Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Session
2003(F) 2007(F)
By
Atiq Ur Rehman
Ahmad Saleem
Ali Ayub
Sajjid Hussain
Session
2003(F) 2007(F)
Project Advisors
Engr. Naveed Asif (Assistant Professor)
Submitted By
Name
Sajjid Hussain
2003(F)-UET-IEFR-CHEM-FD-03
Atiq Ur Rehman
2003(F)-UET-IEFR-CHEM-FD-11
Ali Ayub
2003(F)-UET-IEFR-CHEM-FD-18
Ahmad Saleem
2003(F)-UET-IEFR-CHEM-FD-24
2003(F)-UET-IEFR-CHEM-FD-30
2003(F)-UET-IEFR-CHEM-FD-31
Approved on:
External Examiner:
Internal Examiner:
---------------------------
----------------------------
---------------------------Head
Chemical Engineering Department
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINERING
Acknowledgement
All praise to ALMIGHTY ALLAH, who provided us with the
strength to accomplish this main project. All respects are for His
HOLY PROPHET (PBUH), whose teachings are true source of
knowledge&guidanceforwholemankind.
Authors
Table of Contents:
Chapter # 1
Introduction
History
Chemical properties
Chapter # 2
Process Description
General scheme for manufacture of concentrated HNO3
11
11
12
12
Process Selection
13
13
Chapter # 3
Material Balance
Basis
15
17
Reactor
17
20
Cooler/Condenser
21
Oxidation Tower
23
Compressor
25
Distillation Column
27
28
Absorption Column
30
Bleaching Column
32
33
Chapter # 4
Energy Balance
Energy Balance
36
Chapter # 5
Equipment Design
Equipment design by Atiq-Ur-Rehman: Reactor
49
65
74
94
109
124
Chapter # 6
Mechanical Design
Absorber
134
Oxidation Tower
136
Distillation Column
138
Stripper
140
Chapter # 7
Instrumentation & Process Control
Introduction
142
142
Types of Instrumentation
144
145
146
148
148
148
149
Chapter # 8
Safety
Introduction (Abstract)
152
152
152
153
153
153
Chapter # 9
Material Of Construction
Introduction
157
Corrosion Principle
157
158
159
160
Chapter # 10
HAZOP Study
Introduction
162
163
Chapter # 11
Cost Estimation And Economics Of Plant Location
Plant Cost Estimation
170
Capital Investment
170
175
175
APPENDECES
183207
Chapter: 01
Introduction
Chapter: 01
Introduction
HISTORY
The first reports of nitric acid have been credited to Arab alchemists of the eighth
century. By the middle Ages it was referred to as aqua fortis (strong water) or aqua
valens (powerful water). From that time onward, nitric acid was produced primarily from
saltpeter (potassium nitrate) and sulphuric acid. In the nineteenth century, Chilean
saltpeter (sodium nitrate) from South America largely replaced potassium nitrate.
However, at the beginning of twentieth century newer manufacturing technologies were
introduced. In Norway, where electricity was inexpensive, electric arc furnaces were used
to make nitrogen oxides, and subsequently nitric acid, directly from air. The commercial
life of these furnaces was relatively brief and most were shut down by 1930. At about the
same time, a different production method was being developed. In 1908, at Bochum,
Germany, Ostwald piloted a 3-t per day nitric acid process based on the catalytic
oxidation of ammonia with air. In1913 the synthesis of ammonia from coal,air and water
was successfully demonstrated using the Haber-Bosch process. With a secure and
economical supply of ammonia, ammonia oxidation was firmly established as an
industrial route to nitric acid manufacture.
Chapter: 01
Introduction
calculated as 100% and the strength of the product acid is 60% HNO3 by weight. This
plant was designed by a German firm Gmbh UDHE. It is in production since 1977.
Chapter: 01
Introduction
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES:
1. Crystals of pure nitric acid are colorless
2. The normal boiling point of nitric acid is 83.1C
3. The color may range from yellow to red
4. The melting point is -41.6 C
5. Nitric acid is completely miscible with water
6. At high temperature nitric acid is decomposed
7. The V.P and density of acid containing NO2 increase with %age of NO2 present.
8. The density, viscosity and thermal conductivity of HNO3 are given in the table.
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
ACIDIC PROPERTIES
1. As a typical acid it reacts readily with alkalis, basic oxides and carbonates to
form salts.
2. HNO3 is a strong monobasic acid.
3. It is a powerful oxidizing agent and many organic compounds.
4. An industrial application of HNO3 is the reaction with NH3 to produce
(NH4)NO3.
5. However it is oxidizing in nature HNO3 does not always behave as a typical
acid.
Chapter: 01
Introduction
OXIDIZING PROPERTIES
1. HNO3 is a powerful oxidizing agent that reacts violently with many organic
materials e.g. turpentine, charcoal.
2. The concentrated acid may react explosively with ethanol.
3. HNO3 is used with certain organic e.g. furfuryl alcohol and aniline.
4. Depending on acid concentration, temperature and the reducing agent involved
any of the following oxidation may occur.
4 HNO3 + 2e
8 HNO3 + 6e
6 NO3 + 4 H2O + 2 NO
10 HNO3 + 8e
10 HNO3 + 8e
16 HNO3 + 12e
5. Concentrated HNO3 favors the formation of NO2 while at low strength the
formation of NO.
6. Concentrated HNO3 reacts with all metals except gold, iridium, Pt, Rh,
Tantalum, Titanium and certain alloys.
7. Concentrated HNO3 converts the oxides and sulphides etc. of most elements in a
low oxidation state to a higher level e.g., sulphur dioxide is oxidized to
sulphuric acid.
8.
Chrome, iron, Al readily dissolves in HNO3 but concentrated acid form a metal
oxide.
Chapter: 01
Introduction
ABSTRACT
Following factors should be considered in plant location selection
1. Location w.r.t. the marketing area.
2. Raw materials supply
3. Transport facilities
4. Availability of labor
5. Availability of suitable land
6. Environmental impact and effluent disposal
7. Local community considerations
8. Climate
9. Political and strategic considerations
10. Availability of utilities ,water ,fuel and power
MARKETING AREA
For materials that are produced in bulk quantities such as mineral acids and fertilizers
where the cost of the product per ton is relatively low and the cost of transport a
significant fraction of the sale price the plant should be located close to primary market.
Chapter: 01
Introduction
RAW MATERIALS
Main raw material for producing ammonia is natural gas and for plants producing bulk
chemicals are best located close to the source of the major raw material, where it is also
close to the marketing area.
The availability of price of suitable raw materials will often determine the site location.
Plants producing bulk chemicals are best located close to the source of the major raw
material, where this is also close to the marketing area.
TRANSPORT
The transport of materials and products to and from the plant will be an overriding
consideration in site selection. If practicable a site should be selected that is close to
atleast two major forms of transport, road, rail, waterway or a sea port. Road transport is
being increasingly used and is suitable for local distribution from a central warehouse.
Rail transport will be cheaper for the long distance transport of bulk chemicals.
Air transport is convenient and efficient for the movement of personnel and essential
equipment and supplies and the proximity of the site to a major airport should be
considered.
AVAILABILITY OF LABOR
Labor will be needed for the construction of the plant and its operation. Skilled
construction workers will usually be brought in from outside the site area but there should
be an adequate pool of unskilled labor available locally, and labor suitable for training to
operate the plant .Skilled tradesmen will be needed for plant maintenance .Local trade
union customs and restrictive practices will have to be considered when assessing the
availability and suitability of the local labor for recruitment and training.
UTILITIES
Chemical processes invariably require large quantities of water for cooling and general
process use, and the plant must be located near a source of water of suitable quality.
Chapter: 01
Introduction
Process water may be drawn from a river from wells or purchased from a local authority.
At some sites the cooling water required can be taken from a river or lake or from sea at
other locations cooling towers will be needed.
Electrical power will be needed at all sites. A competitively priced fuel must be available
on site for steam and power generation.
SITE LAYOUT
The process units and ancillary buildings should be laid out to give the most economical
flow of materials and personnel around the site. Hazardous processes must be located at a
safe distance from other buildings. Consideration must also be given to future expansion
of the site. The ancillary buildings and services required on a site in addition to the main
processing units will include
1. Storage for raw materials and products, tank farms and ware houses
2. Maintenance workshops
3. Stores for maintenance and operating supplies
4. Labs for process control
5. Fire stations
Chapter: 01
Introduction
When roughing out the preliminary site layout the process units will normally be sited
and arranged to give a smooth flow of materials through the various processing steps,
from raw materials to final product storage .Process units are normally spaced at least
30m apart greater spacing may be needed for hazardous processes.
The location of the principal ancillary buildings should then be decided. They should be
arranged so as to minimize the time spent by personnel in traveling between buildings.
Administration offices and laboratories in which a relatively large number of people will
be working should be located well away from potentially hazardous processes may have
to be sited a safer distance.
The sitting of the main process units will determine the layout of the plant roads, pipe
alleys and drains. Access roads will be needed to each building for construction and for
operation and maintenance .Utility buildings should be sited to give the most economical
run of pipes to and from the process units.
Cooling towers should be sited so that under the prevailing wind the plume of condensate
spray drifts away from the plant area and adjacent properties.
The main storage areas should be placed between the loading and unloading facilities and
the process units they serve .Storage tanks containing hazardous materials should be sited
at least 70 m from the site boundary.
Chapter: 01
Introduction
PLANT LAYOUT
The economic construction and efficient operations of a process unit will depend on how
well the plant and equipment specified on the process flow sheet is laid out. The principle
factors are
1. Economic considerations
2. The process requirements
3. Convenience of operation
4. Safety
5. Future expansion
6. Modular construction
COSTS
The cost of construction can be minimized by adopting a layout that gives the shortest
run of connecting pipe b/w equipment and the least amount of structural steel work.
However this will not necessarily be the best arrangement for operation and maintenance.
PROCESS REQUIREMENTS
An example of the need to take into account process considerations is the need to elevate
the base of columns to provide the necessary net positive suction head to a pump.
OPERATION
Equipment that needs to have frequent operator attention should be located convenient to
the control room. Valves, sample points and instruments should be located at convenient
positions and heights. Sufficient working space and headroom must be provided to allow
easy access to equipment.
Chapter: 01
Introduction
MAINTENANCE
Heat exchangers need to be sited so that the tube bundles can be easily withdrawn for
cleaning and tube replacement .Vessels that require frequent replacement of catalyst i.e.
ammonia burner should be located on the inside of buildings .Equipment that requires
dismantling for maintenance such as compressors and large pumps should be also placed
under cover.
SAFETY
Blast walls may be needed to isolate potentially hazardous equipment and confine the
effects of an explosion .At least two escape routes for operators must be provided from
each level in process buildings.
PLANT EXPANSION
Equipment should be located so that it can be conveniently tied in with any future
expansion of the process. Space should be left on pipe alleys for future needs and service
pipes over sized to allow for future requirements.
MODULAR CONSTRUCTION
In recent years there has been a move to assemble sections of plant at the plant
manufacturers site. These modules will include the equipment structural steel piping and
instrumentation. The modules are then transported to the plant site by road or sea
1. Improved quality
2. Reduced construction cost
3. Less need for skilled labor on site
4. Less need for skilled personnel on overseas sites
Some of the disadvantages are
1. Higher design costs
2. More structural steel work
3. More flanged connection
10
Chapter: 02
Process Description
Chapter: 02
Process Description
GENERAL
SCHEME
FOR
MANUFACTURE
OF
CONCENTRATED HNO3
Standard oxidation of NH3 in the presence of Pt/Rh catalyst to form NO.
Oxidation of NO to NO2 and absorption of NO2 in water to form weak HNO3 (5070 wt%).
Concentration of weak HNO3 (azeotropic i.e., 68 wt%) by distillation (extractive)
or by reaction with nitrogen dioxide.
Since HNO3 forms an azeotrope with water at concentration of about 68%, stronger acid
cannot be produced by simple distillation of weaker acid.
