Chapter 6

The energy principle

6.1 The energy principle

The energy principle:
DEsystem = Wsurr

where

DEsystem = Esystem,f - Esystem,i

Change of a system (Esystem) is equal to the work done by the

surroundings (Wsurr)

Conservation of energy:
DEsystem + DEsurroundings = 0

Energy cannot be created or destroyed, but it can change form.

6.2 The simplest system: A single particle

Energy of a Single Particle

Eparticle = g mc2

g = 1/[1 - (v2/c2]1/2

Unit of energy: joule (J)

1 joule = 1 kg.(m/s)2
Particle energy is a scalar

c = 3 x 108 m/s

6.2 The simplest system: A single particle

Eparticle = g mc2
Rest energy: Erest = mc2

Kinetic energy K of a particle: K = g mc2 mc2 = Eparticle mc2

Eparticle = mc2 + K
Low-speed kinetic energy K of a particle: K (1/2)mv2 p2/2m
Relativistic energy and momentum of a particle:

E2 (pc)2 = (mc2)2

where, E = g mc2 ;

m = rest mass

6.3 Work: Mechanical energy transfer

The total work done on the box by
the two of you is:
W = Fx x + Fy y = E
In general, work done by a constant force F = <Fx, Fy, Fz>
acting through a displacement r = <x, y, z> is defined as:
W = Fx x + Fy y + Fzz

Work is a scalar quantity

Unit of work: joule (J)

Special kind of product of two vectors:
scalar product or dot product

F . r = Fx x + Fy y + Fzz

Example:
DEsystem = Wsurr
Wsurr = Fx x + Fy y + Fzz

Positive and Negative Work

If the force acts in the direction
of the motion, it makes the object
speed up, and the work is positive
(case 1 and 3)
If the force acts opposite to the
direction of the motion, it makes
the object slow down, and the
work is negative (case 2 and 4)

Examples:
A force perpendicular to the motion does zero work

The Moons speed and kinetic energy

arent changing, so its energy is not
changing: work done is zero

Example:
Work done by parallel and perpendicular forces.

The parallel component of the force changes the kinetic energy

(and magnitude of the momentum).
The perpendicular component does zero work but changes the
direction of the momentum.

Example: Exerting a force of magnitude F at an angle to the motion

W = Fx x + Fy y + Fzz = Fx x + Fy (0) + (0)(0) = Fx x

W = (Fcosq) Dx = F Dx
Dot Product: form: Work done by a force at an angle to the
displacement.
W = F . Dr = |F||Dr|cosq
Summary: Calculating Work
W = F . Dr = Fx x + Fy y + Fzz = |F||Dr|cosq = F r

Example: Throw a ball straight up

You throw a 250 gram ball straight up, and it rises 8 meters into the air.
Neglecting air resistance, is work positive or negative? How much work
is done by the gravitational force? Fy = -2.45 N; W = -19.6 J.

6.4 Update form of the energy principle

Since Esys = Esys,f - Esys,i we can also write the Energy
Principle, Esys = Wsurr , as:
Esys,f = Esys,i + Wsurr (update form)

Example: You are outside a spacecraft, pushing on a heavy box

whose mass is m = 2000 kg. You exert a force F = <300, 500, 0> N
while the box moves through a displacement r =<0.1, -0.3, 0.2> m.
Initially the box had a speed vi = 0.7 m/s:
(a) How much work do you do? W = -120 J
(b) What is the final kinetic energy of the box? Kf = 370 J
(c) What is the final speed of the box? vf = 0.608 m/s
(d) What is the direction of the final velocity of the box?

Example: Throw a ball

You hold a ball of mass 0.5 kg at rest in your hand, then throw it
forward, underhand, so that as it leaves your hand its speed is 20 m/s.
How much work did you do on the ball? Note that you do not know
how big a force you applied, nor do you know the distance through
which you applied the force.

6.7 Work done by a non-constant force

W = F1 . r1 + F2 . r2 + F3 . r3 + (small steps)

W = F . r

A varying force is exerted on an object

moving along a curved path

W=

. d .

This general definition applies to any force,

whether constant or not.

6.7 Work done by a nonconstant force

Example: Work done by a spring
A ball traveling horizontally runs into a horizontal spring, whose
stiffness is 100 N/m. As the spring is compressed, the ball slows
down. If the relaxed length of the spring is 30 cm, and the spring
is compressed until the length is 10 cm, how much work does
the spring do on the ball? W = (-2 N m)

6.8 Potential energy in multiparticle systems

Energy principle for the ball system
Kobject = Wby Earth

If the ball alone is chosen as the system, the

Earth is part of the surroundings, and does
positive work on the ball, increasing the
kinetic energy of the ball.

Example: A ball of mass 100 g is 7 m above the ground, initially at rest

(Ki = 0). When the ball is 4 m above the ground, what is the kinetic
energy Kf? Choose the ball as the system.
(Kf = 2.94 J)

6.8 Potential energy in multiparticle systems

Energy principle for the ball + Earth system
Kobject + U = 0
U (mgy) for object + Earth near the surface of the Earth
Interaction energy of the ball + Earth

Example: A ball of mass 100 g is 7 m above the ground, initially at rest (Ki = 0).
When the ball is 4 m above the ground, what is the kinetic energy Kf? Choose the
ball + Earth as the system. (Kf = 2.94 J)

6.8 Potential energy in multiparticle systems

The multiparticle energy principle
D (E1 + E2 + E3+..) + D (U12 + U13 + U23+) = W

6.9 Gravitational potential energy

A rate of change of a quantity with
respect to position is called a gradient
Fr: r component of the
gravitational force on
object 2

