Dust and Mist Collection

PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA
Intramuros, Manila
College of Engineering and Technology
Chemical Engineering Department
OUTLINE
DUST COLLECTION
A. Particle measurements
Atmospheric Pollution Measurements
Process-Gas Sampling
Particle Size Analysis
B. Mechanism
Separation
Retention
Removal
C. Dust Collector types
a. Cyclone Collectors
b. Scrubbers
o Venturi
Scrubbers
o Ejector
Venturi
o Self-Induced
Spray
o Spray
o Cyclone
c. Unit Collectors
d. Electrostatic Precipitators
o Single Stage Precipitators
o Two Stage Precipitators
o Alternating Current
e. Baghouses (Fabric Collectors)
MIST COLLECTION
A. Performance characteristics
B. Operation Fundamentals
Electrostatic Precipitation
Inertial Separation
Filter Media
C. Mist Collector
Centrifugal Collectors
Electrostatic Collector
Media Filter Collectors
D. Filter Optimization
E. Measuring Collector Efficiency
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
Plate Towers
Packed-Bed
Mobile-Bed
Fiber Bed
Electrically
Augmented
Mechanical
Dry

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DUST COLLECTION
Purpose
Dust collection is concerned with the removal or collection of solid dispersoids in gases for
purposes of:
1. Air-pollution control, as in fly-ash removal from power-plant flue gases
2. Equipment-maintenance reduction, as infiltration of engine intake air or pyrites furnacegas treatment prior to its entry to a contact sulfuric acid plant
3. Safety- or health-hazard elimination, as in collection of siliceous and metallic dusts around
grinding and drilling equipment and in some metallurgical operations and flour dusts from
milling or bagging operations
4. Product-quality improvement, as in air cleaning in the production of pharmaceutical
products and photographic film
5. Recovery of a valuable product, as in collection of dusts from dryers and smelters
6. Powdered-product collection, as in pneumatic conveying; the spray drying of milk, eggs,
and soap; and the manufacture of high purity zinc oxide and carbon black
Particle Measurement
Measurements of the concentrations and characteristics of dust dispersed in air or other gases
may be necessary (1) to determine the need for control measures, (2) to establish compliance with
legal requirements, (3) to obtain information for collector design, and (4) to determine collector
performance.
1. Atmospheric-Pollution Measurements
The dust-fall measurement is one of the common methods for obtaining a relative
long period evaluation of particulate air pollution. Stack-smoke densities are often graded
visually by means of the Ringelmann chart. Plume opacity may be continuously monitored
and recorded by a photoelectric device which measures the amount of light transmitted
through a stack plume. Equipment for local atmospheric-dust-concentration
measurements fall into five general types:
the impinger,
the hot-wire or thermal precipitator,
the electrostatic precipitator,
the filter, and
impactors and cyclones.
The filter is the most widely used, in the form of either a continuous tape, or a number of
filter disks arranged in an automatic sequencing device, or a single, short-term, highvolume sampler. Samplers such as these are commonly used to obtain mass emission and
particle-size distribution. Impactors and small cyclones are commonly used as sizediscriminating samplers and are usually followed by filters for the determination of the
finest fraction.

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2. Process-Gas Sampling
In sampling process gases either to determine dust concentration or to obtain a
representative dust sample, it is necessary to take special precautions to avoid inertial
segregation of the particles. To prevent such classification, a traverse of the duct may be
required, and at each point the sampling nozzle must face directly into the gas stream with
the velocity in the mouth of the nozzle equal to the local gas velocity at that point. This is
called isokinetic sampling. If the sampling velocity is too high, the dust sample will
contain a lower concentration of dust than the mainstream, with a greater percentage of
fine particles; if the sampling velocity is too low, the dust sample will contain a higher
concentration of dust with a greater percentage of coarse particle of the dust.
3. Particle-Size Analysis
Particle-size distribution may be presented on either a frequency or a cumulative
basis;. The most common method presents a plot of particle size versus the cumulative
weight percent of material larger or smaller than the indicated size, on logarithmicprobability graph paper.
For determination of the aerodynamic diameters of particles, the most commonly
applicable methods for particle-size analysis are those based on inertia: aerosol centrifuges,
cyclones, and inertial impactors.
Impactors are the most commonly used. Nevertheless, impactor measurements are
subject to numerous errors Reentrainment due to particle bouncing and blowoff of
deposited particles makes a dust appear finer than it actually is, as does the breakup of
flocculated particles. Processing cascade-impactor data also presents possibilities for
substantial errors and is laborious as well.
The measured diameters of particles should as nearly as possible represent the
effective particle size of a dust as it exists in the gas stream. When significant flocculation
exists, it is sometimes possible to use measurement methods based on gravity settling.
For dust-control work, it is recommended that a preliminary qualitative
examination of the dust first be made without a detailed particle count. A visual estimate
of particle-size distribution will often provide sufficient guidance for a preliminary
assessment of requirements for collection equipment.

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Particle Size Analysis and Equipment
Mechanism of Dust Collection

The basic operations in dust collection by any device are
1. Separation of the gas-borne particles from the gas stream by deposition on a collecting
surface;
2. Retention of the deposit on the surface; and
3. Removal of the deposit from the surface for recovery or disposal.
The separation step requires
1. Application of a force that produces a differential motion of a particle relative to the gas
and
2. A gas retention time sufficient for the particle to migrate to the collecting surface.
The principal mechanisms of aerosol deposition that are applied in dust collectors are
1. Gravitational deposition,
2. Flow-line interception,
3. Inertial deposition,
4. Diffusional deposition, and
5. Electrostatic deposition.
Thermal deposition is only a minor factor in practical dust-collection equipment because the
thermophoretic force is small. The actions of the inertial-deposition, flow-line-interception, and
diffusional- deposition mechanisms are illustrated in the figure for the case of a collecting body
immersed in a particle-laden gas stream.

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Two other deposition mechanisms, in addition to the six listed, may be in operation under
particular circumstances. Some dust particles may be collected on filters by sieving when the pore
diameter is less than the particle diameter. Except in small membrane filters, the sieving
mechanism is probably limited to surface-type filters, in which a layer of collected dust is itself the
principal filter medium.
The other mechanism appears in scrubbers. When water vapor diffuses from a gas stream
to a cold surface and condenses, there is a net hydrodynamic flow of the noncondensable gas
directed toward the surface. This flow, termed the Stefan flow, carries aerosol particles to the
condensing surface and can substantially improve the performance of a scrubber. However, there
is a corresponding Stefan flow directed away from a surface at which water is evaporating, and
this will tend to repel aerosol particles from the surface.
In addition to the deposition mechanisms themselves, methods for preliminary
conditioning of aerosols may be used to increase the effectiveness of the deposition mechanisms
subsequently applied. One such conditioning method consists of imposing on the gas highintensity acoustic vibrations to cause collisions and flocculation of the aerosol particles, producing
large particles that can be separated by simple inertial devices such as cyclones. This process,
termed sonic (or acoustic) agglomeration, has attained only limited commercial acceptance.
Another conditioning method, adaptable to scrubber systems, consists of inducing
condensation of water vapor on the aerosol particles as nuclei, increasing the size of the particles
and making them more susceptible to collection by inertial deposition.

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Most forms of dust-collection equipment use more than one of the collection mechanisms,
and in some instances the controlling mechanism may change when the collector is operated
over a wide range of conditions. Consequently, collectors are most conveniently classified by type
rather than according to the underlying mechanisms that may be operating.
Dust-Collector Design
In dust-collection equipment, most or all of the collection mechanisms may be operating
simultaneously, their relative importance being determined by the particle and gas characteristics,
the geometry of the equipment, and the fluid-flow pattern. Although the general case is
exceedingly complex, it is usually possible in specific instances to determine which mechanism or
mechanisms may be controlling. Nevertheless, the difficulty of theoretical treatment of dustcollection phenomena has made necessary simplifying assumptions, with the introduction of
corresponding uncertainties. Theoretical studies have been hampered by a lack of adequate
experimental techniques for verification of predictions. Although theoretical treatment of
collector performance has been greatly expanded in the period since 1960, few of the resulting
performance models have received adequate experimental confirmation because of experimental
limitations.
The best-established models of collector performance are those for fibrous filters and fixedbed granular filters, in which the structures and fluid-flow patterns are reasonably well defined.
These devices are also adapted to small-scale testing under controlled laboratory conditions.
Realistic modeling of full-scale electrostatic precipitators and scrubbers is incomparably more
difficult. Confirmation of the models has been further limited by a lack of mono disperse aerosols
that can be generated on a scale suitable for testing equipment of substantial sizes. When a poly
disperse test dust is used, the particle-size distributions of the dust both entering and leaving a
collector must be determined with extreme precision to avoid serious errors in the determination
of the collection efficiency for a given particle size.
The design of industrial-scale collectors still rests essentially on empirical or semi empirical
methods, although it is increasingly guided by concepts derived from theory. Existing theoretical
models frequently embody constants that must be evaluated by experiment and that may actually
compensate for deficiencies in the models.