11
Chapter: 02
Process Description
12
Chapter: 02
Process Description
PROCESS SELECTION
We have selected concentrated nitric acid (CNA) process which is a direct strong nitric
acid process because of its following advantages over other processes;
Recycle loops and a special rectification step are innovations of this process. They
eliminate the refrigeration, oxygen and chemical dehydrating agents (eg;
sulphuric acid or magnesium nitrate) required by classical manufacturing
techniques, and thus decrease utilities and operating expenses considerably.
In nitric acid concentration processes, drum concentrators are used and
electrostatic precipitators are provided to eliminate acid from the vented gas. They
have operating problems and hence pollution problems are face, whereas in CNA
process, atmospheric emissions have been less than 450ppm in (NOx) without any
abatement units.
This plant can be fully automated only two operators a shift are required.
This process can also make concentrated and/or weak acid (50-60%) in any
proportion: the product mix can be changed by adjusting the position of two
valves.
This route has a lower investment as compared to other routes.
13
Chapter: 02
Process Description
The dry gas stream is preheated and sent to bottom of oxidation tower. Here 50-60% acid
from the absorption section of the system enters the top of the column. As the gas and the
liquid flow counter currently, the acid oxidizes NO to NO2
NO + 2HNO3
3NO2 + H2O
Dilute acid from the bottom of the oxidation unit is sent to the absorption section of the
route for concentration. The process gas leaving the top of oxidation tower is combined
with air containing nitrogen oxides and then compressed. The compressed gas is cooled
before entering the absorption section of the process. This section actually consists of two
columns, one produces the superazeotrope and the other makes a weak acid. The gases
first enter the superazeotrope column and are contacted with azeotropic (68%) acid from
the distillation unit. Nitrogen dioxide is absorbed and a superazeotrope of 80% nitric acid
is formed. This superazeotrope, saturated with nitrogen oxides, is stripped with air,
preheated and then fed to distillation column. The normal azeotropic acid mixture used
for absorption is taken off the bottom of distillation column. Concentrated acid, 98% is
obtained at the top.
Since the process gases leaving the top of the superaziotropic absorption tower are still
rich in nitrogen oxides, they are sent to another absorption unit. Here low-concentration
acid from the oxidation tower enters in the middle. HNO3 which is about 50-60% is
removed from the bottom.
The exiting gases have concentration of NOx in the order of 300-400ppm. The tail gas is
preheated to about 450oC by process streams in the ammonia oxidizer and the streams
leaving the compressor.
14
Chapter: 03
Material Balance
Chapter: 03
MATERIAL BALANCE
BASIS
140 metric tons/day of 98% HNO3 on 100% basis
1 hr operation
(Ref: Routes to concentrated nitric acid, L.M.Marzo and S.M.Marzo, Spain 1978.
Fertilizer acids).
15
Chapter: 03
Material Balance
16
Chapter: 03
Material Balance
MATERIAL
BALANCE
AROUND
INDIVIDUAL
EQUIPMENT
REACTOR (R 01)
3b
NH3=92.54kgmol/hr
O2=119.4kgmol/hr
N2=449.36kgmol/hr
4
NO=92.59 kgmol/hr
H2O=141.57 kgmol/hr
O2=4.6115 kgmol/hr
N2=450.28n kgmol/hr
1-
4NH3 + 502
4NO + 6H2O
(98 %)
2-
4NH3 + 3O2
2N2 + 6H2O
(2 %)
17
Chapter: 03
Material Balance
18
Chapter: 03
Material Balance
H2O leaving = H2O produced in 1st reaction + H2O produced in 2nd reaction
= 0.925+449.36
= 141.575 kgmol/hr
19
Chapter: 03
Material Balance
4
NO=92.59kgmol/hr
H2O=141.575kgmol/hr
O2=4.6115kgmol/hr
N2=450.28kgmol/hr
6
NO2=9.223kgmol/hr
NO=83.36kgmol/hr
H2O=141.575kgmol/hr
N2=450.28kgmol/hr
REACTION;
2NO + O2
2NO2
O2 is limiting reatanct
NO consumed = (4.6115 Kg mole/hrO2)/(2 Kg mole NO./I Kgmole/hrO2)
=9.23 Kgmole/hr(NO)
NO2 produced = (4.6115 kg mol/hr O2) (2KgmoleNO2/1KgmoleO2)
=9.223Kgmole/hr
20
Chapter: 03
Material Balance
COOLER/CONDENSOR (E 05) ;
9
NO2=7.948kgmol/hr
NO=83.785kgmol/hr
N2=450.28kgmol/hr
7
NO2=9.223kgmol/hr
NO=83.36kgmol/hr
H2O=141.57kgmol/hr
N2=450.28kgmol/hr
8
HNO3=0.8kgmol/hr
H2O=141.5kgmol/hr
REACTION;
3NO2 + H2O
2HNO3 + NO
= 0.425 Kgmole/hr NO
Check;
0.85 x 63
2% =
x 100%
21
Chapter: 03
Material Balance
(0.8 x 63) + [(141.57 x 18) (0.425 x 18)]
2% =
2%
22
Chapter: 03
Material Balance
B (60wt%HNO3)
HNO3=297.27kg/hr
H2O=693.6kg/hr
10
12
A
NO=83.785kg/hr
N2=450.28kg/hr
C (35 wt%HNO3)
HNO3=146.48kg/hr
H2O=769.05kg/hr
REACTION;
NO + 2HNO3
3NO2 + H2O
(90%)
23
Chapter: 03
Material Balance
=83.785-75.40
=8.3785 Kgmole/hr
NO2 leaving =234.18 kgmol/hr
HNO3 BALANCE;
0.60 B 9500.4 = 0.4 C
H2O BALANCE;
0.4 B + 1375.2 = 0.6 C
Solving these two equations, B & C comes out to be,
B = 31213.65 kg/hr
C =23071.65 kg/hr
24
Chapter: 03
Material Balance
COMPRESSOR (K 01) ;
16
NO2=247.5kgmol/hr
O2=70.81kgmol/hr
N2=732.14kgmol/hr
15
NO=8.37kgmol/hr
NO2=239.181kgmol/hr
O2=74.99kgmol/hr
N2=732.148kgmol/hr
REACTION;
2NO + O2
2NO2
(100% conversion)
25
Chapter: 03
Material Balance
NO2 entering from recycle stream is 2% of total NO2 entering the compressor
Let NO2 entering from recycle stream is 230 kg/hr;
2%
230
11157.57 + 230
2%
So,
= 2.007%
X = 230 kg/hr
26
Chapter: 03
Material Balance
23
A
HNO3 (80%)=11905.8kg/hr
H2O (20%wt)=2976.4kg/hr
18
C
HNO3 (68%wt)=6072.4kg/hr
H2O (32%wt)=2857.6kg/hr
= 5833.3/0.98
= 5952.3kg/hr
eq.1
HNO3 balance;
0.8 A = 0.68 C + 5833.3
eq.2
A = 14882.3kg/hr
27
Chapter: 03
Material Balance
NO2=103.6kgmol/hr
NO=46.3kgmol/hr
O2=70.81kgmol/hr
N2=732.14kgmol/hr
HNO3(68%)=6072.4kg/hr
H2O(32%)=2857.6kg/hr
H2O=52.9kgmolhr
NO2=247.5kgmol/hr
O2=70.81kgmol/hr
N2=732.14kgmol/hr
HNO3(80%)=11905.8kg/hr
H2O(20%)=2976.4kg/hr
NO2=10580kg/hr=230kgmol/hr
REACTION;
3NO2 + H2O
2HNO3 + NO
HNO3 balance,
HNO3 entering from distillation column + HNO3 produced = HNO3 leaving
6072.4 + X = 11905.8
X = 5833.4 kg/hr = 92.6 kgmol/hr
NO produced = x 92.6
= 46.3mol/hr
H2O consumed = x 92.6
= 46.3mol/hr = 833.4kg/hr
H2O leaving = H2O entering H2O consumed
2976.4 = 2857.6 + (water from stram 19) 833.4
28
Chapter: 03
Material Balance
2976.46 = 2024.2 + (watr from stream 19)
29
Chapter: 03
Material Balance
NO2=1.036kgmol/hr
NO=1.389kgmol/hr
O2=11.49kgmol/hr
N2=732.14kgmol/hr
HNO3(40%)=146.48kgmol/hr
H2O(60%)=769.05kgmol/hr
NO2=103.6kgmol/hr
NO=46.3kgmol/hr
O2=70.81kgmol/hr
N2=732.14kgmol/hr
HNO3(60%)=297.27kgmol/hr
H2O(40%) = 693.6kgmol/h
REACTIONS
4HNO3
eq.1
4NO2 + O2 + 2H2O
4HNO3
eq.2
from eq.1,
NO consumed = 46.3 x .97 = 44.91 kgmol/hr
O2 consumed = x 44.911
=33.66kgmol/hr
H2O consumed = 2/4 x 44.911
= 22.46kgmol/hr
HNO3 produced = 44.911kgmol/hr
30
Chapter: 03
Material Balance
From eq.2,
NO2 consumed = 103.6 x 0.99 = 102.56 kgmol/hr
O2 consumed = x 102.56
= 25.64kgmol/hr
H2O consumed = 2/4 x 102.56
= 51.28kgmol/hr
HNO3 produced = 102.56kgmol/hr
O2 leaving = O2 entering O2 consumed
= 70.8119 ( 25.64 + 33.68)
= 11.49kgmol/hr
31
Chapter: 03
Material Balance
22
O2 = 74.9kgmol/hr
N2 = 282.14kgmol/hr
O2 = 74.9kgmol/hr
N2 = 282.14kgmol/hr
NO2= 5kgmol/hr
23
3
HNO3(80%wt)=11905.8kg/hr
H2O (20%wt)=2976.46kg/hr
32
Chapter: 03
Material Balance
D
A
H2O=52.9kgmol/hr
A
O2=119.4kgmol/hr
N2=449.36kgmol/hr
B
A
NH3=92.59kgmol/hr
E
A
HNO3=92.59 kgmol/hr
H2O=6.61 kgmol/hr
OVERALL PLANT
BALANCE
F
HNO3=0.85 kgmol/hr
H2O=141.5 kgmol/hr
C
A
O2=74.9 kgmol/hr
N2=282.14kgmol/hr
G
A
NO2=0.1%=1.036 kgmol/hr
NO=0.2%=1.389 kgmol/hr
O2=1.5%=11.49 kgmol/hr
N2=98.12%=732.14 kgmol/hr
33
Chapter: 03
Material Balance
CHECK:
Stream A:
O2 = 119.4 kgmol/hr = 3820.8 kg/hr
N2 = 449.36 kgmol/hr = 12582.08kg/hr
= 16402.88kg/hr
Stream B:
NH3 = 92.59 kgmol/hr = 1574.03kg/hr
Stream C:
O2 = 74.9 kgmol/hr = 2396.8 kg/hr
N2 = 282.14 kgmol/hr = 7899.92 kg/hr
= 10296.72kg/hr
Stream D:
H2O = 52.9 kgmol/hr = 952.2kg/hr
Stream E:
HNO3 = 92.59 kgmol/hr = 5833.17 kg/hr
H2O = 6.61 kgmol/hr = 118.98kg/hr
= 5952.15 kg/hr
Stream F:
HNO3 = 0.85 kgmol/hr = 53.55kg/hr
34
Chapter: 03
Material Balance
Stream G:
NO2 = 1.036 kgmol/hr = 47.65kg/hr
NO = 1.389 kgmol/hr = 41.67kg/hr
O2 = 11.49 kgmol/hr = 367.68kg/hr
N2 = 732.14 kgmol/hr = 20499.29kg/hr
= 20956.92Kg/hr
35
H 01
25
2
M 01
13
D 01
D 03
3a
12
11
E 01
3b
R 01
12
10
11
E 02
H 02
E 03
E 04
E 05
2a
E 07
G 01
E 06
20
14
19
10
E 11
18
14
24
23
D 02
K 01
N 02
D 04
N 01
16
CW
15
E 09
E 08
17
23
21
CWR
22
E 10
D 05
E 12
18
F 01
E11 Condnser
E12 Reboiler
D01 Oxidation tower
D02 Super azeotrope tower
R01 Reactor
N01 Expander
N02 Motor
Chapter: 04
Energy Balance
Chapter: 04
Energy Balance
H2 O
141.575
O2
4.6115
N2
= 20.55 %
= 0.67 %
450.28
= 65.347 %
689.05
4NH3 + 5O2
4 NO + 6 H2O
4NH3 +3 O2
2 N2 +6 H2O
36
Chapter: 04
Energy Balance
37
Chapter: 04
Energy Balance