Force is the negative gradient of potential energy

Fr = - (dU/dr) = - G(m1m2/r2)
r is the center-to-center distance

Gravitational Potential Energy

U = - G(m1m2/r)
r is the center-to-center separation of
m1 and m2
U is negative and increases with increasing r

Example: A robot spacecraft leaves an asteroid

A robot spacecraft lands on an asteroid, picks up a sample, and blasts off to return
to Earth; its total mass is 1500 kg. When it is 200 km from the center of the
asteroid, its speed is 5.0 m/s, and the rockets are turned off. At the moment when
it has coasted to a distance 500 km from the center of the asteroid, its speed has
decreased to 4.1 m/s.
A) Draw and label the diagram.
B) Calculate the mass of the asteroid. Make an accurate calculation, not a rough,
approximate calculation. (Masteroid = 2x1016 kg)

6.X.21 What was the advantage of

choosing an inclusive system (including
both the asteroid and the spacecraft)?

6.10 General properties of potential energy (U 0 as r )

Example: a system of two identical stars, which attract each other gravitationally.
Initially two stars are very far apart, at rest, but they attract each other.

U must be zero at large r. As r decreases,

K increases and U decreases. The total
energy of the two-star system is constant,
and K + U is constant.
The energies of the two stars as a
function of separation r.

6.10 General properties of potential energy (U 0 as r )

6.11 Plotting energy vs. separation

Energies vs. the separation distance
between the asteroid and the spacecraft
General properties of potential energy:
U 0 as r
U is negative because the interaction is
attractive. As U increases with
increasing r, K of spacecraft decreases.

System: asteroid + spacecraft

K + U = constant and positive
(positive horizontal line on the graph)

Example of unbound system

6.11 Plotting energy vs. separation

Energy vs. the separation distance between the
asteroid and the spacecraft. At r1 the potential
energy is U1 and the kinetic energy is K1.

Question: Is K + U positive or negative?

System: asteroid + spacecraft

K + U = constant and negative
(negative horizontal line on the graph)

6.X.23 The asteroid-spacecraft separation increases from

r1 to r2. Does the kinetic energy of the asteroid-spacecraft
system increases, decreases, or remains constant?

6.11 Plotting energy vs. separation

Limits on Possible Motion
The asteroid and the spacecraft cannot get farther away
from each other than r3; at r4 the kinetic energy would be
negative, which is classically forbidden (shaded area).

If K + U < 0, the separation between the

asteroid and the spacecraft can never be
larger than r3 : bound system.
Example bound system: a planet in
circular or elliptical orbit around a star:
the planet cannot escape.

6.11 Plotting energy vs. separation

If K + U 0, the system is an unbound system.
Example of unbound system: the Earth plus a spacecraft
whose initial speed is great enough that the spacecraft will be
away from the Earth and never come back.
6.X.24 In this energy graph for some system, consider the
various energy states indicated. Which of these values for the
energy K + U (A, B, or C) represents a bound state? Which
represents an unbound state (the particle can escape)? Which
represents a trapped state with enough energy to be unbound
but with a barrier that (classically) prevents escape?

Example:
Making an energy graph:

Energy vs. the separation distance between

the asteroid and the spacecraft

6.12 Applying gravitational potential energy

Question: With what the minimum speed v must a spacecraft
leave the surface of an airless planet of mass M and radius R in
order that it can coast away without ever coming back?
If K + U 0 , the system is unbound (free)
For motions K + U = A, B, or C the spacecraft will never return

If K + U < 0 , the system is bound

For motion K + U = D the spacecraft will fall back to the planet

Minimal condition for escape:

K+U=0

6.12 Applying gravitational potential energy

If K + U < 0 ----- the system is in a bound state
If K + U 0 ----- the system is unbound (free)

Escape Velocity: The minimum

velocity an object needs to break free of
the gravitational bonds of another.
Escape speed: vesc = [(2GM/R)1/2]
M is the mass and R is the radius of the planet
Example: What is the escape
speed from Earth? Use Energy
Principle
Possible orbital trajectories

vesc = 1.12 x 104 m/s

Fig. 2.11

Unbound Orbits
Ellipse is a bound orbit.
Objects with higher orbital speeds can escape bound
orbits to be in unbound orbits.
Parabolas and hyperbolas are examples of unbound
orbits.

6.12 Applying gravitational potential energy

If K + U < 0 ----- the system is in a bound state
If K + U 0 ----- the system is unbound (free)
Escape speed: vesc = [(2GM/R)1/2]

M is the mass and R is the radius of the planet

Example: What is the escape

speed from Earth? Use Energy
Principle
Possible orbital trajectories

vesc = 1.12 x 104 m/s

6.12 Applying gravitational potential energy

Graphs of potential plus kinetic energy
for different orbits of a planet and star.

6.X.25 What kind of motion is represented by the situation with

K + U = A? B? C? Think about the range of r in each situation.
For example, C represents a circular orbit (constant r).

6.13 Gravitational potential energy near the earths surface

U (mgy) for object + Earth near the surface of the Earth
Interaction energy of the ball + Earth
Example: At a certain instant a ball is falling with a speed of 6 m/s,
and its position is y = 35 m above the Earths surface. How fast is
the ball falling when it has fallen to a position y = 20 m above the
Earths surface, assuming that we can neglect air resistance?
(18.2 m/s)

6.13 Gravitational potential energy near the earths surface

6.X.30 Suppose that you throw a ball at an angle to the
horizontal, and just after it leaves your hand at a height yi its
velocity is <vxi, vyi , 0>. Assuming that we can neglect air
resistance, at the top of its trajectory, when it is momentarily
traveling horizontally, its velocity is <vxi, 0, 0>. What is the
height yf at the top of the trajectory, in terms of the other known
quantities? Use the Energy Principle.