiry
v Research is an honest exhaustive, intelligent searching for facts and their
meanings or implications with reference to a given problem. The product or
findings of a given piece of research should be an authentic, verifiable and
contribution to knowledge in the field studied.







P.M. Cook
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He emphasize the following characteristics of research in his definition:


1. It is an honest and exhaustive process.
2. The facts are studied with understanding.
3. The facts are discovered in the light of problem. Research is problem-centred.
4. The findings are valid and verifiable.
5. Research work should contribute new knowledge in that field.

According to Kerlinger (1986) . . .
"scientific research is a systematic, controlled, empirical and critical investigation of
propositions about the presumed relationships about various phenomenon
Bulmer in 1977 stated: 'Nevertheless sociological research, as research, is primarily
committed to establishing systematic, reliable and valid knowledge about the social
world.

The following characteristics may be gathered from the definitions of Research
1. It gathers new knowledge or data from primary or first-hand sources.
2. It places emphasis upon the discovery of general principles.
3. It is an exact systematic and accurate investigation.
4. It uses certain valid data gathering devices.
5. It is logical and objective.
6. The researcher resists the temptation to seek only the data that support his
hypotheses.
7. The researcher eliminates personal feelings and preferences.
8. It endeavours to organise data in logical terms.
9. Research is patient and unhurried activity.
10. The researcher is willing to follow his procedures to the conclusions that may be
unpopular
and bring social disapproval.
11. Research is carefully recorded and reported.
12. Conclusions and generalisations are arrived at carefully and cautiously.


RESEARCH
RE + SEARCH
RE
again / anew / over again
SEARCH to examine closely and carefully



to test and try



to probe
Research - describes a careful, systematic, patient study and investigation in some field
of knowledge, undertaken to establish facts or principles or to find answers to a
problem.


- is a structured enquiry that utilizes acceptable scientific methodology to
solve problems and create new knowledge that is generally applicable.

WHAT?
WHY ?
HOW?
WHO?
WHEN?
WHERE?

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Research is way of examining practice..
More than a set of skills, it is a way of thinking: examining critically the various aspects
of professional work.
It is a habit of questioning
- what you do,
- a systematic examination of the observed information to find answers with a view
to instituting appropriate changes for a more effective professional service.

Research study is a process that
- is being undertaken within a framework of a set of philosophies ( approaches);
- uses procedures, methods and techniques that have been tested for their validity
and reliability;
- is designed to be unbiased and objective

Planning process




































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Research Process

Research Methodology in Architecture



Criteria that enables a process to be called research.

Philosophies - approaches (e.g. qualitative, quantitative based on the

academic discipline)
Validity - application of correct procedures to find answers to a

question.
Reliability - quality of a measurement procedure that provides



repeatability and accuracy.


Unbiased and objective arriving at conclusions in an unbiased manner
However, the degree to which these criteria are expected to be fulfilled

varies from discipline to discipline and

so the meaning of research differs from one academic discipline to another.

. . . most innovative research in architecture will be interdisciplinary, requiring a
typical or unexpected combinations of methods.
Architectural research are generally focused towards enhancing the quality of human
life due to the existence of multiple connections between human experience and built
form
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Architectural research allows us to understand

. . . that successful built environments are successful not just because of their
physical attributes, but also because of many human considerations . . . including
subjective preferences, memory, physical comfort, and a sense of ones social
roles.

Architectural Research
Architectural research is the search for new knowledge and new ideas about
the built environment.
Research can be conducted in a variety of sub disciplines, including
building technology,
environment-behavior studies,
history of architecture and
computing technology.
In each area of architectural research, certain presuppositions and
fundamental beliefs guide and determine the appropriate focus and method
of inquiry, as well as the significance and merit of each research project.
While the parameters of these research approaches vary, there exists some
common characteristics among them.