Hp = [ (m Cp ) NO + (m Cp) H2O + (m Cp ) O2 + (m Cp ) N2 ] T
= [ (92.59*8.19) + (141.575*10.14 ) + (4.6115*8.42) + (450.28*7.643) ] (870 25)
= 4794700.24 kcal
q = Hp + H at 25C - Hr
= 4794700.24+(-5172740.725)-863008.4
=--1241048.885 kcal
38
Chapter: 04
Energy Balance
Chapter: 04
Energy Balance
= 492.13K
=492.13 C
= 6.95
Cp of HNO3 = 26.29
Cp of H2O = 9.25
Cp of NO2 = 8.9625
Calculating Enthalpy of reactants :(kcal )
H1 of NO = mCp(T2 T1)
= 83.784 x 7.146 x (50 25)
40
Chapter: 04
Energy Balance
= 14968.01
H2 of N2 =m Cp (50 25)
= 450.28 x 6.95 x 25
= 78236.15 kcal
H3 of HNO3 = 297.27 x 26.29 x (50 - 25)
=195380.7 kcal
H4 of H2O = 693.6 x 9.25 x25
= 160395 kcal
H of reactants Hr = H1 + H2 + H3 +H4 =450760.66 kcal
Calculating enthalpy of products (kcal)
H1of NO = m Cp (T2 25)
= 8.375 x7.146 x (T2 25)
= 59.8 (T2 25)
H2 of NO2 = 234.18x 8.9625 x (T2 25)
= 2098.8 (T2 25)
H3 of N2 = 450.28 x 6.9449 x(T2 25)
= 2098.8 (T2 25)
H4 of H2O = 769.05 x 9.25 x (T2 25)
= 7113.7 (T2 25)
H5 of HNO3 = 146.48 x 26.29 x (T2 25)
=3850.95 (T2-25)
Summing enthalpy of products
H of products Hp = 16250.39 (T2 25)
41
Chapter: 04
Energy Balance
For reaction
NO + 2 HNO3
3 NO2 + H2O
H rxn at 25 C = 32.4 kcal /g mol = 2553424.56 kcal (from Kirk Othmer, Vol 13)
Now,
Hp + Hrxn at 25oC - Hr = 0
Putting all the above values and calculating T2
16250.39(T2 25) + 2553424.56 450760.6 = 0
Outlet Temp of products T2 = 48 C
42
Chapter: 04
Energy Balance
Mol%
Cp kJ/kg mol C
NO2
10.87
37.04
0.1087*37.04
NO
4.85
29.7
0.0485*29.7
O2
7.43
29.39
0.0743*29.39
N2
76.83
29.1
0.7683*29.1
30.01 kJ/kgmol-C
43
Chapter: 04
Energy Balance
= 1001.22745 kgmol/hr
Q1= CpmixT
Q1 =7.14x105kJ/hr
Stream 2:
Streams
Wt %
Cp kJ/kgmol-C
Cp/Mr kJ/kgC
Cpmix kJ/kgC
HNO3
35
110
1.746
0.40x1.746
H2 O
60
74.88
4.16
0.60x4.16
3.1944 kJ/kgC
Mol %
Cp kJ/kg mol C
NO2
00.14
37.04
0.0014x37.04
NO
0.18
29.7
0.0018x29.7
O2
01.5
29.39
0.015x29.39
N2
98.13
29.1
0.987x29.1
29.06 kJ/kgmol-C
Chapter: 04
Energy Balance
Q3 =4.34x105kJ/hr
Stream 4:
Streams
Wt %
Cp kJ/kgmol-C
Cp/Mr kJ/kgC
Cpmix kJ/kgC
HNO3
60
110
1.746
0.60x1.746
H2 O
40
74.88
4.16
0.40x4.16
2.7116 kJ/kgC
45
Chapter: 04
Energy Balance
Q= CpT
=32.8 kg/s;
As there are total 15 coils in absorption column,
So,
Mass flow rate through one coil, =2.18 kg/s
46
Chapter: 04
Energy Balance
T = 61.78C
47
Chapter: 04
Energy Balance
48
Chapter: 05
Equipment Design
Chapter: 05
Equipment Design
REACTOR
Reactor is a container for chemical reaction and is the heart of reaction process.
CHOICE OF CATALYST
Catalysts which increase the rate of oxidation of ammonia to nitrogen oxide (NO) include
platinum, its alloys with metals of platinum group, oxides of iron, manganese, cobalt etc.
The activity of platinum and platinum alloy catalysts is higher than that of others. Nonplatinum catalysts are cheaper but they are less active and unstable. For these reasons at
most of plants where HNO3 is made from ammonia, platinum catalysts are used.
90% Pt with 10% Rh is selected as catalyst for this reaction because it can operate at
high temperatures, maximum yield is obtained and the contact time can be accurately
controlled.
49
Chapter: 05
Equipment Design
SHAPE OF CATALYST
The platinum-rhodium catalyst is employed in the form of gauze made of fine wire. For
oxidation at atmospheric pressure, 2-4 layers of 80 mesh gauze are used. At higher
pressure, 20-30 layers are used.
Since we are operating at atmospheric pressure, so we use 2-3 layers of 80 mesh gauze,
0.06mm wire diameter with 1024 holes per cm2 .The free space is 69.8%
The gauzes are stacked in a fixed bed assembly and operate under bulk mass transfer
control.
CATALYST POISONING
Even minute traces of some materials are such serious poisons for platinum catalysts that
extreme care must be taken to eliminate them. Dusty air and pipe line scale may poison
or damage the catalyst and must be avoided. The effect of various poisons is shown in
table.
POISON
CONC. BY VOLUME
DECREASE IN EFFICIENCY
SiH4
0.0016%
50%
Fi(CO4)
0.02%
40%
Arsine
0.0024%
10%
Lead
0.2%
Soaps
5%
0.0045%
50
Chapter: 05
Equipment Design
). Poor distribution not only reduces capacity but also causes hot spots in exothermic
reactions that can volatize metal catalyst. Excessive loss of a precious metal catalyst in
this manner is, of course, intolerable. The distributor installed after the Pt/Rh gauze
restricts the flow enough so that the fluid is spread evenly over the Pt/Rh gauze. The
porous pack is made of nichrome and has randomly oriented pores. Bt using an efficient
distributor of this type, savings in expensive precious metal are realized. This not only
reduced Pt inventory (from 2 troy oz per daily ton HNO3 to 0.8) but also reduced the
amount of Pt subject to volatization.
The loss of platinum has a significant impact on the cost of producing HNO3.
Thus its recovery was an incentive for the development of Pt recovery process. The most
efficient recovery process is the use of a Pd-rich alloy gauze located immediately below
the oxidation gauze which captures the Pt species. The overall reaction may be
represented by
PtO2 + Pd
PtPd + O2
Recovery of Pt involves the dissociation of PtO2 to its respective elements and formation
of an alloy between Pt & Pd. Early recovery gauzes contained 80%Pd and 20%Au and
were capable of recovering about 35-40% of the Pt involved. More recently, the Pd
content has been increased and it has become recognized that gauze geometry
optimization leads to increased recovery efficiencies. Current recovery systems can be
designed specifically for each plant. These operate in the mass transfer limited regime
providing recoveries up to 80%.
51
Chapter: 05
Equipment Design
REACTIONS
NH3 + 5O2
4NO + 6H2O
The efficiency of reaction is 98%.The major competing reaction yields nitrogen and is
represented as;
4NH3 + 3O2
2N2 + 6H2O
INLET STREAM;
Kgmol/hr
NH3=92.59
02
14.0
=119.4108
18.05
N2 =449.3680
67.95
INLET TEMPERATURE;
T=2000C = 473K
INLET PRESSURE;
P = 1atm =1.01 bar
Mole fraction
NH3
O2
N2
0.14
0.1805
0.679
Tc
405.16K
154.2K
125.8K
Pc
112.8bar
50.43bar
34.00bar
(Ref:
52
Chapter: 05
Equipment Design
Tc (mix) = (0.14x405.16)+(0.1805x154.2)+(0.6795x125.8)
=56.722+27.83+85.48
=170.033K
Pc (mix) = (0.14x112.8)+(0.1805x50.43)+(0.6795x34)
=15.792+9.1025+23.103
=47.9975 bar
Reduced temperature =
T/Tc
= 473/170.033
= 2.7818
Reduced pressure
P/Pc
= 1.01/47.9975
=0.02104
z =1
(from graph)
V = znRT/P
R=0.08314 m3 bar/ Kmol K
V = 1x661.35 x.0.08314 x288 /1.01
= 15.68x103 m3/hr
53
Chapter: 05
Equipment Design
=8.3 x10-6 x 15.68 x10-3
= 1.3014 x 10-1 m3
Losses;
Operating days = 330
Losses per ton = 0.05g/ton HNO3 (100% basis)
Catalyst losses = 0.05g/ton HNO3 x 140 ton HNO3 x 330
= 2310.5 g
= 2.310 kg
Total weight of catalyst = 9.5 + 2.310
= 11.81 kg
Inlet volumetric flow rate to convertor;
V= znRT/P
n = 661.35 kg mol/hr
R = 8.314 KPa m3 /kgmol K
T = 473 K
P = 101.325 KPa
Z =1 (from graph)
54
Chapter: 05
Equipment Design
i,opt
=0.363 mv
0.45
0.13
Where,
D i,opt = optimum pipe dia in meter
mv
p
55
Chapter: 05
Equipment Design
kgmol/hr
NO
95.59
13.43
O2
4.6115
0.66
N2
450.28
65.34
H2 O
141.575
20.54
Component
Mole fraction
Critical pressure(Bar)
N2
0.6534
126.2
34
O2
0.0066
154.6
50.43
NO
0.1343
180.2
64.8
H2 O
0.2054
647.1
220.55
Pr = 1.01/75.52 = 0.01337
56
Chapter: 05
Equipment Design
Tr = 1143/240.59 = 4.75
Z=1 (from graph)
n = 661.35 kgmol/hr
R = 0.08314 m3 bar/kgmolK
V = znRT/P
= 1 x 661.35 x 0.08314 x 1143 / 1.01
= 62225.19 m3/hr =17.28
m3/sec
57
Chapter: 05
Equipment Design
SKETCH
NH3+air mixture
D1
D2
Random pack
Pt/Rh gauze
Pd/Au getter
Support screen
NO gas+ H2O
58
Chapter: 05
Equipment Design
HEIGHT OF CONVERTOR;
As top and bottom of convertor is cone shaped ,
As
D1=0.818m
D2=1.574m
D2 - D1=1.574 - 0.818
=0.756
a1 = 0.756/2 = 0.378
NOW
As = 700
Tan =h1/a1
h1
= a1 tan
= 0.378 tan 70
= 1.0385 m
NOW
D2 = 1.574m
59
Chapter: 05
Equipment Design
D3 = 1.0985m
D2 D3 = 1.574 1.0985
= 0.4755
a2 = 0.477/2 = 0.23775
Now
tan = h3 / a2
h3
= a2 tan
= 0.23775 tan70
= 0.6532 m
Chapter: 05
Equipment Design
SO
Total height of convertor =
h1 +h2 + L
1.7015 m
VOLUME OF CONVERTOR;
AS
h1 = 1.0386m
h3 = 1.7015m
h2 = R2 tan
= (1.574/2) tan 70
= 2.162 m
V1 = R12 h1
= (0.81/2)2 x 1.0385
= 0.5351 m3
V2 = R22 h2
= (1.574/2)2 x 2.162
= 4.206 m3
V = V2 V1
= 4.206 0.535
= 3.67 m3
61
Chapter: 05
Equipment Design
V3 = R32 h3
= (1.0985/2)2 x 1.7015
= 1.6211 m3
V= V2 V3
= 4.206 1.6211
= 2.584 m3
As volume of catalyst = 1.2307 * 10 -3 m3
So
Total volume of convertor = V! + V3 + V/2 + V/2 + volume of catalyst
= 0.5351 + 1.6211 + 3.67/2 + 2.58/2 + 1.2307 x 10-3
= 5.3 m3
62
Chapter: 05
Equipment Design
63
Chapter: 05
Equipment Design
SPECFICATION SHEET
Identification:
Item
Reactor
Item No.