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Dust Collection Equipment

Cyclone Separators
The most widely used type of dust collection equipment
is the cyclone, in which dust-laden gas enters a cylindrical or
conical chamber tangentially at one or more points and leaves
through a central opening. The dust particles, by virtue of their
inertia, will tend to move toward the outside separator wall, from
which they are led into a receiver. A cyclone is essentially a
settling chamber in which gravitational acceleration is replaced
by centrifugal acceleration. At operating conditions commonly
employed, the centrifugal separating force or acceleration may
range from 5 times gravity in very large diameter, low-resistance
cyclones, to 2500 times gravity in very small, high-resistance
units. The immediate entrance to a cyclone is usually
rectangular.
Cyclone separators are part of a group of air pollution
control devices known as pre cleaners as they are generally used
to roughly remove larger pieces of particulate matter. This
prevents finer filtration methods from having to deal with large,
more abrasive particles later one. As well, several cyclone
separators can operate in parallel, and when this is set up the
system is known as a multi cyclone.
It is important to note that cyclones can vary drastically
in their size. The size of the cyclone depends largely on how Cyclone Separator Proportions
much flue gas must be filtered, and thus larger operations tend
to need larger cyclones. For example, several different models of one cyclone type can exist, and
the sizes can range from a relatively small 1.2-1.5 meters tall (about 4-5 feet) to around 9 meters
or about 30 feet (which is about as tall as a three story building!).

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How it Works
In a cyclone separator, dirty flue gas is
fed into a chamber. Inside this chamber exists
a spiral vortex, similar to a tornado. The
lighter components of this gas have less
inertia, so it is easier for them to be
influenced by the vortex and travel up it.
Unlike these particles, larger components of
particulate matter have more inertia and are
not as easily influenced by the vortex.
Because these larger particles have
difficulty following the high-speed spiral
motion of the gas and the vortex, the
particles hit the inside walls of the container
and drop down into a collection hopper.
These chambers are shaped like an upsidedown cone to promote the collection of
these particles at the bottom of the
container. The cleaned flue gas escapes out
the top of the chamber.
How Particles moved through a Cyclonic Separator
Most cyclones are built to control and
remove particulate matter than is larger than
10 micrometers in diameter. However, there do exist high efficiency cyclones that are designed
to be effective on particles as small as 2.5 micrometers. As well, these separators are not effective
on extremely large particulate matter. For particulates around 200 micrometers in size, gravity
settling chambers or momentum separators are a better option.
Out of all of the particulate-control devices, cyclone separators are among the least
expensive. They are often used as a pre-treatment before the flue gas enters more effective
pollution control devices. Because of this, cyclone separators can be seen as "rough separators"
before they reach the fine filtration stages.
Effectiveness
Cyclone separators are generally able to remove somewhere between 50-99% of all
particulate matter in flue gas. How well the cyclone separators are actually able to remove this
matter depends largely on particle size. If there is a large amount of lighter particulate matter, less
of these particles are able to be separated out. Because of this, cyclone separators work best on
flue gases that contain large amounts of big particulate matter.
There are several advantages and disadvantages in using cyclone separators. First, cyclone
separators are beneficial because they are not expensive to install or maintain, and they have no
moving parts. This keeps maintenance and operating costs low. As well, the removed particulate
matter is collected when dry, which makes it easier to dispose of. Finally, these units take up very
little space. Although effective, there are also disadvantages in using cyclone separators. Mainly,

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the standard models are not able to collect particulate matter that is smaller than 10 micrometers
effectively and the machines are unable to handle sticky or tacky material well.
Fields of Application
Within the range of their performance capabilities, cyclone collectors offer one of the least
expensive means of dust collection from the standpoint of both investment and operation. Their
major limitation is that their efficiency is low for collection of particles smaller than 5 to 10 m.
Although cyclones may be used to collect particles larger than 200 m, gravity settling chambers
or simple inertial separators (such as gas reversal chambers) are usually satisfactory for this size of
particle and are less subject to abrasion. In special cases in which the dust is highly agglomerated
or in high dust concentrations (over 230 g/m3, or 100 gr/ft3) are encountered, cyclones will
remove dusts having small particle sizes. In certain instances, efficiencies as high as 98 percent
have been attained on dusts having ultimate particle sizes of 0.1 to 2.0 m because of the
predominant effect of particle agglomeration due to high interparticle forces. Cyclones are used
to remove both solids and liquids from gases and have been operated at temperatures as high as
1200C and pressures as high as 50,700 kPa (500 atm).
Cyclones can be very small or very large. The smallest cyclones range from approximately
1 to 2 cm in diameter and the largest up to about 10 m in diameter. The number of cyclones used
for a single fluidized bed can vary from 1 to up to 22 sets of first-stage and second stage cyclones
(44 cyclones total).
Types
1. Vertical Cyclone Separators
Vertical cyclone separators are used to remove 99% of free liquids and solids 5
microns and larger. They are used as slug catchers and inlet separators for plants or for
gas well test separators.
Vertical Cyclone Separator

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Principles of Operation
The high efficiency of these separators is due to the unique design which enables
the separator to be approximately 1/3 the diameter of a conventional separator. The gas
stream enters the cyclone separator tangentially. This starts a cyclone action throwing the
liquids to the wall of the vessel. The gas comes down to the vortex finder plate, and
reverses back up to the gas outlet pipe. In the centre of the vortex finder plate is a hole
connected to the top sealed section by a recycle pipe. As the gas goes out, a low pressure
area is created by the cyclone effect. This low pressure area is transmitted to the sealed
section by the recycle line, and has a suction effect on the gap in the outlet pipe. Any
remaining liquids are pulled through this gap and returned to the lower portion of the
vessel by the recycle tube. These separators will remove 99.9% of all free liquids and solids
5 microns and larger when operated under design conditions.
These separators are particularly effective for the removal of solids, such as
phaltines and iron sulphides. The liquid holding area can also be enlarged to handle large
volumes of liquids and/or slugs.
2. Horizontal Cyclone Separator
Horizontal Cyclone Separator
This type of mechanical dust collector is favored because of its low initial cost,
reliability, and virtually maintenance-free operation. One of the biggest challenges to
designing a manufacturing process is choosing an effective dust collection system that will
fit the limited available plant space. Low ceilings pose a challenge for high-efficiency
cyclones due to their long tapered bodies. In many cases the dust collector must be placed
outdoors or partially protruding through the roof. This can be an unfavorable
arrangement and alternative installation methods are limited. While placing a cyclone dust
collector horizontally is not a new concept, the result is usually a substantial loss of
efficiency due to particulate settling on the side of the collector and being carried out with
the exhaust gas.

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Principles of Operation
New innovations in high-efficiency cyclone design are offering an effective
alternative to conventional vertical cyclones. Horizontal dust collectors utilizing a
secondary gas stream present a marked improvement over typical cyclone dust collectors.
This unique counter-cyclonic design utilizes a powerful secondary air stream to direct
collected material toward the collection hopper. This design feature allows the dust
collector to be installed horizontally with virtually no loss of collection efficiency.
As the dirt-laden gas stream is drawn in to the collector, it passes through a
stationary spinner that imparts a rotational flow and forces particulate toward the walls of
the collector. A powerful secondary air stream is injected into a manifold where it enters
the separation chamber through a series of nozzles. The secondary air stream intercepts
the collected particulate and carries it to the hopper. Because this design does not rely on
gravity to bring the dust to the hopper like conventional cyclones, its operational efficiency
is not affected by horizontal installation.
The flexibility to install a cyclone dust collector horizontally comes with several benefits.
Space Savings. The most obvious benefit to installing a dust collector horizontally is the
saving in valuable shop floor space. A properly supported collector can be hung on an
exterior wall or even suspended from a ceiling. This conserves the space below for
additional work space, machinery, or controls.
Cost Savings. Installing a standard cyclonic dust collector outdoors typically entails pouring
a large concrete pad for support and in some cases building a shelter to protect it from the
elements. In order to fit a tall vertical cyclone inside a plant it is sometimes necessary to cut
a hole in the roof to allow it to protrude through. The roof must then be sealed around
the collector to prevent leaks. This procedure is extremely time consuming and expensive.
A horizontal cyclonic dust collector installed indoors will have a longer service life and,
typically, far smaller installation costs.
Safety. Required maintenance on a horizontal dust collector can be performed at far less
a risk than traditional vertical collectors. A horizontally installed dust collector does not
require the same tall scaffolding to reach access doors or ducting as vertically installed
collectors.
3. Multiple Cyclone Separator
The multi-cyclone separator is a simplistic separator for dedusting and demisting
services targeting applications with slight fouling characteristics at high gas densities. It
has the ability to eliminate sand particles and to remove liquid droplets. The parallel
cyclone tubes are arranged between a top and a bottom plate and this inlet compartment
is completely separated from the top and bottom compartment of the vessel. It consist of
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a number of small diameter cyclones, operating in parallel and having a common gas inlet
and outlet, as shown in the figure.
Multiple Cyclone Separator
Principals of Operation
Multi-clones operate on the same principle as cyclones--creating a main downward
vortex and an ascending inner vortex. Multi clones are more efficient than single cyclones
because they are longer and smaller in diameter. The longer length provides longer
residence time while the smaller diameter creates greater centrifugal force. These two
factors result in better separation of dust particulates.
WET SCRUBBER
Wet scrubbers are devices that control or collect particulate matters through a direct and
irreversible contact of particulate matters with a liquid. These are commonly used as an air
pollution control device that removes particulate matter and acid gases from waste gas streams
of stationary point sources. The pollutants are removed primarily through inertial impaction,
diffusion, interception and/or absorption of the pollutant onto droplets of liquid. The liquid
containing the pollutant is then collected for disposal.
Collection efficiencies for wet scrubbers vary with the particle size distribution of the waste
gas stream. In general, collection efficiency decreases as the particulate matter size decreases.
Collection efficiencies also vary with scrubber type. Collection efficiencies range from greater than
99% for venturi scrubbers to 40-60% (or lower) for simple spray towers. Improvements in wet
scrubber designs have increased collection efficiencies in the sub-micron range.
Wet scrubber systems have some advantages over electrostatic precipitators and
baghouses. Wet scrubbers are smaller and more compact than baghouses or electrostatic
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precipitators. They have lower capital cost and comparable operation and maintenance costs.
Wet scrubbers are particularly useful in the removal of particulate matter with the following
characteristics:
Sticky and/or hygroscopic materials (materials that readily absorb water);