Architectural research

are those that have clearly identifiable goals at the outset of the research,
where the project is directed to respond to a question

In pursuing that question, one follows a credible, systematic method or mode of
inquiry, relevant and acceptable to the research paradigm under which one is operating
This process results in significant results (and in a thorough, documented manner
which reflects a solution or enhances understanding/knowledge within the research
domain)


Architectural research process

Asking good questions


It is not the answer that is critical, rather it is the asking of a good question (Ionesco)
Perform a literature review
Find out what is already known about the subject through doing a literature review.
After you know what is already known, your question may need to be reformulated so
that you have a question in need of an answer, rather than a question that has already
been answered.
Design a research method
Figure out how to go about getting answers to your question, that is, design a research
method for getting the information that could lead to an answer to your question.
Observation and measurement
Effectively Create and Use Surveys, Questionnaires, And Interviews

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Strategically Analyze Data: quantitative and qualitative

Architectural research process - modes

1. Interpretive-historical research
2. Qualitative research/Quantitative
3. Correlational research
4. Experimental research
5. Simulation research
6. Logical argumentation
7. Case study
8. mixed methods
Draw conclusions based on FACTS and principles

Why is research important to architectural practice?
Architectural design and practice:
often involves unfamiliar circumstances beyond the expertise of individual
practitioners and beyond the conventional wisdom of the profession
is often extraordinarily complicated
is burdened with uncertainty if unconventional aesthetic principles are used in
setting involving conflicting stakeholder values.
may involve particular requirements that are not well documented

Orientation to ResearchProcess

Foundation of research Research theory



Foundation for research

domain of research



philosophy

theory

strategy

tactics





Philosophy of system of Inquiry
To provide a conceptual framework
To understand the standards of research quality being the base of system
of enquiry
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Qualitative



research

Co relational
Experimental
Simulation
Interpretive-
historical
Logical
argumentation
Case study
Mixed method
Sytem of inquiry

TACTICS


STRATEGY



TACTICS





STRATEGY

TACTICS

The overall research plan

Specific technique used

Structure of the research study

Data collection, Response format,


Archival treatment ,analytical procedure

Strategies ---- methods ---skillful management and planning


Tactics ---- techniques--- skillful move





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TYPES OF RESEARCH
From the view point of

TYPE OF INFORMATION SOUGHT

APPLICATIONOBJECTIVE
PURE
DESCRIPTIVE

RESEARCH
RESEARCH

EXPLORATORY

APPLIED
RESEARCH

RESEARCH
EXPLANATORY


RESEARCH

COORELATIONAL


RESEARCH

QUANTITATIVE
RESEARCH
QUALITATIVE
RESEARCH

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Type of research based on system of inquiry


ANALYTICAL

DESCRIPTIVE

Analyze the facts and information available


To critically evaluate the issue/subject

FUNDAMENTAL (PURE OR BASIC )

APPLIED (ACTION BASED)

Generalization , formulation of theories


Area of human behavior.
To find information for a broad base of application.

QUANTITATIVE

Deductive process
Cause and effect

Inductive process
Motivation ,attitude/opinion research
CONCEPTUAL

Based on existence ,experience or observation


Experimental research work with hypothesis-
prove/disaprove it.
Variable under control of the researcher

To find a solution to a issues /problem.


Applied to society , industry, business
Marketing research
Evaluation research
QUALITATIVE

EMPIRICAL

Description of the state of affair as it exists


No control over variables but can decipher t

Relates to abstract idea/theory


New concept/reinterpret existing one

Type of research based on system of inquiry



A.DICHOTOMOUS FRAMEWORK
SYSTEM OF INQUIRY
Quantitative (objective assessment )
generation of data in quantitative form
analysis in a formal and rigid fashion
sub-classified into
inferential approach
experimental approach and
simulation approaches

Data generated based on attitudes, opinions


and behavior
Analysis in descriptive mode
techniques of focus group interviews,
projective techniques and indepth
interviews are used

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Qualitative (subjective assessment)



Qualitative versus Quantitative Research
Data
Quantitative = numeric data
Qualitative = non-numeric data




Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research


Detail versus Generalizability
Quantitative Methods
Generalizations to other populations and/or situations
Qualitative Methods
Rich Understanding







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Research Design


Before examining types of research designs it is important to be clear about ...
the role and purpose of research design
to understand what research design is
to know where design fits into the whole research process from framing a
question to finally analysing and reporting data.