Function:
Date: 29-10-2005
R-01
Operation : Continuous
Materials handled:
NH3-air mixture
NO gas
Quantity
25.667x10 m /hr
62.225x103m3/hr
Pressure
1.01 bar
1.01 bar
200oC
870oC
Temperature
Design Data:
Catalyst
Weight of catalyst
11.81 kg
Diameter of converter
1.146m
Height of converter
2.135m
Material of construction
Inconel 601
0.8m
64
Chapter: 05
Equipment Design
Oxidation Tower
In absorption gas mixture is contacted with liquid solvent which absorbs one or more
components from the gas stream. The absorbed gas and solvent leave at the bottom and
unabsorbed components leave as gas from the top.
Chemical reaction:
The gas NO and HNO3 flow counter currently ,the acid oxidizes NO to NO2 .this
reaction is endothermic .
NO + 2 HNO3
3 NO2 + H2O
PACKED COLUMNS
1.
Suitable for high liquid flow rate
2. Pressure drop per equilibrium stage is
lesser than plate towers
3. Replacement of packing is easier and
cheaper
4. Suitable for small diameters
5. Suitable when no inter-cooling and
withdrawal of side-streams is required
6. Should be considered if separation
process involves corrosive fluids.
7. Packed height of less than 6m.
TRAY COLUMNS
1. Suitable for Larger Diameter
Towers
2. Liquid Distribution is good
3. Repair and Maintenance is difficult
for smaller towers
4. Easier to make provision for intercooling and withdrawal of sidestreams
5. Not advisable to use for corrosive
and toxic liquids
65
Chapter: 05
Equipment Design
BERL SADDLES
INTALOX SADDLES
Considerable
Side Thrust
Lesser Side
Thrust
A Fairly
Uniform Bed
Less Efficient
Channeling is
favored
More efficient
than Rings
Lesser
Channeling than
rings
Very Little
Tendency for
Channeling
Smaller HTU
Higher HTU
Smaller HTU
Lower Flooding
Point
Higher Flooding
Point
High Flooding
Point
More Costly
than Berl saddles.
Cheap
OPERATING CONDITIONS
Leaving Gas(23631.28kg/hr)
NO =251.85
NO2=10772.28
N2=12607.84
Entering Gas(15486.998kg/hr)
NO= 2513.55
N2=12607.84
Entering Solvent(31510.08kg/hr)
HNO3=60%=19025.08
H2O=40%=12484.8
Leaving Solvent(23217.624kg/hr)
HNO3=35%=9374.72
H2O=13842.9
66
Chapter: 05
Equipment Design
Operating temperature
Inlet temperature = 50 C
Outlet temperature = 48C
67
Chapter: 05
Equipment Design
FLV = 0.056
From graph
K4 at flooding line = 4
From Coulson & Richardsons Chemical Engr, Vol 6,fig 11.44
Recommended design values, 15 ~ 50 mm H2O / m of packing
Design for a pressure of 42mm of H2O / m of packing K4 = 1.5
%age flooding = (K4 at 42mm H2O per m of packing /K4 at flooding line)0.5 x 100
= (1.5 / 4 ) 0.5x 100
= 61%
68
Chapter: 05
Equipment Design
Fp = 35 m for Ceramic Berl Saddles (from unit operations of chemical engineering, 5th
ed, pg 689)
L = 0.0015 Ns / m at 50C
Vw* =[ 1.5x 1.1283x(1338.35 1.1283) / 13.1 x 35 x (0.0015/1338.35)0.1]0.5
Vw* = 4.4075 kg / ms
Column area required = flow rate of NO entering / Vw*
= 4.30/ 4.407
=
Column Diameter
0.975 m
Column area
= / 4 x d2
= / 4 x 1.072
= 0.975 m
Calculating height of liquid phase transfer unit HL & height of gas phase transfer unit
HG:
Diffusivity of vapor =Dv = 3.17 x 10 -5 m/sec
Diffusivity of liquid = DL = 1.456 x 10-9 m/sec
of vapor = 0.00002 Ns/m
of liquid = 0.0015 Ns /m
69
Chapter: 05
Equipment Design
(Sc)v = v / v x Dv
= 0.00002
1.1283 x 0.0000317
= 0.559
(Sc)L = L / L x DL
= 0.0015
1338.35 x 1.456 x 10 ^-9
= 770
70
Chapter: 05
Equipment Design
ESTIMATION OF HOG:
Height of overall gas phase transfer unit :
HOG = HG +( m Gm/ L ) x HL
mGm / L optimum value of this term as suggested by Colburn will lie b/w 0.7 0.8
using average 0.75
71
Chapter: 05
Equipment Design
Where and are the factors related to the packing material ceramic berl saddle of
51mm.
= 0.16
= 0.12
L = liquid mass velocity = 1.76 lbs /ft 2 s
G = gas mass velocity = 0.917 lbs / ft sec
P = 3 in of water = 0.008 atm
So, total pressure drop due to packing is = 0.008 x 3.09 = 0.025 atm
P due to packing support and distributor= 2x0.00073atm
Total pressure drop across column = 0.025 + 0.00073x2
= 0.026 atm
LIQUID HOLD UP :
The amount of liquid holdup is given by the following formula,
Hw= 0.1434 x ( Lw* / d) 0.6
Lw*= 8.6 kg/ms
d = equivalent diameter of packing = 51mm
Hw = 0.1434 x (8.6 /51)0.6 = 0.05 mliq / mbed
72
Chapter: 05
Equipment Design
SPECIFICATION SHEET :
Unit:
Function:
Operating pressure:
Diameter of the column :
Number of Transfer Units:
Height of Transfer Unit :
Height of Packing :
Height of Column :
Packing :
Total Pressure Drop :
Distributor:
Material of construction
Packing Support
Absorber
Absorption of NO in HNO3
1.0 atm
1.11
3
1.03m
3.09m
4.09 m
0.051 m Ceramic Berl Saddles
0.026 atm
Orifice type
Stainless Steel
Ceramic grid plate
73
Chapter: 05
Equipment Design
Absorber
Introduction
References.
74
Chapter: 05
Equipment Design
INTRODUCTION:
TYPES OF GAS ABSORPTION:
Physical Absorption
Chemical Absorption (Gas Absorption With Chemical Reaction)
75
Chapter: 05
Equipment Design
Factors that depend on the system i.e. scale, foaming, fouling factors, corrosive
systems, heat evolution, pressure drop, liquid holdup.
ii)
iii) Factors that depends upon the physical characteristics of the column and its
internals i.e. maintenance, weight, side stream, size and cost.
iv) Factors that depend upon mode of operation i.e. batch distillation, continuous
distillation, turndown, and intermittent distillation.
Plate column are designed to handle wide range of liquid flow rates without
ii)
iii)
iv)
Dispersion difficulties are handled in plate column when flow rate of liquid
are must be removed before cleaning.
v)
76
Chapter: 05
vi)
Equipment Design
Design information for plate column is more readily available and more
reliable than that for packed column low as compared to gases. ht of the
packed column is more than plate column.
vii)
viii)
ix)
x)
Random-Packed Column generally not designed with the diameter larger than
1.5 m and diameters of commercial tray column is seldom less than 0.67m.
77
Chapter: 05
Equipment Design
TYPES OF TRAYS:
Sieve trays
Bubble cap trays
Valve trays
Downcomerless trays
Capacity
Efficiency
Cost/area
Flexibility
Remarks
(Turndown ratio)
1. Sieve
2.Bubble Cap
Med High
High
Better than
bubble cap
As good or
better than
bubble cap
Low Med.
Med. High
3.Valve
Ballast
Flexi tray
Float valve
Med. High
High
As good as
sieve trays
As good as
sieve trays
Lowest of all
trays with
downcomers
Med. or Good
2/1 (3/1 can usually
be achieved)
High
Med. Good
3/1 or slightly
higher
Hi-contact valve
4.Downcomerless
Dual flow
Ripple
Highest in
Med. Good
some instances
Lowest Med.
Low efficiency
Of interest for
bottleneck removal if
poor flexibility
tolerable
Turbo grid
78
Chapter: 05
Equipment Design
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM:
79
Chapter: 05
Equipment Design
80
Chapter: 05
Equipment Design
Operating Conditions
T3=45oC, P3=8.62 bar
v=9.8 kg/m3
Q3=5.4x105kJ/hr
mol% kgmol/hr kg/hr
3
NO2 O.14 1.036
47.656
NO 0.186 1.389
41.67
2
O2
1.54 11.49
367.68
N2 98.13 20928.93732.14 20471.92
746.06
CHEMICAL REACTIONS:
1. 4NO 2 O 2 2H 2 O 4HNO 3
H r 25C 149000kJ/kgmol
2. 4NO 3O 2 2H 2 O 4HNO 3
H r 25C 263000kJ/kgmol
H r 25C 46000kJ/kgmol
81
Chapter: 05
Equipment Design
82
Chapter: 05
Equipment Design
83
Chapter: 05
Equipment Design
Chapter: 05
Equipment Design
Uf K 1
L V
1360 11.08
0.11
1.22m/s
V
11.08
Superficial velocity:
Design for 85% flooding at maximum flow rate,
Dc
Ac 4
1m
At top:
Maximum liquid flow rate at top:
Liquid mass flow rate = Lw = 23071.14 kg/hr = 5.359 kg/s
L at 25C = 1.2098 g/cm3 = 1209.8 kg/m3
Maximum vapor flow rate at bottom.
85
Chapter: 05
Equipment Design
T= 40C = 313 K
Pv = PM/RT= 864.2 * 28.51 /8.314 *298 =9.8 Kg/m3
Vapor liquid flow factor,
FLv = Lw/Vw (Pv/PL) = 23071.14/20298.93 (9.3/1209.8)1/2 = 9.6 * 10-2
By selecting plate spacing = 0.6m
Now from figure 11.27 pg#567, Coulson & Richardson vol. 6 (third edition), value of
K1=0.1
Flooding velocity:
Uf K 1
L V
1209.8 9.8
0.1
1.106m/s
V
9.8
Superficial velocity:
Design for 85% flooding at maximum flow rate,
86
Chapter: 05
Equipment Design
Column Diameter:
Dc
Ac 4
1m
So it can be concluded from the calculation at the top that the diameter of the
column at bottom and at the top is same and is found out to be 1 m.