Combustible, corrosive and explosive materials;
Particles which are difficult to remove in their dry form;
Particulate matter in the presence of soluble gases; and
Particulate matter in waste gas streams with high moisture content.
Wet scrubbers have numerous industrial applications including industrial boilers,

incinerators, metals processing, chemical production, and asphalt production, and fertilizer
production.
The primary disadvantage of wet scrubbers is that increased collection efficiency comes at
the cost of increased pressure drop across the control system. Another disadvantage is that they
are limited to lower waste gas flow rates and temperatures than electrostatic precipitators or
baghouses. Current wet scrubber designs accommodate air flow rates over 47 actual cubic meters
per second (m3 /s) (100,000 actual cubic feet per minute (acfm)) and temperatures of up to 400C
(750F). Another disadvantage is that they generate waste in the form of a sludge which requires
treatment and/or disposal. Lastly, downstream corrosion or plume visibility problems can result
unless the added moisture is removed from the gas stream.
CAPTURE MECHANISM
Particulates contact liquid droplets in wet scrubbers through several mechanisms.
Impaction is the primary capture mechanism. When waste gas approaches a water droplet, it
flows along streamlines around the droplet. Particles with sufficient inertial force maintain their
forward trajectory and impact the droplet. Due to their mass, particles with diameters greater than
10 m are generally collected using impaction.
Turbulent flow enhances capture by impaction. Particles dominated by fluid drag forces
follow the streamlines of the waste gas. However, particles that pass sufficiently close to a water
droplet are captured by interception, capture due to the surface tension of the water droplet.
Particles of roughly 1.0 to 0.1 m in diameter are subject to interception. Increasing the density of
droplets in a spray increases interception.
Very small-sized particles are subject to Brownian motion, irregular motion caused by
random collisions with gas molecules. These particles are captured by the water droplet as they
diffuse through the waste gas. Collection due to diffusion is most significant for particles less than
0.5 m in diameter.
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Capture mechanisms that are used less frequently include condensation and electrostatics.
In condensation scrubbing, a gas stream is saturated with water vapor and the particle is captured
when the water condenses on the particle. In electrostatic scrubbing, contact is enhanced by
placing an electrostatic charge on the particle, droplet, or both.
TYPES OF SCRUBBER
There are a great variety of wet scrubbers that are either commercially available or can be
custom designed. While all wet scrubbers are similar to some extent, there are several distinct
methods of using the scrubbing liquid to achieve particle collection. Wet scrubbers are usually
classified according to the method that is used to contact the gas and the liquid.
The most common scrubber design is the introduction of liquid droplets into a spray
chamber, where the liquid is mixed with the gas stream to promote contact with the particulate
matter. In a packed-bed scrubber, layers of liquid are used to coat various shapes of packing
material that become impaction surfaces for the particle-laden gas. Scrubber collection can also
be achieved by forcing the gas at high velocities though a liquid to form jet streams. Liquids are
also used to supersaturate the gas stream, leading to particle scrubbing by condensation.
SPRAY TOWER
The simplest type of scrubber is the spray tower. In a spray tower, particulate-laden
air passes into a chamber where it contacts a liquid spray produced by spray nozzles.
Towers can be placed in either vertical or horizontal waste gas flow paths. The liquid spray
can be directed counter to the gas flow, in the same direction as the gas flow, or
perpendicular to the gas flow.
The gas flow enters at the bottom of the tower and flows upward. Water sprays
downward from nozzles mounted on the walls of the tower or mounted on an array at
the tower center. Water droplets capture particles suspended in the gas flow through
impaction, interception and diffusion. Droplets large enough to settle by gravity collect at
the bottom of the chamber. Droplets that remain entrained in the gas stream are collected
on a mist eliminator upstream of the nozzles.
Spray towers rely primarily on particle collection by impaction; therefore, they have
high collection efficiencies for coarse particulate matter. Typical removal efficiencies for a
spray tower can be as great as 90% for particles larger than 5 m. Removal efficiencies for
particles from 3 to 5 m in diameter range from 60 to 80%. Below 3 m, removal
efficiencies decline to less than 50%. Spray tower applications include control of particulate
matter emissions from grinding operations, pigment operations, and dust control in
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fertilizer plants. Spray towers can also be applied to control particulate matter from asphalt
plant aggregate dryers.
CYCLONIC SPRAY TOWER
Cyclonic spray towers differ from spray tower designs in that the waste gas stream
flows through the chamber in a cyclonic motion. The cyclonic motion is produced by
positioning the gas inlet tangential to the wall of the scrubbing chamber or by placing
turning vanes within the scrubbing chamber. The gas inlet is tapered so that the gas
velocity increases as it enters the tower. The scrubbing liquid is sprayed from nozzles in a
central pipe (tangential inlet) or from the top of the tower (turning vanes). Liquid droplets
entrained in the gas stream experience a centrifugal force resulting from the rotating
motion of the gas stream, causing them to migrate toward to the tower walls. The droplets
impact on the tower walls and fall to the bottom of the tower. Droplets that remain
entrained in the waste gas can be removed with a mist eliminator.
Cyclonic spray towers have greater collection efficiencies than simple spray towers
due to the greater relative velocity between the droplets and the waste gas in a cyclonic
tower. Collection efficiencies for this type of scrubber are as high as 95% for particles
greater than 5 m, and from 60% to 75% for submicron particles. Typical applications are
for dust control in fertilizer plants, grinding operations, and foundries. Gas flow rates range
from 1 to 47 m3 /s (1,500 to 100,000 scfm), and power input for a cyclonic scrubber is
generally 1 to 3.5 horsepower per 1000 cubic feet per minute (hp/1000 cfm). Capital costs
and operation and maintenance costs are slightly higher for cyclonic spray towers due to
their more complex design.
DYNAMIC SCRUBBER
Dynamic scrubbers are also known as mechanically-aided scrubbers or
disintegrator scrubbers. This type of scrubber is similar to spray towers, but with the
addition of a power driven rotor that shears the scrubbing liquid into finely dispersed
droplets. The rotor can be located inside the tower or outside the tower, connected by a
duct. A mist eliminator or cyclonic separator removes the liquid and captured particulate
matter. Most dynamic scrubber systems humidify the waste gas upstream of the rotor to
reduce evaporation and particle deposition in the rotor area.
Dynamic scrubbers efficiently remove fine particulate matter, but the addition of a
rotor to the scrubber system increases the maintenance costs. Large particulate matter
abrades the rotors and the humid gas stream corrodes them. A pretreatment device, such
as a cyclone, often precedes a dynamic scrubber to remove large particulate matter from
the waste gas stream. Power consumption is also high for this type of scrubber, between
4 to 10 kilowatts (kW) per 1000 acfm. Dynamic scrubbers generally can treat gas flow rates
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between 1,000 and 50,000 scfm. Collection efficiencies for dynamic scrubbers are similar
to those for cyclonic spray towers. Capital and operational and maintenance costs are
moderately higher than costs for simple spray towers due to the rotor.
TRAY TOWERS
Tray tower scrubbers consist of a vertical tower with several perforated trays
mounted horizontally in the tower. Gas enters the tower at the bottom and travels upward
through openings in the trays, while the scrubbing liquid flows from the top and across
each tray. The gas mixes with the liquid flowing over the tray, providing more gas-liquid
contact than in spray tower designs. The gas velocity prevents liquid from flowing down
through the perforations in the tray. The impingement plates are continuously washed
clean of collected particles by the flowing liquid. Tray towers are designed to provide
access to each tray for cleaning and maintenance. Large particulate matters can clog the
perforations, therefore, some designs place impingement baffles upstream of each
perforation to remove large particulate matters prior to the waste gas entering the
opening. This type of tray tower is referred to as an impingement-plate or impactor
scrubber.
Tray towers do not effectively remove submicron particles, however, collection
efficiencies of 97% are possible for particles larger than 5 m. Tray towers also effectively
remove soluble gases; therefore they are useful when both particulate and gaseous
pollutants must be removed. Typical applications include lime kilns, bagasse and bark
boilers, and secondary metals industries. Gas flow rates for tray tower designs are
generally between 1,000 to 75,000 scfm. Liquid to gas ratios are low compared to spray
towers and venturi scrubbers because the scrubbing liquid is essentially static. Capital and
operational and maintenance costs of tray and impingement towers are moderately
higher than simple spray towers.
VENTURI SCRUBBERS
A venturi scrubber has a converging-diverging flow channel. In this type of
system the cross-sectional area of the channel decreases then increases along the length
of the channel. The narrowest area is referred to as the throat. In the converging section,
the decrease in area causes the waste gas velocity and turbulence to increase. The
scrubbing liquid is injected into the scrubber slightly upstream of the throat or directly into
the throat section. The scrubbing liquid is atomized by the turbulence in the throat,
improving gas-liquid contact. The gas-liquid mixture then decelerates as it moves through
the diverging section, causing additional particle-droplet impacts and agglomeration of
the droplets. The liquid droplets are then separated from the gas stream in an entrainment
section, usually consisting of a cyclonic separator and mist eliminator.
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Venturi scrubbers are more expensive than spray tower, cyclonic, or tray tower
scrubbers, but collection efficiencies for fine particulate matter are higher. High gas
velocities and turbulence in the venturi throat result in high collection efficiencies, ranging
from 70% to 99% for particles larger than 1 m in diameter and greater than 50% for
submicron particles. Increasing the pressure drop in a venturi scrubber increases the
efficiency, but the systems energy demand also increases leading to greater operational
costs. Capital and operational and maintenance costs are moderately higher than costs
for simple spray towers.
ORIFICE SCRUBBER
In an orifice scrubber, also referred to as an impaction scrubber, the gas stream
flows over the surface of a pool of scrubbing liquid. As the gas impinges on the water
surface, it entrains droplets of the liquid. The waste gas then flows upward and enters an
orifice with a narrower opening than the duct. The orifice induces turbulence in the flow
which atomizes the entrained droplets. The atomized droplets capture the particulate
matter in the gas stream. A series of baffles then removes the droplets, which fall into the
liquid pool below. Some orifice scrubbers have adjustable orifices to control the gas
velocity. Orifice scrubbers accommodate gas flow rates up to 50,000 scfm and particle
loadings up to 23 g/m3 (10 grains per scfm). The primary advantage of this type of
scrubber is the elimination of a recirculation pump for the scrubbing liquid, which is a
major contributor to operating costs for most scrubber designs. The primary disadvantage
is the difficulty of removing waste sludge. In most scrubber designs, waste continually
drains from the bottom. Orifice scrubbers employ a static pool of scrubbing liquid, so waste
sludge is removed with a sludge ejector, which operates like a conveyor belt. The sludge
settles onto the ejector, which conveys it out of the scrubber.
Orifice scrubbers are not widely used, but have been applied to dryers, cookers,
crushing and grinding operations, spray operations(pill coating, ceramic glazing),
ventilation (bin vents, dumping operations), and material handling (transfer stations,
mixing, dumping, packaging). This type of scrubber can effectively remove particulate
matter over 2 m in diameter, with control efficiencies ranging from 80-99%. Though
orifice scrubbers can be designed as high-energy units, most are built for low-energy
service. Capital and operation and maintenance costs are significantly higher than costs
for simple spray towers.
OTHER TYPES
Packed tower scrubbers are towers containing a bed of packing material. The
packing material provides a large wetted surface for gas-liquid contact. Scrubbing liquid is
introduced at the top of the tower and flows down through the packing, coating the
packing and forming a thin film. Packing materials are available in a variety of forms, each
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having specific characteristics with respect to surface area, pressure drop, weight,
corrosion resistance, and cost. Packed towers are most often used for gas adsorption
rather than particulate matter removal, because high particle concentrations can build up
on the packing and clog the tower.
In a condensation scrubber, the particles act as condensation nuclei for the
formation of water droplets. First, the gas stream is saturated with water vapor. Steam may
also be injected to further increase the humidity ratio. The injection of water vapor and/or
steam creates a condition of super-saturation leading to the condensation of water on
particles in the gas stream. The droplets are then removed by a conventional device, such
as a mist eliminator. Condensation scrubbers can effectively remove fine particulate matter
and have collection efficiencies of greater than 99%. However, the scrubber can only
remove relatively small amounts of dust due to the amount of saturation and
condensation that are capable of being maintained in the gas stream. Condensation
scrubbers are generally intended to be used downstream of another scrubber that has
already removed particles larger than 1 m in diameter. Condensation scrubbing is a
relatively new technology and has limited commercial availability. Its most frequent
application is to hazardous waste or medical waste incinerators.
Charged scrubbers enhance removal by placing an electrostatic charge on the
water droplets, particles, or both prior to entering the scrubber. These scrubbers usually
employ a conventional scrubber design, such as a spray tower. The particulates can be
negatively or positively charged, with droplets given the opposite charge. Wet
electrostatic precipitators are similar devices which combine an electrostatic precipitator
with flowing liquid to continuously clean electrostatic plates.
Commercially available wet scrubbers employ a wide range of design variations,
including several hybrids of technologies. For example, a few manufacturers offer venturi
scrubbers with multiple throats. Other manufacturers combine wet scrubber devices with
other types of particulate removal, such as a baghouse or electrostatic precipitator.
DESIGN PARAMETERS
The parameters affecting the overall performance of a wet scrubber are:
17
Particle size distribution and loading;