Stages in the Research Process



Formulate Problem

Determine Research Design


Design Data Collection


Method and Forms

Design Sample and Collect Data






Analyze and Interpret the Data


Prepare the Research Report

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Research design

Before beginning RESEARCH,



. one need to decide how to plan to design the study.

The research design refers to

. the overall strategy that you choose to integrate the different components of
the study in a coherent and logical way

. thereby, ensuring you will effectively address the research problem

it constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement, and analysis of
data.
It is a detailed outline of how an investigation will take place.

will typically include how data is to be collected, what instruments will be
employed, how
the instruments will be used and the intended means for analyzing
data collected

... . Note that your research problem determines the type of design you can use,
not the
other way around!

























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Research design answers the following questions



What- -
What is the study about?
What about-- What aspects of the subject were
studied?
What for/ why-What is/was the significance of the
study?

why is the study conducted?
- Where
where will the study be conducted?



What did prior literature /research say?
What was done--How was the study conducted?
What was found?
So what?

What now?
what type of data required and where it would be
collected
What is the period of study
Whether any sample would be used and if so what
type of
sample will be used
- What type of analytical tool will be used

1. Introduction,
Research Problems/
Objectives, &
Justification

2. Literature Review

3. Methodology
(Research sample, data
collection, measurement,
data analysis)
4. Results & Discussion
5. Implications
6. Conclusions and
Recommendations for
Future Research


The length and complexity of research designs can vary
considerably, but .
Any sound ideal design will do the following things:


Clear statement of objectives of research
Identify the research problem clearly, explain the statement of problem to be
studied and justify its selection,
Review previously published literature associated with the problem area,
Clearly and explicitly specify hypotheses [i.e., research questions] central to the
problem selected,
Specific definition of concepts

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Effectively describe the data which will be necessary for an adequate test of the
hypotheses and explain how such data will be obtained, and
Describe Method used
Describe Tools and techniques of data analysis in determining whether or not the
hypotheses are true or false.
Method of quantification ( if necessary)
Describe the population included in the study
Details of sampling procedure size and selection
Data processing techniques
If pilot study conducted, results should be stated
Scheme of research report

Types of research designs -1


Historical Research Design - The purpose is to collect, verify, synthesize
evidence to establish facts that defend or refute your hypothesis. It uses primary sources,
secondary sources, and lots of qualitative data sources such as logs, diaries, official
records, reports, etc. The limitation is that the sources must be both authentic and valid.
Case and Field Research Design - Also called ethnographic research, it uses
direct observation to give a complete snapshot of a case that is being studied. It is useful
when not much is known about a phenomenon. Uses few subjects.
Descriptive or Survey Research Design - It attempts to describe and explain
conditions of the present by using many subjects and questionnaires to fully describe a
phenomenon.

Correlational or Prospective Research Design - It attempts to explore
relationships to make predictions. It uses one set of subjects with two or more variables
for each.

Causal Comparative or Ex Post Facto Research Design - This research design
attempts to explore cause and affect relationships where causes already exist and cannot
be manipulated. It uses what already exists and looks backward to explain why.
Developmental or Time Series Research Design - Data are collected at certain
points in time going forward. There is an emphasis on time patterns and longitudinal
growth or change.

Experimental Research Design - This design is most appropriate in controlled
settings such as laboratories. The design assumes random assignment of subjects and
random assignment to groups. It attempts to explore cause and affect relationships
where causes can be manipulated to produce different kinds of effects. Because of the
requirement of random assignment, this design can be difficult to execute in the real
world (non laboratory) setting.
Quasi Experimental Research Design - This research design approximates the
experimental design but does not have a control group. There is more error possible in
the results.



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Types of research designs -2



Exploratory
discovery
Descriptive
relationships
Causal
cause-and-effect

Exploratory
Research

Descriptive
Research

Causal
Research

Literature search
Experience survey
Analysis of select cases
Interviews
Ethnographies
Focus groups
Etc.

Longitudinal study
Panels
Sample Survey

Laboratory experiment
Field experiment

Exploratory research
Focus group

Focus groups: small group discussions led by a trained moderator


Objectives:
Generate ideas
Understand consumer vocabulary
Reveal consumer needs, motives, perceptions, and attitudes on products
and services

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Understand findings from quantitative studies



Advantages:
Generation of fresh ideas
Client interaction
Versatility
Ability to tap special respondents
Disadvantages:
Representative of the population?
Subjective interpretation
High cost-per-participant


In-Depth interview
A set of probing questions posed one-on-one to a subject by a trained
interviewer so as to gain an idea of what the subject thinks about
something or why he or she behaves a certain way

Popular Qualitative Research Methods




Common features
Qualitative
Flexible
Probing
Group dynamics,
Richness of
Some probing
data
Relatively inexpensive
Gets at the
Why
of
behaviors
Focus Groups

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Interviews
Not influenced by
others
Max probing,
great depth
Expensive
Time consuming
Candid, sensitive
topics

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Still Other Qualitative Methods

Ethnographies
developing understandings of the everyday activities of people in local
settings
Observation
Insight into actual, not reported, behaviors
Protocol analysis
involves placing a person in a decision making situation and asking him or
her to verbalize everything he or she considers when making a decision
Projective Techniques
participants are placed in (projected into) simulated activities in the hopes
that they will divulge things about themselves that they might not reveal
under direct questioning

Mystery Shopping
Mystery shoppers are people who pose as consumers and shop at a companys
own stores or those of its competitors
Purpose of Mystery Shopping
Evaluate customer service
Measure employee training
Recognize good employees
Monitoring the competition
Prepare for competition



Descriptive research


use survey
Asking a sample of people from a population, a set of questions
Use the answers to describe
Common Goals
Describe what is going on or exists
Estimate how certain groups of people might behave
Examine relationships between two or more variables
contrast to exploratory (qualitative) techniques, the purpose of survey research is
to produce statistics
In contrast to exploratory (qualitative) techniques, survey research is concerned
with generalizability
Sampling becomes very important


Three key aspects
Designing questions
Sampling
Data collection

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study to be precise, credible, and accurate



Two Basic Types
1. Longitudinal
2. Cross-Sectional

Causal research / experimental research


Helps us determine if one or more IVs causes or affects one or more DVs

Evidence that supports a causal inference
Correlation
Observe the relationship (variability)
Independent variable (treatment) occurs before the dependent (outcome)
variable

Experiments

Scientific investigation in which an investigator manipulates and controls one or
more independent variables and observes the dependent variable for variation
concomitant to the manipulation of the independent variables


Types of experiments:

1.Laboratory experiment

Research investigation in which investigator creates a situation with exact

conditions, so as to control some, and manipulate other, variables


2.Field experiment

Research study in a realistic situation in which one or more independent

variables are manipulated by the experimenter under as carefully controlled conditions


as the situation will permit


DEFINITIONS AND CONCEPTS

Independent variables (IV) are variables or alternatives that are manipulated


and whose effects are measured and compared, e.g., price levels.
Test units are individuals, organizations, or other entities whose response to the
independent variables or treatments is being examined, e.g., consumers or stores.
Dependent variables (DV) are the variables which measure the effect of the
independent variables on the test units, e.g., sales, profits, and market shares.
Extraneous variables are all variables other than the independent variables that
affect the response of the test units, e.g., store size, store location, and competitive
effort.

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Internal validity refers to whether the manipulation of the independent


variables or treatments actually caused the observed effects on the dependent
variables. Control of extraneous variables is a necessary condition for
establishing internal validity.
External validity refers to whether the cause-and-effect relationships found in
the experiment can be generalized. To what populations, settings, times,
independent variables and dependent variables

TO CONCLUDE

Experiments are the only way to show causation
But often take a back seat to descriptive studies due to time, cost, and
control issues
Exploratory and descriptive studies are useful, but be careful not to infer too
much
let your research questions dictate your design!

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