Downcomer Area:
Downcomer area is 12% of cross sectional area;
87
Chapter: 05
Equipment Design
Net Area:
Net area A n A c A d 0.785 0.0942 0.6908m 2
Active Area:
Active or bubbling area A a A c 2A d 0.785 2(0.0942) 0.5966m 2
Hole Area:
Let take hole area 10% of Aa as first trial ;
Hole area A h 0.1 A a 0.1 0.5966 0.05966m 2
Weir height:
Hole size:
Take hole diameter = 5mm
Plate thickness:
Plate thickness = 3mm (for austentic stainless steel 304L)
88
Chapter: 05
Equipment Design
WEEP POINT:
Weir Liquid Crest:
Maximum liquid rate=Lw(max) = 7.712 kg/sec
Take minimum feed rate as 70% of maximum fee rate of turn down ratio 70%
Minimum liquid rate= Lw(min) = 7.712x0.70 = 5.3984 kg/s
how max
Lw
750 max
L w
how min
Lw
750 min
L w
2/3
2/3
7.712
750
1360 0.77
5.3984
750
1360 0.77
2/3
28.4mm
2/3
22.4mm
3.7 m/s
( v )1/2
11.08
89
Chapter: 05
Equipment Design
0.6
Hole diameter
5mm
Ah
A
100 h 100 0.1 100 10
Ap
Aa
Now,
From figure 11.34, 6th Ed. Coulson and Richardsons ,At (Ah/Aa)*100=10,
When Plate thickness to plate diameter ratio is 0.6;
Then, Co = 0.74
Dry plate drop:
hd =51(Uhmax /Co)2 Pv/PL =51(12016/.74)2 *11.02/1360 =111.59
Reisdual Drop:
12.5 10 3 12.5 10 3
hr
9 mmliq
L
1360
90
Chapter: 05
Equipment Design
7.712
hd 166 wd 166
5.6mmliq
1360 0.0308
L A m
2
RESIDENCE TIME:
Tr = AdhbcPL /Lwd = .0942m2 * .282m * 1360Kg/m3 /7.712Kg/s =4.7s > 3s
(satisfactory)
As residence time is greater than 3 sec, so satisfactory
91
Chapter: 05
Equipment Design
NO. OF HOLES:
D2
1.9634 10 5 m2
4
Total hole area
0.05966
Total no. of holes
ENTRAINMENT:
Percentage flooding
Uv
100 (Uv based on net area)
Uf
Vv 0.7659m 3 /s
1.11m/s
An
0.6908m 2
Uf 1.22m/s
Percentage flooding
1.11
100 90%
1.22
FLV 8.2 10 2
Now, from figure#11. 29 at page#570 from C & R vol 6, the value of fraxtional entrainmen t is,
5.1 10 2 0.051 (well below 0.1)
92
Chapter: 05
Equipment Design
Plate No.
Plate I.D.
1m
Hole Size
5mm
Hole Pitch lp
12.5mm
Active Holes
3038
Turn Down
Plate Material
Downcomer Material
Plate spacing
0.6m
Plate Thickness
3mm
2.34 kpa
93
Chapter: 05
Equipment Design
Chapter: 05
Equipment Design
Inter stage cooling can be provide to remove heat of reaction or solution in plate
column.
SELECTION OF TRAYS
The terms "trays" and "plates" are used interchangeably. There are many types of tray
designs, but the most common ones are:
SIEVE TRAYS
Sieve trays are simply metal plates with holes in them. Vapour passes straight upward
through the liquid on the plate. The arrangement, number and size of the holes are design
parameters
95
Chapter: 05
Equipment Design
VALVE TRAYS
In valve trays, perforations are covered by lift able caps. Vapour flows lifts the caps, thus
self creating a flow area for the passage of vapour. The lifting cap directs the vapour to
flow horizontally into the liquid, thus providing better mixing than is possible in sieve
trays.
96
Chapter: 05
Equipment Design
Valve tray
1. They are essentially sieve trays with large diameter holes covered with by
movable flaps
2. Their operating capacity is low as compared to sieve trays but higher than bubble
caps trays.
3. They give higher pressure drop than sieve trays.
97
Chapter: 05
Equipment Design
N+1
- Si / Si N+1 -1
Where
Si = stripping factor fpr component i
N = number of equilibrium stages required for specified solute fraction stripped.
Now calculate the % age stripped of the key component in each stage .
KEY COMPONENT
STAGES
% STRIPPED
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
82.91
84.23
88.76
96.59
99.30
99.86
99.97
99.98
99.99
L
( V / L ) 1/ 2
V
334
( 1.362/1425 )
427.64
1/ 2
= 0.024
From fig
Csb =0.05 m/sec
98
Chapter: 05
Equipment Design
99
Chapter: 05
Equipment Design
Weir length
Ad / Ac = 0.195/ 1.3 = 0.15
(from figure 11.31 vol.6)
Lw / dc
0.81
Lw
1 . 28 0 . 81
=
1.0368 m
50 mm
Hole diameter, dh
5 mm
Plate thickness
5 mm
100
Chapter: 05
Equipment Design
Check Weeping
Maximum liquid rate Lm
= 4.03 kg/sec
how
= weir crust
Maximum how
5.7575
750
1402 1.0368
2/3
= 19.48 mm liquid
Minimum how
4.03
750
1402 1.0368
2/3
= 15.4 mm liquid
at minimum hw + how = 50 + 15.4
=65.4mm liquid
from fig 11.30, Coulson and Richardson Vol.6
K2 = 30.6
The design vapour velocity
K 0.925.4 d h
U min 2
v 1 / 2
101
Chapter: 05
Equipment Design
30.6 0.925.4 5
U min
1.362 1 / 2
= 10.488 m/s
Vapour velocity at Base of column =422.62*63/3600*1.284
= 0.98m/sec
0.98 0.7
0.091
= 7.54 m/s
So minimum vapor rate will be well above the weep point.
and
Ah Ah 0.091
0 .1
A p Aa
0.91
Co
= 0.84
Chapter: 05
Equipment Design
U
hd 51 h V
C o L
2
10.77 1.284
=7.54mm liquid
hd 51
0.84 1425
Residual Head
hr
12.5 10 3
8.77 mm liquid
1425
103
Chapter: 05
Equipment Design
l
hdc 166 wd
L Aap
5.757
hdc 166
1425 0.041472
= 1.57529 mm liq.
hb
Ad hbc L
Lwd
tr
= 7.58 sec
8 sec
3 sec. so, result is satisfactory
104
Chapter: 05
Equipment Design
Check Entrainment
Uv
UV
0.98/1.105
0.89 m/s
=2.5 m/sec
0.89/2.5
35.6 %
FLV(base) = .1
from fig. 11.29 coulson vol.6
Fractional Entrainment = 0.003 well below 0.1 Satisfactory
0.825
107o
105
Chapter: 05
Equipment Design
t r 1.41 50 10 3 73
1.73
180
1 . 73 ) 0 . 0865 m2
0.127
Ap
0.70
No of Holes
Area of one hole 1.964 10
No. of holes
0.91
1.964 10 5
106
Chapter: 05
Equipment Design
= 4531.57
4634
107
Chapter: 05
Equipment Design
Specification Sheet
Identification
Item
Main Stripper
Item #
D 102
Tray type:
Sieve tray
Function :
To strip NO2
Operation:
Continuous
Top
Bottom
286 K
328 K
Temperature
Design Data :
108
Chapter: 05
Equipment Design
Definition
Process in which a liquid or vapor mixture of two or more substances is separated
into its component fractions of desired purity, by the application and removal of
heat.
109
Chapter: 05
Equipment Design
Batch columns
Continuous columns
Batch Columns
In batch operation, the feed to the column is introduced batch-wise. That is, the
column is charged with a 'batch' and then the distillation process is carried out.
When the desired task is achieved, a next batch of feed is introduced.
Continuous Columns
In contrast, continuous columns process a continuous feed stream. No
interruptions occur unless there is a problem with the column or surrounding
process units. They are capable of handling high throughputs and are the more
common of the two types. We shall concentrate only on this class of columns.
1-Plate column are designed to handle wide range of liquid flow rates without
flooding.
110
Chapter: 05
Equipment Design
2-If a system contains solid contents; it will be handled in plate column, because
solid will accumulate in the voids, coating the packing materials and making it
ineffective.
3-Dispersion difficulties are handled in plate column when flow rate of liquid are
low as compared to gases.
4-For large column heights, weight of the packed column is more than plate
column.
5-If periodic cleaning is required, man holes will be provided for cleaning. In
packed columns packing must be removed before cleaning.
6-For non-foaming systems the plate column is preferred.
7-Design information for plate column is more readily available and more reliable
than that for packed column.
8-Inter stage cooling can be provided to remove heat of reaction or solution in
plate column.
9-When temperature change is involved, packing may be damaged.
Our mixture which is to be processed is Water, Isopropyl alcohol, Acetone. Ive
selected plate column because:
1-System is non-foaming.
2-Temperature is high i.e. 90C.
There are three main types, sieve tray, bubble cap, valve tray. Ive selected sieve
tray because:
1-They are lighter in weight and less expensive. It is easier and cheaper to install.
2-Pressure drop is low as compared to bubble cap trays.
3-Peak efficiency is generally high.
4-Maintenance cost is reduced due to the ease of cleaning.
111
Chapter: 05
Equipment Design
Sieve trays
Sieve trays are simply metal plates with holes in them. Vapor passes straight
upward through the liquid on the plate. The arrangement, number and size of the
holes are design parameters.
Because of their efficiency, wide operating range, ease of maintenance and cost
factors, sieve and valve trays have replaced the once highly thought of bubble cap
trays in many applications.
Column internals such as trays/plates and/or packing which are used to enhance
component separations.
A reboiler to provide the necessary vaporization for the distillation process.
The liquid removed from the reboiler is known as the bottoms product or
simply, bottoms.
A condenser to cool and condense the vapor leaving the top of the column.
The condensed liquid that is removed from the system is known as the
distillate or top product.
A reflux drums to hold the condensed vapor from the top of the column so
that liquid (reflux) can be recycled back to the column. The condensed
liquid is stored in a holding vessel known as the reflux drum. Some of this
liquid is recycled back to the top of the column and this is called the reflux.
112
Chapter: 05
Equipment Design
A schematic of a typical distillation unit with a single feed and two product
streams is shown above.
113
Chapter: 05
Equipment Design
Foaming
Foaming refers to the expansion of liquid due to passage of vapor or gas. Although
it provides high interfacial liquid-vapor contact, excessive foaming often leads to
liquid buildup on trays. In some cases, foaming may be so bad that the foam mixes
with liquid on the tray above. Whether foaming will occur depends primarily on
physical properties of the liquid mixtures, but is sometimes due to tray designs and
condition. Whatever the cause, separation efficiency is always reduced.
Entrainment
Entrainment refers to the liquid carried by vapor up to the tray above and is again
caused by high vapor flow rates. It is detrimental because tray efficiency is
reduced: lower volatile material is carried to a plate holding liquid of higher
volatility. It could also contaminate high purity distillate. Excessive entrainment
can lead to flooding.
114
Chapter: 05
Equipment Design
Weeping/Dumping
This phenomenon is caused by low vapor flow. The pressure exerted by the vapor
is insufficient to hold up the liquid on the tray. Therefore, liquid starts to leak
through perforations. Excessive weeping will lead to dumping. That is the liquid
on all trays will crash (dump) through to the base of the column (via a domino
effect) and the column will have to be re-started. Weeping is indicated by a sharp
pressure drop in the column and reduced separation efficiency.
Flooding
Reflux Conditions
Minimum trays are required under total reflux conditions, i.e. there is no
withdrawal of distillate. On the other hand, as reflux is decreased, more and more
trays are required.
115
Chapter: 05
Equipment Design
Feed Conditions
The state of the feed mixture and feed composition affects the operating lines and
hence the number of stages required for separation. It also affects the location of
feed tray.
Remember that the actual number of trays required for a particular separation duty
is determined by the efficiency of the plate. Thus, any factors that cause a decrease
in tray efficiency will also change the performance of the column. Tray
efficiencies are affected by fouling, wear and tear and corrosion, and the rates at
which these occur depends on the properties of the liquids being processed. Thus
appropriate materials should be specified for tray construction.
Column Diameter
Vapor flow velocity is dependent on column diameter. Weeping determines the
minimum vapor flow required while flooding determines the maximum vapor flow
allowed, hence column capacity. Thus, if the column diameter is not sized
properly, the column will not perform well.
Chapter: 05
Equipment Design
Design of Regenerator
Diameter of the Column:
Top
Product
Feed
Bottom
Product
At Top:
T
117
Chapter: 05
Equipment Design
= PM/RT
= Kv [(L - g) / g]
Vm
Kv
Where,
For the tray spacing of 24 inch (From Plant Design book ,Page No.684 ,4rth Edition)
Vm= 0.3 [(60.47-0.26) / 0.26]
= 4.56 ft/sec
= Vm x g
Area
( / 4)D2
= G / Vm x g
= [4 G / ( x Vm x g x 3600)]
= 2 ft
At Bottom:
T =248 0F=248+460=7080R
P
Avg.M. Wt.