Waste gas flow rate, temperature and humidity;
Gas velocity and pressure drop;
Liquid-to-gas (L/G) ratio;
Droplet size; and
Residence time.

Intramuros, Manila
Particle Size Distribution and Loading

The performance of a given scrubber type is highly dependent on the size
distribution of the particulate matter in the waste gas stream. The size distribution
determines the capture mechanism, impaction, interception or diffusion, which
dominates. Most wet scrubber designs rely almost exclusively on inertial impaction for
particulate collection. Particles smaller than 0.1 m are captured primarily through
diffusion mechanisms.
Particulate matter loading, also called dust loading, is the mass of particulate matter
per unit volume in the waste gas at the inlet of the scrubber. As particulate matter loading
increases, the L/G ratio must increase to maintain the same collection efficiency. Higher
particulate matter loading also results in higher solids content of the recycled scrubbing
liquid. In order to maintain the solids content, a greater volume of scrubbing liquid must
be bled from the system as waste and a greater volume of clean scrubbing liquid must be
added to the system. Higher particulate matter loadings increase the operating costs of
the system due to increased pump usage, scrubbing liquid usage, and waste liquid
disposal. Applications with high particulate matter loadings also require more
maintenance, as particles can cause plugging of orifices and wear to parts such as nozzles
and fans.
Waste Gas Flow Rate, Temperature and Humidity
The waste gas flow rate is the most important sizing parameter in a wet scrubber.
The higher the waste gas flow rate, the larger the venturi system and volume of scrubbing
liquid required to treat the waste gas. Wet scrubbers operate at lower gas flow rates than
baghouses or electrostatic precipitators because of the liquid injection. New low energy
venturis can accommodate air flow rates of up to 95 m/s (300,000 acfm). Jet venturi
systems are generally limited to approximately 3 m/s (10,000 acfm) and multi-throat and
high energy venturi systems are limited to approximately 47 m3 /s (150,000 acfm).
The waste gas temperature and humidity also impacts the venturi design. When
air passes through a wet scrubber, water evaporates, which increases humidity and cools
the gas stream. The amount of evaporation is determined by the inlet temperature and
humidity. High evaporation rates will increase the L/G ratio required by the system. For
particulate matter applications, wet scrubbers are generally limited to a temperature range
of (50F to 700F) due to evaporation. A quencher may be needed for higher temperature
applications. High temperature affects the material used to manufacture the scrubber
components.
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Gas Velocity and Pressure Drop