= 48.6 Kg/Kgmol
= PM/RT
For the tray spacing of 24 inch (From Plant Design book ,Page No.684 ,4rth Edition)
= Kv [(L - g) / g]
Vm
Vm
= 0.3 [(58-0.18)/0.18]
118
Chapter: 05
Equipment Design
Vm
=5.38 ft/sec
= [4 G / x Vm x g x 3600]
Now;
D= 2.68 ft
D = 99.203 Kgmol/hr
Xd = 0.933
F = 354.34 Kgmol/
hr
Xf = 0.533
W = 255.143 Kgmol/hr
Xw = 0.378
= 545 psi
= 185psi
Relative Volatility;
= 545/185=2.946
= (1/ - 1) [Xd / Xf ( 1 Xd / 1 Xf )]
Rmin.
Rmin.
= 0.514x(1.75-0.421)
Rmin.
= 0.683
As the optimum reflux ratio is (1.1 to 1.5) times the minimum reflux ratio;(In Richardson
$ Coulson,Vol-2)
119
Chapter: 05
Equipment Design
So,
R
= 1.2 (0.683 )
= 0.82
= ( Ln / Vn )Xn+1 + ( D / Vn )Xd
Ln / D = R
=0.82
=>
Ln
= 0.82 (99.203)
Vn
= Ln + D = 81.346+99.203
Ln =0.82 D
= 81.346 kgmol/hr
= 180.549 kgmol/hr
Therefore,
Yn
Yn
= ( Lm / Vm )Xm+1 - ( W / Vm )Xw
Vm
= Vn
Lm
= Ln + F
=180.549 kgmol/hr
= 81.346+354.34
=435.686kgmol/hr
Therefore;
Ym
Ym
= xa / [1 + ( 1)xa]
xa
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
ya
0.25
0.42
0.56
0.66
0.75
0.82
By McCabe-Thiele Method:
Using top and bottom operating lines and the equilibrium curve from the
graph,
The theoretical no. of stages required = 08
120
Chapter: 05
Equipment Design
At 216.5 0F
Favg. = [(0.45x0.533)+(0.028x0.467)]=0.253Cp , U,HNO3 is taken from
= 17 61.1 x(-0.597)
= 53.5 %
As,
Efficiency
=15
Tray spacing
= 24 in
= 2 ft
=30 ft
= 0.5 m
=3
= 3 x 1.64
= 4.92 ft
= 4 ft
= 4 ft
Height at the top of the column above the top most tray
= 4 ft
So,
Total Height of the column
= 30 + 4.92 + 4 + 4 + 4
121
Chapter: 05
Equipment Design
=46.92 ft
=2.34 ft
= ( / 4) D2
= ( / 4) 2.342
= 4.3 ft2
= 4.3 x 0.15
= 0.645 ft2
= 4.3 x 0.85
= 3.6 ft2
= 3.6 x 0.10
= 0.36 ft
= 3/16 in
= 3/16 in
Pressure drop
= PT = (L x g x ht) / 144 gc
ht
= hc + ho + hw + 0.5hg
hc
As,
Where,
hw
= Weir height
hg
Now,
122
Chapter: 05
Equipment Design
hc
Vc
Vc
Where,
= 0.36 / 3.6
= 0.1
= (3/16) / (3/16)
=1
= 1.4
So,
hc
hc
= 0.28 ft
ho
QL
lw
QL
= 19646 lbm
hr
Now,
Where;
So,
ft^3
59.24lbm
1 hr
3600 sec
Therefore
ho
123
Chapter: 05
Equipment Design
How,
Weir height = hw
= 2 in
= 0.167 ft
hg
=0
Therefore,
ht
= 0.28+0.167+0.06
= 0.507 ft
PT
PT
= 0.208 Psig
= [( ho + hw ) / ht] x 100
= [( 0.06 + 0.0.167 ) /0.507] x 100
% P
= 44.8 %
124
Chapter: 05
Equipment Design
DESIGN CALCULATIONS:
Heat duty:
NO=0.1346 4.714 2.2046 3600=5035.78 lbm/hr
NO2=67.343 lbm/hr
N2=24490.513lbm/hr
H2O=7815.56 lbm/hr
Reference temperature=77oF
Enthalpies or heat rates carried
Q1 for NO=380705.1373 Btu/hr
Q2 for NO2 =6151.8095 Btu/hr
Q3 for N2=2005773.01 Btu/hr
Q4 for H2O =6510364.77 Btu/hr
Total heat load without condensation load
Q=Q1+Q2+Q3=2392629.962 Btu/hr
If the mixture is cooled up to 50oF below the saturation temperature of steam then
125
Chapter: 05
Equipment Design
Q5=mCpT=6008.159 50 oF
=300407.9847Btu/hr
condenser duty total
Qc=Q4+Q5
=6810772.75 Btu/hr
Amount of coolent Water (treated)
Temperature limit
77 oF to 203 oF
Qc = mCpT
m=54053.75 lbm/hr
Design of partial condenser
Film co-efficient of steam can be taken as
T1=392 oF
, T2=342 oF
t1=77 oF
, t2 =203 oF
R= T1 - T2/ t2- t1
=0.4
S= t2- t1 / T1 - t2 =0.4
FT=0.98
1 shell pass
2 tube passes
LMTD= 224.864 oF
Corrected T = FT LMTD=0.98 224.864=220.366oF
Suppose overall heat transfer coefficient= UD = 200 Btu/lb.ft2. oF
Heat transfer area ,
126
Chapter: 05
Equipment Design
= UDA(t)w
= 154.53 ft2
Exchange Layout
1-2, shell & tube heat exchanger
1OD, 5/4 sq. pitch,
A = at Nt Lt
Lt = 18 ft.
a't = 0.2618 ft2/ft
A = 0.2618 18 Nt
Nt = 32.792
Nt = 32
(Nearest count)
So
A = 150.7968ft2
UD = 204.955 Btu/hr. ft2. oF
Shell side Tav=392+342/2=367 oF
Tube side Tav =203+77/2=140 oF
Assume ho=150 Btu/hr ft2 oF
Then
(T-tw)ho=(T-t)UD
(367-tw)150=(367-140)205
tw=57 oF
average condensate temperature =(57+367)/2
=211.88 oF
Tube bundle dia
127
Chapter: 05
Equipment Design
Db=2504(32/0.244)1/2.207
=0.752 ft
Hc=0.95KL[ L ( L - V )g/Tl]Nr-1/6
Nr = Db /Pt
=35.305
=2/335.305=23.536
For,
v weighted must be used
v = VNO2yNO2+ VNOyNO+ VN2yN2+ VH2OyH2O
=1.7450.0018+0.765990.1346+0.71490.6546+0.50780.2089
=0.6923 lbm/ft3
So,
Tl =ml/Lnt
=93.84
By putting the values
hc=1777.88 Btu/hr. ft2. oF
Assume, ho =1500 Btu/hr. ft2. oF
tw=366 oF
average temperature of condensate =366.89 oF
KL =0.436
L =0.0217 lbm/hr ft
L =50.05 lbm/hr ft
V =0.55 lbm/ft3
Now
128
Chapter: 05
Equipment Design
= 0.17359 m/ sec
hi
= 4200(1.35+0.0265)0.173590.8 /22.0980.2
=266 Btu/hr. ft2. oF
hio
UC
RD
at
f G 2t L n
10
5.22 10 D s
=0.6857 psia
P2
129
Chapter: 05
Equipment Design
PL =4n N2/2g
=4*2*0.098/1=0.784
Pt =0.784+0.6857
=1.4697 psi
Which is satisfactory
130
Chapter: 05
Equipment Design
Specification Sheet
Identification: Partial condenser
No. Required = 1
Function: Condense steam by removing the latent heat of vaporization
Operation: Continuous
Type: 1-2 Horizontal Condenser
Shell side condensation
Heat Duty = 6810772.75 Btu/hr = 7.18 * 10 6 KJ/hr
Tube Side:
33 tubes
L = 18 ft = 5.48 m
Kg/hr
2 passes
17004 kg/hr
Pressure 1 atm = 101.325 Kpa
131
Chapter: 05
Equipment Design
4088.133 KJ/hr m2 0C
4169.8 KJ/hr m2 0C
UC
=207 Btu/hr. ft2. oF = 4231 KJ/hr RD =0.0001 hr. ft2. oF/ Btu = 4.89*10-6 hr
m2 0C
m2 0C/KJ
NOMENCLATURE
as = Area of shell
a//t = Flow area
at = Flow area per tube
B = Baffle Spacing
C = Clearance b/w tubes
Cp = Specific Heat Capacity
D = Inside diameter of tubes
De = Equivalent diameter of shell
Ds = Inside diameter of shell
f= Friction Factor
Gt = Tube side mass velocity
Gs = Shell side mass velocity
hi , ho = Inside and Outside film coefficient
hio = Value of hi when referred to the tube ,OD,Btu/hr.ft2.oF
Hv = Heat of vaporization
132
Chapter: 05
Equipment Design
ID = Internal Diameter
L = Tube Length,ft
LMTD = Log Mean Temperature Difference
m= Mass flow rate of vapors
mm,mw,mDME = Mass Flow rate of vapors of methanol,water,DME
n = Number of passes
OD = Outer Diameter
PT = Tube Pitch
P, Pt, Pr = Total, tube, return pressure drop
Ps = Pressure drop of shell
Q = Heat Flow
Rd = Combined dirt factor
Re = Reynolds number, dimensionless
s= Specific Gravity
UC, UD = Clean overall coefficient for condensation, desuperheating
w = Mass Flow Rate of water
= Viscosity ;
133
Chapter: 06
Mechanical Design
Chapter: 6
Mechanical Design
Absorber
Mechanical design:
For stainless steel vessel:
So, max allowable stress f is;
f = 165 N/mm
Operating pressure =
130.9psi
143.99psi
Thickness of shell:
Taking joint efficiency 80%
J
0.80
Pi Di/2fJPi
0.0006ft
= .0073 in
As less corrosive service,
So, taking corrosion allowance is taken as 0.118 inch /year
As plant life is 10 years, so for 10 years corrosion allowance is 1.18 inch
So, total thickness is;
T =
0.0073 + 1.18
T =
1.187 inch
134
Chapter: 06
Mechanical Design
Thickness of head:
We choose torispherical head. So, the equation for thickness of tori spherical head is;
Cs = 1/4[3+(Rc/Rk)1/2]
= [3+1.29] = 1.07
.008 + 1.18
1.188 inch
135
Chapter: 06
Mechanical Design
Oxidation Tower
Mechanical design:
For stainless steel vessel:
So, max allowable stress f is;
f = 165 N/mm
Operating pressure =
14.7 psi
16.17 psi
Thickness of shell:
Taking joint efficiency 85%
J
0.85
Pi Di/2fJPi
0.00007ft
= .0009 in
As less corrosive service,
So, taking corrosion allowance is taken as 0.11 inch /year
As plant life is 10 years, so for 10 years corrosion allowance is 1.18 inch
So, total thickness is;
T =
0.0009 + 1.18
T =
1.1809 inch
136
Chapter: 06
Mechanical Design
Thickness of head:
We choose torispherical head. So, the equation for thickness of tori spherical head is;
Cs = 1/4 [3+ (Rc/Rk)1/2]
= [3+1.29] = 1.02
.00084 + 1.18
1.1808 inch
137
Chapter: 06
Mechanical Design
Distillation Column
Mechanical Design:
Carbon steel is used as the material of construction.