Increasing the relative velocity between the gas and the liquid droplets increases
the momentum of the particulate, allowing smaller particles to be collected by impaction.
The relative velocity can be increased by narrowing the throat, injecting the scrubbing
liquid counter-current to the flow, or spraying the liquid into the throat. However,
increasing relative velocity generally increases the pressure drop, energy demand, and
operating costs for the scrubber. High energy venturis increase the gas velocity using an
induced draft fan upstream of the venturi. These systems have much higher operating
costs than low energy venturis due to the higher fan power.
The smaller the cross-sectional area of the throat, the greater the increase in the
gas velocity obtained. The highest gas velocity occurs at the center point of the narrowest
cross-section, generally ranging from 45 to 150 meters per second (m/s) (150 to 500 feet
per second (ft/s)). The resulting pressure loss of the gas stream across the venturi is in the
range of 10 to 80 in w.c. In general, increasing the pressure drop above 45 in w.c. does
not significantly increase the removal efficiency for conventional venturi designs. Venturi
designs optimize the cross sectional area of the throat to provide high gas velocities while
minimizing pressure drop. In addition, the diverging section of the venturi is designed to
recover the most pressure. Diverging sections are designed to decrease the waste gas
velocity to between 30 and 15 m/s (100 and 50 f/s). At this speed, turbulent losses are
minimized and the greatest amount of energy recovery is achieved.
Liquid-to-Gas Ratio
The liquid-to-gas ratio (L/G) is the volume of liquid injected per volume of waste gas
treated. In general, a higher L/G ratio increases collection efficiency since the density of
droplets across a given cross-section of the venturi is higher. Liquid flow rates between 7
and 10 gal/1000 ft3 give optimum performance. L/G ratios in this range produce fairly
constant collection efficiencies given a constant pressure drop. L/G ratios of greater than
10 gal/1000 ft3 do not improve the scrubber performance significantly. While increasing
the L/G ratio increases collection efficiency, operating costs are increased as well due to
greater scrubbing liquid and pump usage.
Residence Time
Increasing the length of the throat and the diverging section, increases the contact
time between the liquid and the particulate matter suspended in the waste gas. For
example, a venturi with a throat length of 1 foot and a velocity of approximately 450 ft/sec
has a contact time of 1/450 of a second. This is minimal time for mixing and contact
between the liquid and waste gas. For a cylindrical throat, a throat length to throat
diameter ratio of 3:1 is the minimum recommended. For high energy systems, it is
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recommended that the length of the diverging section of the throat to be at least 4 times
the width of the throat in order to have sufficient contact time.
Droplet Size
There is an optimum droplet size for maximizing collection of particulate matter.
Smaller droplets have a larger surface area to volume ratio, therefore, they capture more
particles per volume of liquid injected. However, if the droplet size becomes too small, the
momentum of the waste gas can be imparted to the droplets which decreases the relative
velocity between the droplet and particles. Lower relative velocity results in lower
collection efficiency. Wet scrubbers control the size of droplets using several techniques.
In scrubbers using preformed droplets, such as spray towers, the droplet size is determined
by the type of nozzle and the system operating conditions. In dynamic scrubbers, the
speed of the rotor and L/G controls the droplet size. In venturi scrubbers, the droplet size
is controlled by the L/G and the gas velocity in the throat.
ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATORS
Electrostatic precipitation is
a method of dust collection that
uses electrostatic forces, and
consists of discharge wires and
collecting plates. A high voltage is
applied to the discharge wires to
form an electrical field between the
wires and the collecting plates, and
also ionizes the gas around the
discharge wires to supply ions.
When gas that contains an aerosol
(dust, mist) flows between the
collecting plates and the discharge
wires, the aerosol particles in the
gas are charged by the ions. The
Diagram of Electrostatic Precipitator
Coulomb force caused by the
electric field causes the charged particles to be collected on the collecting plates, and the gas is
purified. This is the principle of electrostatic precipitation, and Electrostatic precipitator apply this
principle on an industrial scale. The particles collected on the collecting plates are removed by
methods such as (1) dislodging by rapping the collecting plates, (2) scraping off with a brush, or
(3) washing off with water, and removing from a hopper.
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Dust Collection Efficiency and Electrical Resistivity of Dust

The dust collection efficiency of Electrostatic precipitator is affected by the electrical resistivity of
the dust collected.
In the normal resistivity area, the dust collection efficiency is high, so dust collection is stable. Most
of the aerosols handled by Electrostatic precipitator are in this electrical resistivity area.
Particles in the low-resistivity area lose their charge as soon as they arrive at the collecting plate,
so they are re-entrained in the dust collection area, and the dust collection efficiency is greatly
reduced.
The dust collection efficiency in the high-resistivity area reduces as the electrical resistivity of the
dust increases. Also, partial discharge occurs within the dust layer collected on the collecting
plates, and as a result flashovers frequently occur, the applied voltage is reduced, and the
discharge current is reduced. If the electrical resistivity of the dust is further increased, the
discharge current increases abnormally, and the applied voltage is reduced (back corona
phenomenon). The moving-electrode type electrostatic precipitator we developed is suitable for
high-performance collection of high-resistivity dust.
Therefore, an important factor when planning Electrostatic precipitator is the electrical resistivity
of the dust to be collected.
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Dust Collection Efficiency and Particle Size Distribution

The dust collection efficiency of Electrostatic precipitator is affected by the particle size of the
aerosol (dust, mist) to be collected. The theoretical migration velocity at which a particle diameter
of several m moves towards the collecting plate is almost directly proportional to the particle
diameter. When dust collection is performed on an aerosol with different size particles using an
electrostatic precipitator, the collection efficiency is high for the large particles, and low for the
small particles.
To obtain the same dust collection efficiency for an aerosol with small particle size, the electrostatic
precipitator must be larger (to increase the treating time it takes for the process gas to pass
through) than that of large-size particles. Therefore, the particle size distribution of the aerosol to
be collected is an important factor when planning an electrostatic precipitator.
Dust Collection Efficiency and Aerosol Concentration

The dust collection efficiency of an electrostatic precipitator is greatly affected by the
concentration in the gas of the aerosol (dust, mist) to be collected. For the same required value of
aerosol concentration at the outlet of the electrostatic precipitator, the higher the aerosol
concentration at the inlet, the longer the treatment time of the gas in the electrostatic precipitator,
and the larger the device.
Also, if the inlet aerosol concentration is high and the content of fine particles smaller than several
m is high, in order to create a charge cloud of charged fine particles between the discharge
wires and the collecting plates, the corona discharge from the discharge wires is reduced, also
reducing the dust collection efficiency (space charging effect).
The aerosol concentration at the electrostatic precipitator inlet and the required outlet
concentration are important factors when planning an electrostatic precipitator.
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MECHANISM OF ELECTRICAL PRECIPITATOR
Inside the electrical precipitator
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ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
TYPES OF ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATORS

ESPs are classified based on a number of different factors, including the collector design, the
number of stages, and whether the process is dry or wet.
The functional design of an ESP incorporates either plate or tubular collection surfaces.
PLATE PRECIPITATORS
Plate ESPs primarily collect dry particles and are used more often than tubular precipitators.
Plate-Wire Precipitators
In a plate-wire ESP, gas flows between parallel plates of
sheet metal and high-voltage long metal wires. It allows
many flow lanes to operate in parallel, making it
suitable for handling large volumes of gas.
Plate-wire precipitators are among the most common
types of ESPs. In industry, they are used in cement kilns,
incinerators, boilers, cracking units, sinter plants,
furnaces, coke oven batteries, and a variety of other
applications.
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TUBULAR PRECIPITATORS
Tubular ESPs consist of parallel arrangements
of tubes with high-voltage electrodes running on
their axis. The tubes may be arranged as a circular,
square, or hexagonal honeycomb with gas flowing
upwards or downwards. They are designed as onestage units in which all the gas passes through the
tube, eliminating sneakage. They are still
susceptible to inefficiencies from corona nonuniformities.
Tubular precipitators are less common than plate
types. They are used in applications involving wet
or sticky particulate, and are typically cleaned with
water for lower re-entrainment losses than typical
ESPs. They also can be tightly sealed to prevent
leakage of material, an important consideration for valuable or hazardous substances.
SINGLE OR TWO STAGE

ESPs can be designed as either single or two stage configurations.
Single-Stage Precipitators
Most industrial scale ESPs are single stage. They use
very high voltages to charge particles and
incorporate charging and collection together in the
same stage. Sets of electrodes and collector surfaces
(plates or tubes) operate in parallel to each other.
Two-Stage Precipitators
Two-stage ESPs operate in series rather than parallel
configuration. Instead of using a side by
side design, they incorporate separate particle charging and collection stages. This allows more
time for particle charging, less susceptibility to back corona, and economical construction for
smaller sizes.
Two-stage precipitators are separate and distinct from other ESPs, originally designed for air
purification in conjunction with air conditioning systems. They are typically used for smaller, lowervolume applications. They are usually applied to submicron sources emitting oil mists, smokes,
fumes, or other liquid aerosols. Many are sold as pre-engineered, package systems.
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DRY OR WET
ESPs can also be classified based on whether they operate using a dry or wet process.
Dry ESPs
Dry electrostatic precipitators are used to capture particles in dry
product streams. They use periodic rapping to separate the
accumulated dust from the collector plates and discharge electrodes.
The dust layer (released by rapping) is collected in a hopper and then
removed by an ash handling system. Typically, rapping will also
project some of these particles (around 10-15 percent) back into the
gas stream (known as reentrainment). Dry electrostatic precipitators
are often not suitable for submicron particulate applications because
of
particle
size,
resistivity,
and
other
issues.
Wet ESPs (WESPs)

Wet electrostatic precipitators are used to strip wet (saturated) gas
streams of particles. They use water sprays to condition/trap particles
for collection and also to clean the particles off collection surfaces.
WESPs collect particulate matter not suitable for dry ESPs, including
sticky, moist, flammable, explosive, or high resistivity solids. WESPs can
also remove very fine (submicron) particulate that dry ESPs cannot
capture effectively. The use of water also gives these devices gas
scrubbing capabilities. Most wet precipitators are tubular designs.
However, WESPs are costlier than dry ESPs. Because they incorporate
water and corrosive gases, they must be designed from more
expensive corrosion-resistant materials. Another disadvantage of
WESPs is that the PM is collected as a slurry instead of a dry solid. This
form is unsuitable for high value or recyclable materials and is more
expensive to handle and dispose. If the water is being recycled and
reused, the system also must incorporate a water purification step.
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BAGHOUSES
A baghouse (BH, B/H), bag filter (BF) or fabric filter (FF)
is an air pollution control device that removes
particulates out of air or gas released from commercial
processes
or
combustion
for
electricity
generation.[2]Power plants, steel mills, pharmaceutical
producers, food manufacturers, chemical producers
and other industrial companies often use baghouses to
control emission of air pollutants. Baghouses came into
widespread use in the late 1970s after the invention of
high-temperature fabrics (for use in the filter media)
capable of withstanding temperatures over 350 F.
Unlike electrostatic precipitators, where performance may vary significantly depending on
process and electrical conditions, functioning baghouses typically have a particulate collection
efficiency of 99% or better, even when particle size is very small. Also, with stricter EPA regulations
for the removal of gases and heavy metals, the baghouse offers adaptability as a dry collection
device using absorbents.
A fabric filter unit consists of one or

more
isolated
compartments
containing rows of fabric bags in
the form of round, flat, or shaped
tubes, or pleated cartridges. Particle
laden gas passes up (usually) along
the surface of the bags then radially
through the fabric. Particles are
retained on the upstream face of
the bags, and the cleaned gas
stream is vented to the atmosphere.
The filter is operated cyclically,
alternating between relatively long
periods of filtering and short
periods of cleaning. During
cleaning,
dust
that
has
accumulated on the bags is
removed from the fabric surface
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and deposited in a hopper for subsequent disposal.

Fabric filters collect particles with sizes ranging from submicron to several hundred microns in
diameter at efficiencies generally in excess of 99 or 99.9 percent. The layer of dust, or dust cake,
collected on the fabric is primarily responsible for such high efficiency. The cake is a barrier with
tortuous pores that trap particles as they travel through the cake. Gas temperatures up to about
500F, with surges to about 550F can be accommodated routinely in some configurations. Most
of the energy used to operate the system appears as pressure drop across the bags and associated
hardware and ducting. Typical values of system pressure drop range from about 5 to 20 inches of
water. Fabric filters are used where high efficiency particle collection is required. Limitations are
imposed by gas characteristics (temperature and corrosivity) and particle characteristics (primarily
stickiness) that affect the fabric or its operation and that cannot be economically accommodated.
MECHANISMS OF BAGHOUSES
Most baghouses use long, cylindrical bags (or tubes) made of woven or felted fabric as a filter
medium. (For applications where there is relatively low dust loading and gas temperatures are
250 F or less, pleated, nonwoven cartridges are sometimes used as filtering media instead of
bags.) Dust-laden gas or air enters the baghouse through hoppers (large funnel-shaped
containers used for storing and dispensing particulate) and is directed into the baghouse
compartment. The gas is drawn through the bags, either on the inside or the outside depending
on cleaning method, and a layer of dust accumulates on the filter media surface until air can no
longer move through it. When sufficient pressure drop (delta P) occurs, the cleaning process
begins. Cleaning can take place while the baghouse is online (filtering) or is offline (in isolation).
When the compartment is clean, normal filtering resumes.
Baghouses are very efficient particulate collectors because of the dust cake formed on the surface
of the bags. The fabric provides a surface on which dust collects through the following four
mechanisms:
Inertial collection - Dust particles strike the fibers placed perpendicular to the gas-flow
direction instead of changing direction with the gas stream.
Interception - Particles that do not cross the fluid streamlines come in contact with fibers
because of the fiber size.
Brownian movement - Submicrometre particles are diffused, increasing the probability of
contact between the particles and collecting surfaces.
Electrostatic forces - The presence of an electrostatic charge on the particles and the filter
can increase dust capture.
A combination of these mechanisms results in formation of the dust cake on the filter, which
eventually increases the resistance to gas flow. The filter must be cleaned periodically.
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TYPES OF BAGHOUSES
Baghouses are classified by the cleaning method used. The three most common types of
baghouses are mechanical shakers, reverse gas, and pulse jet.
Mechanical Shakers
In mechanical-shaker baghouses, tubular filter bags are fastened onto a cell plate at the bottom
of the baghouse and suspended from horizontal beams at the top. Dirty gas enters the bottom of
the baghouse and passes through the
filter, and the dust collects on the inside
surface of the bags.
Cleaning
a
mechanical-shaker
baghouse is accomplished by shaking
the top horizontal bar from which the
bags
are
suspended.
Vibration
produced by a motor-driven shaft and
cam creates waves in the bags to shake
off the dust cake.
Shaker baghouses range in size from
small, handshaker devices to large,
compartmentalized units. They can
operate intermittently or continuously.
Intermittent units can be used when
processes operate on a batch basiswhen
a
batch
is
completed,
the baghouse
can
be
cleaned.
Continuous
processes
use
compartmentalized baghouses; when one compartment is being cleaned, the airflow can be
diverted to other compartments.
In shaker baghouses, there must be no positive pressure inside the bags during the shake cycle.
Pressures as low as 0.02 in. wg can interfere with cleaning.
The air to cloth ratio for shaker baghouses is relatively low, hence the space requirements are
quite high. However, because of the simplicity of design, they are popular in the minerals
processing industry.
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Reverse Air (R/A) (aka Reverse Gas)

In reverse-air baghouses, the bags are fastened
onto a cell plate at the bottom of the baghouse
and suspended from an adjustable hanger
frame at the top. Dirty gas flow normally enters
the baghouse and passes through the bag from
the inside, and the dust collects on the inside of
the bags.
Reverse-air baghouses are compartmentalized
to allow continuous operation. Before a
cleaning cycle begins, filtration is stopped in the
compartment to be cleaned. Bags are cleaned
by injecting clean air into the dust collector in a
reverse direction, which pressurizes the
compartment. The pressure makes the bags
collapse partially, causing the dust cake to crack
and fall into the hopper below. At the end of
the cleaning cycle, reverse airflow is
discontinued, and the compartment is returned
to the main stream.
The flow of the dirty gas helps maintain the shape of the bag. However, to prevent total collapse
and fabric chafing during the cleaning cycle, rigid rings are sewn into the bags at intervals.
Space requirements for a reverse-air baghouse are comparable to those of a shaker baghouse;
however, maintenance needs are somewhat greater.
Pulse Jet (aka Reverse Jet)

In reverse-pulse-jet baghouses, individual bags are supported by a metal cage (filter cage), which
is fastened onto a cell plate at the top of the baghouse. Dirty gas enters from the bottom of the
baghouse and flows from outside to inside the bags. The metal cage prevents collapse of the bag.
Bags are cleaned by a short burst of compressed air injected through a common manifold over a
row of bags. The compressed air is accelerated by a venturi nozzle mounted at the reverse-jet
baghouse top of the bag. Since the duration of the compressed-air burst is short (0.1s), it acts as
a rapidly moving air bubble, traveling through the entire length of the bag and causing the bag
surfaces to flex. This flexing of the bags breaks the dust cake, and the dislodged dust falls into a
storage hopper below.
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Reverse-pulse-jet dust collectors can be

operated continuously and cleaned
without interruption of flow because the
burst of compressed air is very small
compared with the total volume of dusty
air through the collector. Because of this
continuous-cleaning feature, reverse-jet
dust
collectors
are
usually
not
compartmentalized.
The short cleaning cycle of reverse-jet
collectors reduces recirculation and
redeposit of dust. These collectors provide
more
complete
cleaning
and
reconditioning of bags than shaker or
reverse-air cleaning methods. Also, the
continuous-cleaning feature allows them
to operate at higher air-to-cloth ratios, so
the space requirements are lower.
This cleaning system works with the help of digital sequential timer attached to the fabric filter.
this timer indicates the solenoid valve to inject the air to the blow pipe.
\
CLEANING METHOD COMPARISON

Type
Shaker
Advantages
Disadvantages
Have high collection efficiency for

respirable dust
Have low air-to-cloth ratio (1.5 to

2 ft/min)
Can use strong woven bags, which

can withstand intensified cleaning
cycle to reduce residual dust
buildup
Cannot be used in high

temperatures
Simple to operate
Require large amounts of space
Have low pressure drop for

equivalent collection efficiencies
Need large numbers of filter bags

Consist of many moving parts and
require frequent maintenance
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Personnel must enter baghouse to

replace bags, creating potential for
exposure to toxic dust
Can result in reduced cleaning
efficiency if even a slight positive
pressure exists inside bags
Reverse air

respirable dust
Have low air-to-cloth ratio (1 to

2 ft/min)
Are preferred for high

temperatures due to gentle
cleaning action
Require frequent cleaning because

of gentle cleaning action

Have no effective way to remove

residual dust buildup
Cleaning air must be filtered
Require personnel to enter
baghouse to replace bags which
creates potential for toxic dust
exposure
Pulse jet
(Reversed
Jet)

respirable dust
Require use of dry compressed air
Can have high air-to-cloth ratio (6

to 10 ft/min)
May not be used readily in high

temperatures unless special fabrics
are used
Have increased efficiency and

minimal residual dust buildup due
to aggressive cleaning action
Cannot be used if high moisture

content or humidity levels are
present in the exhaust gases
Can clean continuously

Can use strong woven bags
Have lower bag wear
Have small size and fewer bags
because of high air-to-cloth ratio
Some designs allow bag changing
without entering baghouse
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CLEANING CONSIDERATIONS
Sonic horns
Some baghouses have sonic horns installed to provide supplementary vibration cleaning energy.
The horns, which generate high intensity, low frequency sounds waves, are turned on just before
or at the start of the cleaning cycle to help break the bonds between particles on the filter media
surface and aid in dust removal.
Cleaning sequences
Two main sequence types are used to clean baghouses:
1. Intermittent (periodic) cleaning
2. Continuous cleaning.
Intermittently cleaned baghouses are composed of many compartments or sections. One at a
time, each compartment is periodically closed off from the incoming dirty gas stream, cleaned,
and then brought back online. While the individual compartment is out of place, the gas stream
is diverted from the compartments area. This makes shutting down the production process
unnecessary during cleaning cycles.
Continuously cleaned baghouse compartments are always online for automatic filtering. A blast
of compressed air momentarily interrupts the collection process to clean the bag. This is known
as pulse jet cleaning. Pulse jet cleaning does not require taking compartments offline.
Continuously cleaned baghouses are designed to prevent complete shutdown during bag
maintenance and failures to the primary system.
Performance
Baghouse performance is contingent upon inlet and outlet gas temperature, pressure drop,
opacity, and gas velocity. The chemical composition, moisture, acid dew point, and particle
loading and size distribution of the gas stream are essential factors as well
33
Gas Temperature - Fabrics are designed to operate within a certain range of temperature.
Fluctuation outside of these limits even for a small period of time, can weaken, damage,
or ruin the bags.

Intramuros, Manila
Pressure Drop - Baghouses operate most effectively within a certain pressure drop range.
This spectrum is based on a specific gas volumetric flow rate.
Opacity - Opacity measures the quantity of light scattering that occurs as a result of the
particles in a gas stream. Opacity is not an exact measurement of the concentration of
particles; however, it is a good indicator of the amount of dust leaving the baghouse.
Gas Volumetric Flow Rate - Baghouses are created to accommodate a range of gas flows.
An increase in gas flow rates causes an increase in operating pressure drop and air-tocloth ratio. These increases require the baghouse to work more strenuously, resulting in
more frequent cleanings and high particle velocity, two factors that shorten bag life.
Design variables
Pressure drop, filter drag, air-to-cloth ratio, and collection efficiency are essential factors in the
design of a baghouse.
34
Pressure drop is the resistance to air flow across the baghouse. A high pressure drop
corresponds with a higher resistance to airflow. Pressure drop is calculated by determining
the difference in total pressure at two points, typically the inlet and outlet.
Filter drag is the resistance across the fabric-dust layer. It is the pressure drop per unit of
velocity.
An understanding of the term air-to-cloth ratio is vital to understand the mechanics of any
baghouse system regardless of the exact type used. This ratio is defined as the amount of
air or process gas entering the Baghouse divided by the sq. ft of cloth in the Baghouse.
Units of measure are (ft3/min)/ft2 or (cm3/sec)/cm2.
Commonly, baghouses are designed with 99.9% collection efficiency. Often, cleaned air is
recirculated back into the plant for heating.

Intramuros, Manila
FILTER MEDIA
Fabric filter bags (sometimes referred to as envelopes) are oval or round tubes, typically 1530
feet and 5 to 12 inches in diameter, made of woven or felted material. Depending on chemical
and/or moisture content of the gas stream, its temperature, and other conditions, bags may be
constructed out of cotton, nylon, polyester, fiberglass or other materials.
Nonwoven materials are either felted or membrane. Nonwoven materials are attached to a
woven backing (scrim). Felted filters contain randomly placed fibers supported by a woven
backing material (scrim). In a membrane filter, a thin, porous membrane is bound to the scrim.
High energy cleaning techniques such as pulse jet require felted fabrics.
Woven filters have a definite repeated pattern. Low energy cleaning methods such as shaking or
reverse air allow for woven filters. Various weaving patterns such as plain weave, twill weave, or
sateen weave, increase or decrease the amount of space between individual fibers. The size of
the space affects the strength and permeability of the fabric. A tighter weave corresponds with
low permeability and, therefore, more efficient capture of fine particles.
Reverse air bags have anti-collapse rings sewn into them to prevent pancaking when cleaning
energy is applied. Pulse jet filter bags are supported by a metal cage, which keeps the fabric taut.
To lengthen the life of filter bags, a thin layer of PTFE (teflon) membrane may be adhered to the
filtering side of the fabric, keeping dust particles from becoming embedded in the filter media
fibers.
Some baghouses use pleated cartridge filters, similar to what is found in home air filtration
systems.
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Intramuros, Manila
MIST COLLECTION
Metalworking companies use mist collectors on their machine tools to help
provide clean air to reduce the adverse effects of exposure to metalworking
fluids, comply with indoor air quality standards, reduce maintenance costs,
reduce housekeeping costs, and improve part quality.
MIST DEFINITION
Mist can generally be defined as a liquid droplet 20 microns in diameter or smaller. For
example, milling and turning operations using water-soluble metalworking fluids typically
produce mist droplets that range from 2 microns to 20 microns. The same operations using oilbased fluids typically produce mist droplets that range from 0.5 microns to 10 microns.
The formation of mist, as of other suspensions, is greatly aided by the presence of
nucleation sites on which the suspended water phase can solidify. Thus even such unusual
sources as small particulates from volcanic eruptions, releases of strongly polar gases, and even
the magnetospheric ions associated with polar lights can in right conditions trigger the formation
of mist.
Goals of Mist Collection

The objectives of mist collection are to prevent mist from becoming airborne, prevent
workers from breathing mist laden air and to eliminate or prevent haze. Mist collection experts
agree that these goals can be best achieved by containing the mist within a metal or plexiglass
machine tool enclosure and only capturing the lightest and smallest mist particles generated
inside that enclosure that otherwise would drift out of the machine tool enclosure. If this is done
well, the finest and lightest mist particles that cause indoor air pollution are filtered out of the air
by the mist collector. When mist collection is not done well, the following may occur:
1. Mist escapes through the machine tool access doors, chip conveyors and other openings
in the machine tool.
2. Too much mist is pulled into the mist collector, limiting proper cooling and lubrication.
3. The mist collector is collecting so much mist that it cannot filter it fast enough, requiring
frequent filter changes.
PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS
A mist collectors major function is to remove mist and smoke droplets from the filtered
airstream. To accomplish this task a collector must merge small drops into larger ones, and then
drain the collected coolant from the filters before they plug.
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Intramuros, Manila
The performance of a mist collector can be characterized by three measurable properties:

Pressure Drop: The operating pressure drop of the collector is important as part of the energy
cost equation. Higher pressure drops mean more energy is required to pull the required
airflow through the collector.
Efficiency: The efficiency of the collector in removing mist and smoke droplets from the
airstream is important because it determines how clean the air will be as it leaves the collector
and is typically vented to the indoor environment. This is the reason to install a mist collector
to clean the air. Efficiency is the key measure for how much cleaner the air will be as it
leaves the collector.
Flow Rate: The flow rate of the collector is important because it determines how much air
will be cleaned. If the flow is too low, then less mist- or smoke-laden air will be pulled through
the collector and will not be captured by the system intended to capture it. If the flow rate is
too high, then energy is wasted as surplus air is pulled through the collector. A constant
airflow rate is also desirable for maintaining consistent droplet capture efficiency.
In addition to the basic design of the collector, there are a number of mist properties that
will affect the performance of a mist collector:
Mist concentration the amount of mist contained in a volume of air varies widely from
application to application. Measured mist concentrations as low as 3 mg/m 3 and as high as
37 mg/m3 have been observed in field testing. It is likely actual applications have an even
larger range of mist concentrations. OSHA limits for airborne metalworking fluids vary from
5 mg/m3 (8-hour exposure) for mineral oil, to 15 mg/m3 (8-hour exposure) for other coolants.
NIOSH -recommended limits are lower, down to 0.4 mg/m3. In a general office environment,
particulate matter concentrations tend to be in the range of 0.02 0.03 mg/m3 - substantially
lower than mist concentrations near metalworking operations.
Mist temperature condensation can occur as high temperature mist cools, which can affect
droplet size and means of collection. For water-based coolants, the water will evaporate at
higher temperatures and lower relative humidity levels, thus creating smaller droplet sizes.
Filter media operating temperature limits are also important to consider when selecting a
mist or smoke collection technology.
Type of mist different types of mist droplets will have different surface tension and viscosity
properties, which impact a mist collectors ability to coalesce and drain the mist.
Mist droplet size distribution in general it is easier to capture larger droplet sizes, but large
droplets also can be a significant contributor to the overall mass of liquid contained in the
mist, which must eventually drain from the collector.
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Intramuros, Manila
Figure 1: Hypothetical mist and smoke droplet size distribution from metalworking operations
Inclusions if a mist is clean, it does not contain dry particles and we only need to be
concerned about coalescing, and draining the liquid. However, a dirty mist will also contain
a fraction of dry particles (swarf) that must also be separated from the airstream.
OPERATION FUNDAMENTALS FOR VARIOUS TYPES OF MIST COLLECTORS

Mist droplets can be captured in several ways.
Electrostatic Precipitation
Electrostatic precipitators work by drawing the mist-laden air through an ionizer that gives
each droplet either a positive or a negative charge. The charged droplets are then captured by
collection cells that utilize alternating high voltage and grounded plates to push/pull the charged
droplets onto the plate. The droplets coalesce on the plates and drain out of the collector.
Electrostatic precipitators have a number of advantages, including no filters to replace, relatively
low energy usage, and high efficiency when new and fully cleaned. However, electrostatic
precipitators have fallen out of favor due to their very arduous and frequent maintenance
requirements. The parts inside an electrostatic precipitator need to be kept meticulously clean in
order to maintain the efficiency of charging and capturing the droplets. Even with regular
maintenance, there can be additional difficulties. Any damage to the charged plates in the
collection cell can result in electric arcs. Similarly, applications where there is metal dust, chips, or
swarf collected with the mist droplets can result in electric arcs inside the electrostatic precipitator.
Finally, electrostatic precipitators generate ozone, which is an indoor air pollutant and known
irritant.
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Intramuros, Manila
Inertial Separation
Collectors that rely primarily on inertial separation operate in the following way to
separate droplets carried in an airstream. As the airstream is diverted around a surface, the
droplets have momentum and continue on their path, impacting the surface and ultimately
coalescing with other droplets and draining. Although there are many different types and styles
of inertial separation, all have a few things in common. First, inertial separators can work without
a barrier filtration mechanism they typically do not have primary filters that would need to be
changed. However, they generally do require fairly regular maintenance to clean the components
of any contamination. Additionally, inertial separation works better on large drops since the
capture of the droplets depends on them NOT following the airstream. Larger drops have more
mass, more momentum, and an increased tendency to impact the capture surface. Inertial
separators tend to have poor efficiency for droplets smaller than 1-2 microns in diameter. Finally,
for powered inertial separators that spin, solid matter can collect and get stuck in the spinning
parts, which will eventually lead to an out-of-balance condition that transmits vibration to the
machine tool and can affect tolerances on machined parts.
Filter Media
Collectors that use fibrous filter media rely on four filtration mechanisms to remove mist and
smoke droplets from an airstream:
Figure 2: Filter Mechanisms
39

Intramuros, Manila
1. Sieving is the predominant filtration mechanism collecting larger droplets, greater than 10
micron. Sieving occurs when the droplet is physically too large to pass between two or
more fibers. Sieving is what stops a flying insect from going through a window screen.
When the droplet contacts a fiber it adheres to the surface, coalesces with other droplets,
and drains from the collector.
2. Inertial impaction is the filtration mechanism collecting mostly micron-sized droplets and
larger. Inertial impaction occurs as the airstream is displaced by the media fiber while the
droplet continues on its original course because of its mass.
3. Interception is the filtration mechanism collecting predominantly 0.1 to 1 micron size
droplets. Interception occurs when a droplet follows an airstream but still comes close
enough to a fiber to adhere to it.
4. Diffusion is the filtration mechanism predominantly collecting very fine droplets, less than
0.1 micron in size. Because the droplets are so small, they are influenced by molecular
forces within the airstream, which cause the droplets to move in the same general
direction as the airstream and yet move independent of it.
Once droplets adhere to the fibers in the filter media, they coalesce with other droplets on the
fibers. When the coalesced droplet is big enough, the force of gravity will pull the droplet down
along the fiber where it will drain. One of the big trade-offs in mist filtration is balancing the need
for droplets to drain with the need for high efficiency. Higher filtration efficiencies can be achieved
through the use of smaller fibers. But smaller fibers require resins to hold the media together, and
resins prevent coalesced liquid from effectively draining. Filter media made from small fibers, tend
to plug up easily with captured liquid like using a HEPA filter without any pre-separation. When
filter media is made from large fibers, the draining characteristics are vastly improved, but the
ability of the media to capture mist droplets is severely compromised.
Figure 3: SEM image of polyester/glass filter media at 500 times shows

resin webbing between fibers
Figure 4: SEM image of all glass filter media magnified

1000 times
Some fibrous media collectors use lofted media in bag-type filters. These filters do not contain a
lot of resin, so they drain effectively and have fairly good efficiency. However, their structure is not
40

Intramuros, Manila
very stable. Over time, the fibers in the media will collapse together, which leads to increases in
pressure drop, reduction in air flow, and a reduction in the filtration efficiency.
Filter Optimization
One way to help achieve the desire for both high efficiency and effective draining is
through the use of layers. Many mist collectors have a pre-filter layer, which is comprised of
generally large fibers, mesh, or screens that capture the biggest droplets and let them drain easily.
A second or primary layer captures most of the remaining droplets with a higher efficiency media,
but still maintains good draining characteristics. A final filter is typically rated high-efficiency
particulate air (HEPA) (99.97% efficient on 0.3 micron particles) or dispersed oil particulate (DOP)
(95% efficient on 0.3 micron particles) filter. These filters have high efficiency and thus remove the
vast majority of the droplets that get to them; however, they drain poorly and have a tendency to
plug in a poorly designed collector. In a well-designed collector, the pre-filter captures the large
mass of large droplets and effectively drains them. Then the primary filter captures most of the
remaining droplets but experiences less loading because the pre-filter has already captured a
substantial portion of the total mass. Finally, the final filter will experience very low droplet loading
but will have a high efficiency. If any of these layers are working poorly, the entire collector will
work poorly.
A more consistent way to achieve the high efficiency and draining needed is through the
use of a media technology specifically designed to address the filtration concerns in mist
collection.
Measuring Collector Efficiency
Another interesting point about mist collection that use media filters is that the pressure
drop characteristics are very different from dry particle collectors. Dry particles in a static (noncleaning) collector are captured on filters, which cause the pressure drop to increase substantially,
and the efficiency to increase the longer the collector runs. Essentially, new dry particles have to
pass through a cake of previously-captured dry particles. The dust that is captured serves to
increase the particulate efficiency of the collector.
In mist filtration, the pressure drop will rise modestly as the media becomes saturated with
liquid. However, the efficiency generally suffers a small decline as the collector continues to run.
The underlying reason for the decline in efficiency is the pore structure created by the fibrous
media in a mist filter. As liquid is captured and coalesced, the small pores filled up, or become
plugged, with liquid. The remaining larger pores are left to do all the filtering which leads to
two things:
1. An increase in air velocity through the remaining pores and an accompanying increased
pressure drop, and
2. An increase in air velocity though the remaining larger pores, which are less efficient at
capturing submicron droplets, so there is an apparent reduction in the filters efficiency.
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PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA

PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA

PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA

PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA

Particle Size Analysis and Equipment

Mechanism of Dust Collection

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PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA

PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA

Dust Collection Equipment

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PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA

Vertical Cyclone Separator

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Horizontal Cyclone Separator

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PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA

Multiple Cyclone Separator

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Sticky and/or hygroscopic materials (materials that readily absorb water);

Wet scrubbers have numerous industrial applications including industrial boilers,

PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA

PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA

PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA

PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA

PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA

Particle size distribution and loading;

PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA

Particle Size Distribution and Loading

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Gas Velocity and Pressure Drop

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PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA

Dust Collection Efficiency and Electrical Resistivity of Dust

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Dust Collection Efficiency and Particle Size Distribution

Dust Collection Efficiency and Aerosol Concentration

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MECHANISM OF ELECTRICAL PRECIPITATOR

Inside the electrical precipitator

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ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

TYPES OF ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATORS

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SINGLE OR TWO STAGE

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Wet ESPs (WESPs)

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A fabric filter unit consists of one or

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and deposited in a hopper for subsequent disposal.

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Reverse Air (R/A) (aka Reverse Gas)

Pulse Jet (aka Reverse Jet)

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Reverse-pulse-jet dust collectors can be

CLEANING METHOD COMPARISON

Have high collection efficiency for

Have low air-to-cloth ratio (1.5 to

Can use strong woven bags, which

Cannot be used in high

Require large amounts of space

Have low pressure drop for