Diameter of the column
= 2.34 ft =28.08 in
= 14.7 psig
As (Design
of Working Pressure)
= 13700 psig
Edition)
= 1.0 mm
Therefore,
Total thickness
= 0.016 + 0.04
= 0.056in
As
The design pressure
= 14.7 psig
Cs
= 1/4 [3 + (Rc/Rk)]
Where,
Where
Cs
Rc
= Crown Radius
= Di
Rk
= Knuckle Radius
= 6 % of Di
= 0.06 x 28.08
= 1.68
Cs
= 28.08 in
= 1/4 [3 + (28.08/1.68)]
138
Chapter: 06
Mechanical Design
= 1.77
Now,
t
= 1.0 mm
= 0.04 in
= 0.029 + 0.04
= 0.069 in
139
Chapter: 06
Mechanical Design
Stripper
Mechanical design:
For stainless steel vessel:
Design stress = 145 N/mm2
Operating pressure =
14.7psi
16.17 psi
Thickness of shell:
Taking joint efficiency 85%
J
0.85
Pi Di/2fJPi
0.00009ft
= .0011 in
As less corrosive service,
. So, taking corrosion allowance is taken as 0.118 inch /year
As plant life is 10 years, so for 10 years corrosion allowance is 1.18 inch
So, total thickness is;
T =
0.0011 + 1.18
T =
1.181 inch
Thickness of head:
We choose torispherical head. So, the equation for thickness of tori spherical head is;
Cs = 1/4[3 + (Rc/Rk)1/2]
= .1/4[3 + 4.09] = 1.77
140
Chapter: 06
Mechanical Design
= .0008in
So, taking corrosion allowance is taken as 0.118 inch /year
As plant life is 10 years, so for 10 years corrosion allowance is 1.18 inch
So, total thickness is;
Total thickness of head
T/=
=
.0008 + 1.18
1.18 inch
141
Chapter:07
Chapter: 07
INSTRUMENTATION & CONTROL
INRODUCTION:
Measurement is a fundamental requisite to process control. Either the control can be
affected automatically, semi-automatically or manually. The quality of control obtainable
also bears a relationship to the accuracy, re-product ability and reliability of the measurement
methods, which are employed. Therefore, selection of the most effective means of
measurements is an important first step in the design and formulation of any process control
system.
Objectives of Process Control
Safety.
Production Specifications.
Operating Constraints.
Economics.
Environmental regulations
142
Chapter:07
143
Chapter:07
TYPES OF INSTRUMENTATION
Following are some of the main types of instrumentation
RECORDING INSTRUMENTATION
In Practical work process parameters such as temperature, pressure, and flow require
continuous measurements. If a review of the measurements is required provision must be
made to note the parameters with respect to time. The recorder is a device to accomplish this
task and may take many forms depending upon the application. The usual method is to
inscribe the measurement of the parameter on a chat with respect to time. These charts can be
circular or linear, and may be driven by a clock mechanism. The process parameter is record
by a pen which leaves a trace on the chart. The duration of the record is a Function of chart
speed (time base) and length of chart paper.
INDICATION INSTRUMENTATION
To provide visual indication of process parameters to the plant operators, instrument
indicators are used extensively in process. The indicators may be traditional circular dial type
digital display. Indicator may be field mounted, or panel mounted in a control room.
The indicator mechanism is selected to match the parameter signal and desired range of
measurement, i.e. it may use a pointer on a calibrated scale to, indicate. In recent years
circular gauges have been superseded by linear indicator displaying the process parameter in
the form of a pointer against a calibrated scale. I)igital display unit, which give a numerical
indication of the process parameter are becoming increasingly common.
144
Chapter:07
ALARM INSTRUMENTATION
The purpose of alarm instrumentation is to detect process parameters that deviate outside the
predetermined limits. An alarm instrument loop usually consists of a switch or contact
closure device as a field device, and on end device such as horn, light or bell. The alarm loop
is normally digital having two conditions corresponding to an alarm state and a non alarm
state.
PROCESS STABILITY
Ensuring the stability of a process is an important aspect of control. With out stable control
the behavior of control process can range form virtually inactive, to very little control action
taking place. This may lead to unstable process.
An unstable condition affects the safety of plant and personnel, in addition causing poor
productivity.
145
Chapter:07
146
Chapter:07
However under negative fed back control, the set point (usually a fixed value) and the
controlled variable are continually compared and the error between the two diminishes.
CLOSE FEED BACK CONTROL LOOP
If all the components of the loop are interconnected so that information can be passed
continuously around the loop, the loop is called closed fed back control loop.
OPEN FEED BACK CONTROL LOOP
If the flow of information around the loop is interrupted in any way (as, for example when
the controller is placed on manual control) then the loop is said to be open and automatic
feed back cases.
Following are the main parts of control loop.
I. CONTROLLER
The principle function of a controller is to generate an output signal that will control the
final control clement in order to remove error. The controller is normally the only component
in the loop that is capable of counteracting the effect of disturbances on the process.
II. SENSING OR MEASUREMENT ELEMENT
This measures the value of a controlled variable. Sensing elements are used to convert a
measurement. such as pressure, temperature, or flow, into a movement or signal that can be
used for transmission to a controller, recorder or an indicator. They are also called detectors
or sensors.
III. FINAL CONTROL ELEMENT
This is the component of a control system that adjust the value of the controlled variable e.g.
valve, variable transformation.
IV. PROCESS
Process may be defined as manufacturing operation which uses energy to produce a change
in a material, or to produce another energy conversion. The process may take many forms. It
may be the maintenance of water level in a boiler tank, the control of flow rate of various
liquids and gases, or the maintenance of pressure in a vessel.
147
Chapter:07
Thus pressure
Chapter:07
Most flow measures in the industry are/ by Variable Head devices. To a lesser extent
Variable Area is used, as are the many available types as special metering situations arise.
.
2.
Bottom composition
3.
4.
MANIPULATED VARIABLES
Any one or any combination of following may be the manipulated variables
1. Steam flow rate to reboiler.
2. Reflux rate.
3. Overhead product withdrawn rate.
4. Bottom product withdrawn rate
5. Water flow rate to condenser.
LOADS OR DISTURBANCES
Following are typical disturbances
1.
2.
Composition of feed.
149
Chapter:07
3.
Temperature of feed.
4.
5.
CONTROL SCHEME
Overhead product rate is fixed and any change in feed rate must be absorbed by
changing bottom product rate. The change in product rate is accomplished by direct level
control of the reboiler if the stream rate is fixed feed rate increases then vapor rate is
approximately constant & the internal reflux flows must increase.
ADVANTAGE
Since an increase in feed rate increase reflux rate with vapor rate being approximately
constant, then purity of top product increases.
DISADVANTAGE
The overhead reflux change depends on the dynamics of level control system that adjusts it.
150
Chapter:07
151
Chapter: 08
Safety
Chapter: 08
Safety
INTRODUCTION (ABSTRACT):
Every organization has a legal and moral obligation to safe-guard the health and welfare of
its employees and general public. Safety also leads to good business. So by good
management practice and ensuring safe operations personal safety, plant safety and efficient
operations can he achieved.
ii.
ii.
iii.
High pressure which may release in the case of structural failure or explosion.
iv.
Chapter: 08
Safety
ii.
iii.
Clear and effective procedures play an important role in the safe operations of a
chemical plant. The equipment manufactures provide operating instructions. But in
the plant where hundreds of small units are looked, it is necessary to lay down
standard operating procedures (S.O.Ps) to ensure safe start up, shut down and normal
operations.
Chapter: 08
Safety
Highly toxic
ii.
Fast in action
iii.
Contact Hazards
ii.
Respiratory Hazards
i.
CONTACT HAZARDS
RESPIRATION HAZARDS
1. Due to highly toxic action of nitrogen oxides these gases are taken as the most toxic
gases.
154
Chapter: 08
Safety
Sever pulmonary symptoms may set with in 5-8 hours after breathing as little
as 25 PPM through out an 8-hour period.
ii.
Breathing 100-150 PPM for 0.5-1 hour may produce pulmonary edema.
iii.
A few breaths of 200-700 PPM may produce sever pulmonary edema with in
5-8 hours.
4. Most cases of nitrous fume poisoning can be classified into the following categories.
i.
Slight symptoms
ii.
iii.
Sever effects
i.
Slight symptoms
a. Slight symptoms may occur with in 48 hours breathing light nitrous oxide
fumes.
b. This form of poisoning occurs in industry.
ii.
From mild effects the recovery is apparently complete but after words the sever attacks
eventually continue. In typical case of NO poisoning the sequence of attacks may be
a. A few breaths of apparently harmless gas.
b. Only slight discomfort may be felt with worker continuing his job.
c. 5-8 hours after exposure, the victim may face very sever attack?
iii.
Sever Effects
Chapter: 08
Safety
Skin
ii.
Eye
i.
156
Chapter: 08
ii.
Safety
EYE INJURY TREATM ENT
In the case of nitrogen oxides poisoning first acid should be given immediately.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
157
Chapter: 09
Material of Construction
Chapter: 09
Material of Construction
INTRODUCTION
The corrosion problem affects many industries. In chemical industries it is one of the most
serious, and perhaps the most costly, of the problems confronting the chemical engineer, not
only because of the added cost to production due to replacement of apparatus, shutdowns for
repair, etc., but also because of possibility of contamination of the product through catalytic
action or other wise. Therefore losses due to Corrosion Can run into hundreds of millions of
rupees. Any development, therefore, that will have for its object the control or reduction of
this heavy loll must be welcomed by the chemist and the engineer.
The ammonia may be converted into nitric acid by an oxidation process was known as a
theoretical possibility for many years. The success of this process should not be considered
as due solely to the skill and ingenuity of the chemist. It is due as well to the availability of
suitable materials which satisfactorily resisting the corrosive action of the acid and capable of
fabrication into required forms, have made possible the construction of the necessary plants
and equipment. These materials are the iron chromium alloys. Therefore early nitric acid
plants were severely restricted in design by the available materials of construction until high
chromium content iron was developed in the 1920, commonly used construction materials
were acid brick, earthen ware and glass. As better materials of construction came along,
nitric acid process design could he improved. Higher operating pressures resulted in lower
plant capital cost.
CORROSION PRINCIPLES
In case of pure metals, what may be called the affinity of its atoms for the stranger atoms of
some other substance determines the readiness with which it will combine with this
substance, generally displacing some other element with which the stranger atoms have
previously been in combination. This is the basis of the process called corrosion. IF this
157
Chapter: 09
Material of Construction
affinity can be reduced by the atoms of some other metal, as is the case in solid solutions (a
solid solution is formed when two or more elements or compounds share a common lattice.
The composition may vary with in very wide limits), susceptibility to attack will be
considerably reduced. If this energy of affinity is still further reduced by the addition of a
third metal in the solid solution, there will result still greater resistance to attack. This is well
illustrated by numerous alloys. Iron is readily attacked by oxygen even at normal
temperatures. The addition of chromium in suitable proportions, which forms a solid
solution, produces practically complete resistance at ordinary temperatures and even at
moderately elevated temperatures. If a third metal, as nickel or silicon in proper is added,
which also enters solution with the iron and chromium resistance to oxidation is extended to
still higher temperatures, and the alloy becomes resistant to a number of materials which
neither the plain iron, nor even the iron chromium solid solution, will resist. The solid
solution class of alloys is inherently better, not only From the chemical resistance, but also
From a mechanical stand point, for such alloys almost always possess the best physical
properties as regards both strength and toughness of any alloy of the series.
158
Chapter: 09
Material of Construction
The Fe-Ni-Cr alloys such as Inconel 601, Hastelloy X, Nichrorme, RA-333 etc, are suitable
alloys to consider for use in these high heat environment.
The major concern with equipment in the hot areas of the nitric acid is not strength, although
the alloys used must have some hot strength, but is whether the material can take the
environment without breaking down. In general ideally, the alloy should contain high nickel,
chrome and silicon. High nickel means over 35% Ni, high Cr means over 20% Cr, and high
Si means over 0.5% Si. Many wrought and even a few cast alloys ft into this analysis, and
any one of them can do the
159
Chapter: 09
Material of Construction
160
Chapter: 09
Material of Construction
Aluminum alloys are only good for very for very high acid concentrations (80-100%) at
ambient temperatures. Any dilution of the acid will cause accelerated attack.
High nickel alloys such as Inconel 600, Hstelloy B and C, Chlorimet 3 etc. do not perform as
well as regular type 304L, and so are not considered for use in aqueous acid conditions.
Gold, tantalum and platinum exhibit excellent resistance but are expensive.
Non metallic, and especially teflon and kynar, are used for nitric acid service when the acid is
weak and cold. Both teflon and kynar are good in the weak acids (to 20%) at high
temperatures, but at higher concentrations these plastics are only good at ambient
temperatures. Glass has excellent resistances to 400F at all concentrations Viton linings are
the one rubber product that is popular. It is good to 100F at all concentrations.
161
Chapter: 09
Material of Construction
Table 1 lists the concentrations and limiting temperatures for many materials that should or
should not be used in nitric acid service.
162
Chapter:10
Chapter: 10
Hazop Study & Envoirmental Impact Assessment
Report
INTRODUCTION
A HAZOP survey is one of the most common and widely accepted methods of
systematic qualitative hazard analysis. It is used for both new or existing facilities and
can be applied to a whole plant, a production unit, or a piece of equipment It uses as its
database the usual sort of plant and process information and relies on the judgment of
engineering and safety experts in the areas with which they are most familiar. The end
result is, therefore reliable in terms of engineering and operational expectations, but it is
not quantitative and may not consider the consequences of complex sequences of human
errors. The objectives of a HAZOP study can be summarized as follows:
1)
2)
To identify and study features of the design that influence the probability of a
hazardous incident occurring.
3)
4)
5)
6)
To provide a mechanism for feedback to the client of the study team's detailed
comments.
162
Chapter:10
Specify the purpose, objective, and scope of the study. The purpose may be
the analysis of a yet to be built plant or a review of the risk of unexisting unit.
Given the purpose and the circumstances of the study, the objectives listed
above can he made more specific. The scope of the study is the boundaries of
the physical unit, and also the range of events and variables considered. For
example, at one time HAZOP's were mainly focused on fire and explosion
endpoints, while now the scope usually includes toxic release, offensive odor,
and environmental end-points. The initial establishment of purpose,
objectives, and scope is very important and should be precisely set down so
that it will be clear, now and in the future, what was and was not included in
the study. These decisions need to be made by an appropriate level of
responsible management.
2)
Select the HAZOP study team. The team leader should be skilled in HAZOP
and in interpersonal techniques to facilitate successful group interaction. As
many other experts should be included in the team to cover all aspects of
design, operation, process chemistry, and safety. The team leader should
instruct the team in the HAZOP procedure and should emphasize that the end
objective of a HAZOP survey is hazard identification; solutions to problems
are a separate effort.
3)
Collect data. Theodore16 has listed the following materials that are usually
needed.
Process description.
163
Chapter:10
Layout drawings.
Operating procedures.
Maintenance procedures.
164
Chapter:10
4)
Meaning
No
Less
Quantitative decrease
More
Quantitative increase
Part of
Qualitative decrease
As well as
Qualitative Increase
Reverse
Other than
Complete substitution
Conduct the study. Using the information collected, the unit is divided into
study "nodes" and the sequence diagrammed in Figure , is followed for each
node. Nodes are points in the process where process parameters (pressure,
temperature change between nodes as a result of the operation of various
pieces of equipment' such as distillation columns, heat exchanges, or pumps.
Various forms and work sheets have been developed to help organize the node
process parameters and control logic information.
When the nodes are identified and the parameters are identified, each node is
studied by applying the specialized guide words to each parameter. These guide words
and their meanings are key elements of the HAZOP procedure. They are listed in Table.
Repeated cycling through this process, which considers how and why each
parameter might vary from the intended and the consequence, is the substance of the
HAZOP study.
5)
Write the report. As much detail about events and their consequence as is
uncovered by the study should be recorded. Obviously, if the HAZOP
identifies a not improbable sequence of events that would result in a disaster,
appropriate follow-up action is needed. Thus, although risk reduction action is
not a part of the HAZOP, the HAZOP may trigger the need for such action.
165
Chapter:10
The HAZOP studies are time consuming and expensive. Just getting the P & ID's
up to date on an older plant may be a major engineering effort. Still, for processes with
significant risk, they are cost effective when balanced against the potential loss of life,
property, business, and even the future of the enterprise that may result from a major
release.
LESS
As no flow
Flow
CV plug gage
FRC failure
MORE
Flow
Miss-operation
166
Chapter:10
167
Chapter:10
Acid Rain
- NOx and sulfur dioxide react with other substances in the air to form acids which fall to
earth as rain, fog, snow or dry particles. Some may be carried by wind for hundreds of
miles. Acid rain damages; causes deterioration of cars, buildings and historical
monuments; and causes lakes and streams to become acidic and unsuitable for many fish.
Particles
- NOx reacts with ammonia, moisture, and other compounds to form nitric acid and
related particles. Human health concerns include effects on breathing and the respiratory
system, damage to lung tissue, and premature death. Small particles penetrate deeply into
sensitive parts of the lungs and can cause or worsen respiratory disease such as
emphysema and bronchitis, and aggravate existing heart disease.
Climate Change
- One member of the NOx, nitrous oxide or N2O, is a greenhouse gas. It accumulates in
the atmosphere with other greenhouse gasses causing a gradual rise in the earth's
168
Chapter:10
temperature. This will lead to increased risks to human health, a rise in the sea level, and
other adverse changes to plant and animal habitat.
Toxic Chemicals
- In the air, NOx reacts readily with common organic chemicals and even ozone, to form
a wide variety of toxic products, some of which may cause biological mutations.
Examples of these chemicals include the nitrate radical, nitroarenes, and nitrosamines.
Visibility Impairment
- Nitrate particles and nitrogen dioxide can block the transmission of light, reducing
visibility in urban areas and on a regional scale in our national parks.
Oxides of Nitrogen
(NOx)
Source of emission
Standards
400
400
_
_
Revised
Standards
3000
400
600
1200
169
Chapter: 11
Cost Estimation
CHAPTER: 11
COST ESTIMATION AND ECONOMICS OF PLANT
LOCATION
CAPITAL INVESTMENTS
Before an industrial plant can be put into operation, large amount of
-money must be
supplied to purchase and install the necessary machinery and equipment, land and service
170
Chapter: 11
Cost Estimation
facilities must be obtained and the plant-must be erected. Complete with all pipe controls
inn services. In addition it is necessary to have money available for payment of expenses
involved in the plant operation.
The capital needed to supply the necessary manufacturing and plant facilities is called the
fixed capital investment while the necessary for the operation of the plant is termed as the
working capital investment.
1.
The capital which is necessary lor the operation of the plant is called working capital
investment.
2.
The capital needed to supply flu- necessary maMiif'acttirini1 and plant facilities is called
fixed capital investment.
The fixed capital investment classified in to two sub divisions,
i.
Direct Cost
ii.
Indirect Cost
DIRECT COST
The direct cost items arc incurred in the construction of the plant in addition to the cost of
equipment.
1.
Purchased Equipment
2.
3.
4.
Piping
5.
6.
7.
Yard Improvement
8.
Services Facilities
171
Chapter: 11
9.
Cost Estimation
Land
INDIRECT COST
1.
2.
Contractor's Expenses
3.
Contractor's Fee
4.
Contingency
b.
Accuracy Desired
2.
Unit estimate
3.
4.
5.
The accuracy of an estimate depends on the amount of design detail available; and the
accuracy of the cost data available; and the time spent on preparing the estimate. In the
early stages of a project only an approximate estimate will be required an justified by the
amount of information by then developed.
172
Chapter: 11
Cost Estimation
method
for
estimating
total
investment
requires
the
determination
of the delivered equipment cost. The cost of purchased equipment is the basis of several
pre design methods for estimating capital investment.The most accurate methods for
determining process equipment costs is to obtain firm bids from fabricators or suppliers.
Percentage of delivered equipment cost is the method used for estimating the fixed or
total capital investment requires determination of the delivered equipment cost. The other
items included in the total direct plant cost are then estimated as percentage of the
delivered equipment The addition components of the capital investment are based on
average percentage of total direct plant cost total direct and indirect plant costs or total
capital investment.
Estimating by percentage of delivered equipment cost is commonly used for preliminary
and study estimates. It yield most accurate results when applied to a project similar in
configuration to recently constructed plants.
173
Chapter: 11
Cost Estimation
DIRECT COST
PURCHASED Equipment Cost =E
COMPONENTS
% AGES OF E
COST ($)
47% E
Instrumentation (installed)
12%E
Piping (installed)
66% E
Electrical (installed)
11 % E
18% E
Yard improvement
10% E
Service facilities
70%. E
Land
6% E
D
=
INDIRECT COST
Engineering and supervision
33%E
Construction Expenses
41%E
D+I
Contractor's fee
5%(D+I)=y
Contigency
10%(D+I)= x
174
Chapter: 11
Cost Estimation
D+I+x+y
W.C.I
15% total capital
Cost of column:
For D = 1m
*Cost = 18000$
Material factor = 1.5 (for SS)
Pressure = 1.1
Purchased cost for column = 1.1 x 1.5 x 18000= 29700$
Total column cost = 29700 + 3996 = 33696$
2. SUPERAZEOTROPIC COLUMN:
Cost of trays:
Cost of one tray = 360$
175
Chapter: 11
Cost Estimation
Cost of column:
For D = 1m
Cost = 18000$
Material correction factor = 1.5 (for SS)
Pressure factor = 1.1
Purchased cost for column = 1.1x1.5x18000= 29700$
Total column cost = 29700+3996 = 33696$
3. DISTILLATION COLUMN:
Cost of trays:
Cost of one tray = 400$
Material factor = 1.065 (for Carbon Steel)
Corrected cost per tray = 400x1.065x426 =
Cost of 15 trays = 15x426x426 = 6390$
Cost of column:
For D = 1m
Cost = 18000$
Material correction factor = 1.5 (for SS)
176
Chapter: 11
Cost Estimation
4. STRIPPER
Cost of trays:
Cost of one tray = 360$
Material factor = 1.0
Corrected cost per tray = 360x1.0 = 360$
Cost of 18trays = 18x360 = 6480$
Cost of column:
For D = 1.25m
Cost = 20000$
Material correction factor = 1.5
Pressure factor = 1.1
Purchased cost for column = 1.1x1.5x20000= 33000$
Total column cost = 6480+33000 = 39480$
5. Reactor
Cost of catalyst:
Cost of 90% Pt, 10% Rh = 11257 x 0.9 + 29907 x 0.1 = 13122 $ / kg
177
Chapter: 11
Cost Estimation
6. BOILER COST
Cost in 1977 = 34839.68$
Cost in 2006 = 374958.54$
9. COMPRESSOR
Cost in 1977 = 409618.57$
Cost in 2006 = 4409618.56$
178
Chapter: 11
Cost Estimation
DIRECT COST
Purchased equipment cost
= 7981300.8$
= 3751211.3$
= 957756.0$
=5267658.5$
= 1436634.1$
= 798130.0$
= 5586910.5$
= 478878.0$
=26258479.24$
179
Chapter: 11
Cost Estimation
INDIRECT COST
Engg & Supervision = 0.33 7981300.8
= 2633829.2$
= 5906162.5$
= 32164641.77$
= 1608232.08$
= 3216464.17$
F.C.I + W.C
Now
W.C
0.15 (T.C.I)
= 0.15(36989338.02 + W.C)
=(5548400.703/0.85)
= 65275530.239 $
180
Chapter: 11
Cost Estimation
PRODUCT COST.
Depreciation Value.
d=(V Vs)/n
Where
V=36989338.02$
Vs=5%V
n=10 years
d= 3513987.112$
W.C.I.
W.C=65275530.239 $
Total Amount=W.C+Raw material cost+Depreciation Value
Total Amount=69281251.23$
181
Chapter: 11
Cost Estimation
182
Appendices
APPENDECES
183
Appendices
184
Appendices
185
Appendices
186
Appendices
187
Appendices
188
Appendices
189
Appendices
190
Appendices
191
Appendices
192
Appendices
193
Appendices
194
Appendices
195
Appendices
196
Appendices
197
Appendices
198
Appendices
199
Appendices
200
Appendices
201
Appendices
202
Appendices
203
Appendices
204
Appendices
205
Appendices
206
Appendices
207
REFERENCES: