Collision Mechanics and Fluidization Docu

PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA
(University of the City of Manila)

College of Engineering and Technology
Chemical Engineering Department
COLLISION MECHANICS FLUIDIZATION

Gas-solid flows are involved in numerous industrial processes and occur
in various natural phenomena. For example, in solid fuel combustion, gas-solid
flows are involved in pulverized coal combustion, solid waste incineration, and
rocket propellant combustion. Gas-solid flows are encountered in pneumatic
conveying of particulates commonly used in pharmaceutical, food, coal and
mineral powder processing. Fluidization is a common gas-solid flow operation
with
numerous
important
applications
such
as
catalytic
cracking
of
intermediate hydrocarbons, and Fischer-Tropsch synthesis for chemicals and

liquid fuel production. Gas-solid flows occur in gas-particle separations, as
exemplified by cyclones, electrostatic precipitators, gravity settling, and
filtration operations. Fine powder-gas flows are closely associated with material
processing as in chemical vapour deposition for ceramics and silicon
production, plasma coating and xerography.
In particulate multiphase flows, collision occurs between the particles or
between the particle and the wall. In gas-solid flows, the collision frequency
mainly depends on the particle concentration and particle size, although it is
also influenced by the flow pattern and system configurations. Kinetic energy
loss of the particles due to collisions may occur and can be in the form of
frictional heat generation, wall surface erosion, particle breakage (attrition),
particle deformation, particle agglomeration, or solid electrification. The total
momentum
of
all
colliding
bodies
obeys
the
law
of
conservation
of
momentum,namely, the total momentum before collision equals the total

momentum after collision. However, as a result of the collision, the momentum
of each individual particle may change.
A collision without permanent deformation or heat generation is called an
elastic collision.
An elastic collision is defined as one in which both conservation of
momentum and conservation of kinetic energy are observed. This implies that
Collision Mechanics And FluidizationPage 1

there is no dissipative force acting during the collision and that all of the
kinetic energy of the objects before the collision is still in the form of kinetic
energy afterward.
For macroscopic objects which come into contact in a collision, there is
always some dissipation and they are never perfectly elastic. Collisions between
hard steel balls as in the swinging balls apparatus are nearly elastic.
SWINGING BALL
A popular demonstration of conservation of momentum and conservation
of energy features several polished steel balls hung in a straight line in contact
with each other. If one is pulled back and allowed to strike the line, one ball
flies out the other end. If two balls are sent in, two come out, and so forth.
Figure 1: Swinging Ball

An inelastic collision, in contrast to an elastic collision, is a collision in
which kinetic energy is not conserved due to the action of internal friction.
Various examples of inelastic collision are:
1. Car crash : the car crashing against the tree is the example of inelastic
collision as the kinetic energy is not conserved here. The car stops.

2. The collision between two objects such that after the collision both stick to
each other and hence move with the same velocity.
3. Seat belt tied to a person and the sudden application of breaks is also an
example of inelastic collision.
Generally, a force is exerted on the particle by its colliding counterpart
during the collision. This force is expressed as an impulse, which is defined as
the product of the force and the duration of the collision. From Newton's law,
the impulse is equal to the momentum change of the particle during the
collision. Thus, for the same change in momentum, a shorter duration requires
a larger impact force. It is this impact force that causes the momentum transfer
from one particle to other particles, particle deformation or breakage, and
frictional heat loss.

MOTION OF PARTICLES IN A FLUID
Figure 2: Particle in a fluid
Imagine the relative motion between a particle and an infinitely large

volume of fluid. Since only relative motion is considered the following cases are
covered:
A
A
A
A
stationary particle in a moving fluid

moving particle in a stationary fluid
particle and a fluid moving in opposite directions;
particle and a fluid both moving in the same direction but at
different velocities.
In all particle control technologies, particles are
separated from the surrounding fluid by the
application of one or more forces:
Gravitational
Inertial
Centrifugal
Electrostatic
These forces cause the particles to accelerate

away from the direction of the mean fluid flow,
toward the direction of the net force.

First is we have the drag force, drag (sometimes called air resistance, a
type of friction, or fluid resistance, another type of friction or fluid friction) is a
force acting opposite to the relative motion of any object moving with respect to
a surrounding fluid. This can exist between two fluid layers (or surfaces) or a
fluid and a solid surface.
Laminar Flow
In laminar flow the molecules of the fluid can be
imagined to be moving in numerous layers or
laminar as shown in the figure.
Turbulent Flow

Not all fluid flow is laminar, but under certain physical conditions it becomes
turbulent. When this happens, instead of the
fluid moving in seemingly ordered layers, the
molecules become more disorganized and begin
to swirl with the formation of eddy currents, as
shown in the figure. Now, flow is less ordered
and the eddy currents react with each other,
increasing drag or resistance to flow. As a
result, a greater energy input is required for a
given flow rate when flow is turbulent compared to when flow is laminar. This is
best demonstrated by the fact that in turbulent flow, the flow rate is
proportional to the square root of the pressure gradient, whereas in laminar
flow, flow rate is directly proportional to the pressure gradient. This means that
to double the flow, the pressure across the tube must be quadrupled.
When does turbulent flow occur?
Turbulent flow occurs when fluids flow at high velocity, in large diameter tubes
and when the fluids are relatively dense. Also, decreasing the viscosity of a
fluid leads to turbulent flow.
Sir Isaac Newton derived the general equation for the resistance force on a
sphere moving through a gas while investigating the ballistics of cannon balls.
Newton theorized that a sphere must push aside a volume of gas equal to the
projected area of the sphere times its velocity. The general form of Newton's
resistance equation is:
1
F D = C A P pf v 2r
2 D
Where:
F D = Drag Force. N
C D = Drag Coefficient

A P=
pf
Projected Area of particle,
= Density of fluid,
m2
kg
3
m
v r = Relative velocity, m/s

Drag Coefficient:
In fluid dynamics, the drag coefficient is
a dimensionless quantity that is used to quantify
the drag or resistance of an object in a fluid
environment, such as air or water. It is used in
the drag
equation in
coefficient
indicates
which
the
object
lower
drag
will
have
less aerodynamic or hydrodynamic drag. The drag

coefficient is always associated with a particular
surface area.
This Newton's resistance equation is valid
in the turbulent flow regime (i.e. Rep >
1000), where inertial forces are much larger than viscous forces. The
drag coefficient CDhas a nearly constant value of 0.44.
STOKES LAW
When small particle size and low velocity are involved, the Reynolds number is
small and the flow is laminar. Under this condition, inertial forces are negligible
compared to viscous forces. Newton's Law is no longer valid and Stokes's
Law shall be used, which has the following form:
F D =3 d p v

In order to determine the drag coefficient in the Stokes's regime, we can

compare the above equation to the Newton's resistance equation:
Then, we can get the drag coefficient in the laminar flow regime. It is inversely
proportional to the drag coefficient Rep as:
There are several assumption associated with the Stokes's Law:
The fluid is incompressible.
There is no other particle nearby that would affect the flow pattern.
The motion of the particle is constant.
The particle is spherical and rigid.
The air velocity right at the particle surface is zero.
Drag Coefficient in Different Flow Regimes

Here, the CD in different flow regimes is summarized in the chart below.
1. Newton's Law: mainly applicable to the turbulent regime (Rep > 300,000),
where viscous forces are negligible compared to inertial forces.

2. Stokes's Law: valid in the laminar flow regime (2<Rep < 500), where inertial
forces are negligible compared to viscous forces.
3. Transition region: between the laminar and turbulent flow regime.
Relative Motion between a Fluid and a Concentration of Particles

Introduction
Fluid-particle
systems
are
abundant
in
chemical
engineering:
crystallization processes, fluidization, (catalytic) slurry reactors, trickle bed

reactors etc. The flow of fluid-particle systems, as well as the relative motion of
fluid and particles relates to process efficiency, including heat and mass
transfer between the solids and fluid phase. In many cases porous media
(cloths, sponges, sand, paper) are composed of solid particles. Prominent
chemical engineering examples of porous media are fixed and fluidized bed
reactors.

Single particle moving through a fluid

Lets begin with a practical problem: in an
industrial process fine solid particles get suspended in a
watery liquid. At some point in the process and we want
to separate the liquid and the solid. The solid material
app for ears to have a slightly higher density than the
fluid (s > f). An obvious choice separation then is
gravity settling: put the suspension in a vessel and let
it stand there for some time. The particles sink to the
bottom and we have achieved separation. For designing
the settling process (e.g. for making decision regarding
the size and the shape of the vessel, and the residence
time) we need to know how quickly the particles sink to the bottom, i.e. what
their settling velocity is.
Two Types of Settling

Settling can be used to classify or separate particles since different sized
particle settle at different velocities.
Free Settling
Free Settling occurs when a particle is sufficiently far away from walls
and other particles that its fall is not affected by them.


It can be shown that for particles having a diameter of less than

1/200 that of the container or if the particle concentration is less than .2 %
by volume, that the interference is less than 1%.
Interference is negligible if the particles are at least 10 to 20 diameters
away from each other and the vessel wall. [Larian (1958)]. In this case the
particles can be considered to be free settling.
Hindered Settling
When a fluid contains a concentration of particles in a vessel, the
settling of an individual particle may be hindered by the other particles and

by the walls, this is called hindered settling. When the particles are crowded,
they settle at a lower rate.
Hindered settling results from collisions between particle and also
between particles and the wall. In addition, high particle concentrations
reduce the flow area and increase the velocity of the fluid with a consequent
decrease in settling rate. Furthermore particle concentrations increase the
apparent density and dynamic velocity of the fluid.
Similarly, elutriation, can also be used to classify particles where small

particles are carried upwards with the fluid and large particles sink.
Elutriation is the process in which fine particles are carried out of a
fluidized bed due to the fluid flow rate passing through the bed. Typically, fine
particles are elutriated out of a bed when the superficial velocity through the
bed exceeds the terminal velocity of the fines in the bed.

Richardson-Zaki Equation
When a cloud of solid particles is settling in a quiescent liquid additional
hindering effects influence its settling velocity. These are the increased drag
caused by the proximity of particles within the cloud and the upflow of liquid
as it is displaced by the descending particles. The hindering effects are strongly
dependent on the volumetric concentration of solids in the cloud, Cv ,
(Richardson & Zaki, 1954)
Vth = Vt (1- Cv)m
in which Vth is the hindered settling velocity of solid particle, Vt is the terminal
settling velocity of the solid particle and m is the empirical exponent related to
the particle Reynolds number Rep (where Rep = Vtd / Vf ) See Table below.
Table: Values for the Richardson-Zaki Index

Rep
Rep 0.2
0.2 < Rep <1
1 < Rep < 500
500 Rep
m
4.6
4.4 Rep -0.03
4.4 Rep-0.1
2.4
Richardson and Zaki showed that in the Reynolds number range Rep 0.2, the
velocity uc of a suspension of coarse spherical particles in water relative to a
fixed horizontal plane is given by the equation
u c 4.6
=
ut

Where:
ut
= terminal settling velocity for a single particle
= voidage fraction of the suspension which is unity for a single
particle in an infinite amount of fluid

The velocities of the particles relative to the liquid can be derived from the
equation above.
Equations for Terminal Settling Velocity Ratios

The terminal falling velocity
ut
, for the streamline flow range of
Reynolds numbers is given by:

2
d p ( p ) g
ut =
18
Consider two spherical particles 1 and 2 of the same diameter but of

different densities settling freely in a fluid of density in the streamline
Reynolds number range Rep < 0.2. The above equation can be rearranged to give
ut 1 /ut 2
the ratio of the terminal settling velocities
as:
d p 1 ( p 1 ) g
ut 1
18
= 2
u t 2 d p 2 ( p 2 ) g
18
u t 1 p1
=
u t 2 p 2

The greater the ratio, the greater the ease of separation. To give a high
ratio of terminal settling velocity, fluid density can be chosen.
Similarly, for two spherical particles 1 and 2 of the same density
but of different diameter settling freely in a fluid of density
ut 1 /ut 2
p
can
be written as:
ut1 d p1
=
ut2 d p2
( )
Where
d p1
d p2
is the ratio of particle diameters.
Combining both equations for velocity ratios, two particles will settle at
the same speed in the same fluid in the streamline flow regime, their densities
and diameters are related by:
d p1

= p1
d p2
p 2
Fluidization

Fluidization is a process in which solids are caused to behave like a fluid

by blowing gas or liquid upwards through the solid-filled reactor. Fluidization
is widely
used in
divided
into two categories, i.e.,
transportation,
commercial operations; the applications can be roughly
heating, absorption, mixing
physical operations, such as

of fine powder,
etc. and
chemical operations, such as reactions of gases on solid catalysts and reactions

of solids with gases etc. The fluidized bed is one of the best known contacting
methods used in the processing industry, for instance in oil refinery plants.
Among its chief advantages are that the particles are well mixed leading to
low temperature gradients, they are suitable for both small and large scale
operations and they
established
allow continuous processing. There are
operations that utilize this technology, including
many
well
cracking and
reforming of hydrocarbons, coal carbonization and gasification, ore roasting,

Fisher-Tropsch
production, and
synthesis,
coking,
aluminum
production,
melamine
coating preparations. The application of fluidization is also
well recognized in nuclear engineering as a unit operation for example, in

uranium extraction, nuclear fuel fabrication, reprocessing of fuel and waste
disposal.

Fluidization Regimes
When the solid particles are fluidized, the fluidized bed behaves
differently as velocity, gas and solid properties are varied. It has become
evident that there are number of regimes of fluidization, as shown in Figure
2.1.
When the flow of a gas passed through a bed of particles is increased

continually, a few vibrate, but still within the same height as the bed at rest.
This is called a fixed bed (Figure 2.1A). With increasing gas velocity, a point is
reached where the drag force imparted by the upward moving gas equals the
weight of the particles, and the voidage of the bed increases slightly: this is the

onset of fluidization and is called minimum fluidization (Figure 2.1B) with a

corresponding minimum fluidization velocity, Umf.
Increasing the gas flow
further, the formation of fluidization bubbles sets in. At this point, a bubbling
fluidized bed occurs as shown in Figure 2.1C.
As the velocity is increased further still, the bubbles in a bubbling
fluidized bed will coalesce and grow as they rise. If the ratio of the height to the
diameter of the bed is high enough, the size of bubbles may become almost the
same as diameter of the bed. This is called slugging (Figure 2.1D). If the
particles are fluidized at a high enough gas flow rate, the velocity exceeds the
terminal velocity of the particles. The upper surface of the bed disappears and,
instead of bubbles, one observes a turbulent motion of solid clusters and voids
of gas of various sizes
and shapes. Beds under these conditions are called
turbulent beds as shown in Figure 2.1E. With further increases of gas velocity,
eventually
disperse,
the fluidized bed becomes
an entrained bed in which we have
dilute or lean phase fluidized bed, which amounts to pneumatic
transport of solids.
Geldarts Classic Classification of Powders
Not every particle can be fluidized. The behavior of solid particles in
fluidized beds depends mostly on their size and density. A careful observation
by Geldart (1973, 1978) is shown in Figure 2.2 in which the characteristics of
the four different powder types were categorized as follows:

Group A is designated as aeratable particles. These materials have small

mean particle size (dp < 30 m) and/or low particle density (<~1.4
g/cm3). Fluid cracking catalysts typically are in this category.
These
solids fluidize easily, with smooth fluidization at low gas velocities

without the formation of bubbles. At higher gas velocity, a point is
eventually reached when bubbles start to form and the minimum
bubbling velocity, Umb is always greater than Umf.
Group B is called sandlike particles and some call it bubbly particles.

Most particles of this group have size 150 m to 500 m and density
from 1.4 to 4 g/cm3. For these particles, once the minimum fluidization
velocity is exceeded, the excess gas appears in the form of bubbles.
Bubbles in a bed of group B particles can grow to a large size. Typically
used group B materials are glass beads (ballotini) and coarse sand.

Group C materials are cohesive, or very fine powders. Their sizes are
usually less than 30 m, and they are extremely difficult to fluidize
because interparticle forces are relatively large, compared to those
resulting from
the action of gas. In small diameter beds, group C
particles easily give rise to channeling. Examples of group C materials

are talc, flour and starch.
Group D is called spoutable and the materials are either very large or
very dense. They are difficult to fluidize in deep beds. Unlike group B
particles, as velocity increases, a jet can be formed in the bed and
material may then be blown out with the jet in a spouting motion. If
the gas distribution is uneven, spouting behavior and severe channeling
can be expected. Roasting coffee beans, lead shot and some roasting
metal ores ar examples of group D materials.
Geldarts classification is clear and easy to use as displayed in Figure 2.2

for fluidization at ambient conditions and for U less than about 10Umf. For
any solid of a known density s and mean particle size dp this graph

shows the type of fluidization to be expected. It also helps predicting other

properties such as bubble size, bubble velocity, the existence of slugs etc.
Particle Transportation
Several mechanisms have been proposed to describe the movement of
particles through a fluidized bed. Mechanisms governing the vertical particle
transport processes in batch freely bubbling fluidized beds were first proposed
by Rowe and Partridge (1962):
Transport upwards in the wakes of fluidization bubbles and deposition
on the bed surface

Transport down to compensate for this (the combination of these two
they called 'circulation') and

Dispersion due to disturbance of the bed material by fluidization
bubbles.
In addition, the wake and drift exchange solids with the emulsion phase
from experimental findings of Gibilaro and Rowe (1974), Chiba and Kobayashi
(1977), Chiba et al. (1979) and Nienow and Chiba (1985).
Mixing of solids occurs in both axial and radial directions. However, vertical
solid mixing is generally many times faster than that due to lateral motion
(Kunii and Levenspiel, 1991).
Solid Circulation
Solid circulation is mainly determined by
the gas velocity. At low gas
velocities solids circulation is negligible. In more vigorously bubbling beds,

circulation becomes
appreciable and the absolute upward gas velocity
through the emulsion phase does not equal the minimum
fluidizing
velocity anymore. Here, the velocity of the downward flowing solids has to
be taken into account.

Not only gas velocity, but also particle
properties like shape, size,
density, stickiness, and size distribution influence the

axial and radial transport of particles
mechanisms
within the bed. As
of
mentioned
previously, solids move in the vertical direction largely by being carried

up by bubbles and carried down to the distributor by the bubble-free flow
of particulate phase
material. The upward movement is rapid (with the
velocity of the bubbles) and the downward movement relatively slow.
Dispersion
Dispersion is one of the mechanisms of solids mixing in a fluidized bed.
It occurs due to the disturbance of the bed material caused by the motion
of the bubbles. Although it is thus a discrete process, linked to the motion
of each individual bubble, it can be described as a continuous dispersion
process and modeled using the diffusion equation:
This equation is called Ficks second law of diffusion or the diffusion

equation, where is a dispersion coefficient and c the concentration of the
diffusing species is a function of both x and t.
The method for calculating the dispersion coefficient calculating the
number and size of fluidization
bubbles going
through a given cross-
section of the bed during a given time interval of t seconds and using
empirical literature data for the particle drift caused by a single bubble.

Bubbling Fluidized Beds

When talking about a fluidized bed, mostly one refers to a bubbling
fluidized bed type as shown in Fig. 2.1C. Gas fluidized beds are characterized
by the bubbles which form at superficial gas velocities only slightly higher
than that required to just fluidize the particles. This type of fluidization has
been called aggregative fluidization,
and under these
conditions, the
bed
appears to be divided into two phases, the bubble phase and the emulsion
phase. The bubbles appear to be very similar to gas bubbles formed in a liquid
and they behave in a similar manner. The bubbles coalesce as they rise
through the bed. The movement of particles in fluidized beds is known to
depend largely on bubbles rising through the bed. Therefore, special attention
is paid to bubbles and their properties. To give an impression of the processes
occurring inside a fluidized
bed reactor, the principles of fluidization, the
formation of bubbles, their path through the bed, the way they transport
particles concerning gas fluidized bed and important parameters are described
below.
Minimum Fluidization Velocity

The superficial gas velocity at which the bed of powder is just fluidized,
is normally called the minimum fluidization velocity or designated by

Umf . This state of incipient fluidization can be described by an equation
giving the pressure drop in a gas flowing through a packed bed, such as the
so-called Ergun equation:

B Bubble Size
The mean size of the bubble population in fluidized beds increases with
height above the distributor plate due to coalescence of bubbles.
Researchers have attempted to predict the size of bubbles, not only the
variation in mean size, but also the distributions of the diameters and
volumes. As far as the mean size is concerned, Geldart (1972) used the
expression of Kato and Wen (1969) for the initial bubble size at the gas
distributor. He
asserted that a porous plate distributor behaves as
distributor plate with 1 hole per 10 cm2, and added his own empirical
expression for the bubble growth with bed height due to coalescence:
C Bubble Wake
When a bubble rises, it carries some amount of solids inside as seen in
Fig. 2.3. This is called wake. The formation of a wake follows directly when
the bubble forms. Hence, the bubble picks up most of its solids at the
bottom of the bed as it leaves the distributor plate. An idealized bubble has

an upper surface that is approximately spherical, with a radius of curvature

r, and a wake at the bottom, with wake angle w as shown in Figure 2.3.
The
bubble size is
often
expressed
terms
of
the
volume
equivalent
diameter,
Deq,
can
and
calculated as
Where Vb is a bubble volume.
in
be

D Bubble Rise Velocity

The rise velocity of a large spherical cap bubble in a liquid is dependent
on the radius of curvature at the nose of the bubble as described by Davies

and Taylor (1950):
semi-empirical
relation in terms of the
volume-equivalent
diameter is:
This expression is widely used for calculations of the velocity of rise of single
bubbles in fluidized beds.
Bubble Flow Rate and the Two-Phase Theory

According to the two-phase theory of fluidization proposed by Toomey
and Johnstone (1952) and developed by Davidson and Harrison (1963), all
gas in excess of that needed for minimum fluidization passes through the
bed as bubbles. The particulate phase remains at
conditions, which means that the voidage,
minimum fluidizing
not counting
the bubbles,
remains practically mf. The visible flow rate in a fluidized bed Qb, defined
as the rate at which bubble volume crosses any section A in the bed, is
then approximately
equal to the excess gas flow above that required for
minimum fluidization (Davidson and Harrison, 1963):

F The Davidson Model

The movement of both gas and solid caused by the rise of bubbles can
be described by the Davidson model (Davidson, 1961), assuming that the
bubble is solid free and spherical, that particles behave like
incompressible fluid of bulk density s(1-mf) and
an
that the gas in the
emulsion phase flows as an incompressible viscous fluid that obeys Darcys

law. Davidson (1961) described the gas flow in terms of a stream function
and found that the bubble velocity
affects the geometry
of the
stream
function. If the bubble moves slower than the gas in the emulsion phase,
this gas uses the bubble as a shortcut, entering the bubble at the bottom
and leaving it at the top. Some gas circulates with the bubble, moving
upward with it. This circulation increases with the bubble rise velocity. If
the bubble moves
faster
than the gas
in the emulsion phase, all gas
entering the bubble circulates and a cloud of recirculating gas is formed

around the bubble, while the rest of the gas in the bed moves past it without
mixing. The gas in the bubble and the cloud is then essentially isolated
from the rest of the gas in the bed except for dispersion mass transfer.
Other extensions to the Davidson model can
be
made; for example,
some workers claim that some particles fall through the bubble due to a
thin, unstable layer of larger voidage around the upper boundary of the
bubble, but this may be a feature of two-dimensional beds only. Another
property of bubbles in dense beds is their break-up when they become too
large. If the rise velocity of the bubble exceeds the terminal velocity of the
particles (their free-fall velocity),
the bubble becomes unstable and will

break up into smaller
bubbles. There are other
movement in fluidized beds,
models for the bubble
which are more realistic than Davidsons
model for example, by Jackson (1963) and Murray (1965). However, the
simple treatment of Davidsons model is still essentially applied in many
circumstances.
G Flow Pattern of Fluidization Bubbles

As bubbles rise through the bed, they coalesce to form bigger bubbles
and when they become too large, they split (see Figure 2.4). The average
bubble size equilibrates at about the maximum stable size. The location in
the bed where the equilibrium size is attained depends on the kind of
particles. For group A particles, the maximum stable diameter is relatively
small, therefore the average bubble size stabilizes close to the distributor
plate and remains constant through the rest of
stable diameter
for group B
the bed. The maximum
particles is larger and
the equilibrium
is
reached typically only in the upper levels of the bed. The bubbles in group
D particle beds behave differently; they do not rise as individual bubbles,
but as horizontally associated swarms.
Bubbles can coalesce in two ways, by incorporating a bubble in front or
by
moving side-wards into the track of another bubble and then
incorporating it. At the wall of the bed, bubbles can only move inwards,
while other bubbles can move in any horizontal direction. The result is an
active zone away from the wall, which intensifies and moves closer to the
axis with increasing distance from the distributor plate. Solid particles are

dragged up by the bubbles and, by continuity, will move downwards in

regions with lower bubble densities.
As a consequence of fewer bubbles being close to the wall, there is a
predominantly
downward flow of particles
established, maintains the tendency
near the
for bubbles to
wall, which,
once
move inwards. The
overall circulation is upwards near the axis and downwards near the wall
in higher regions; the converse seems to be the case in the lower regions.
The circulation pattern can be
modified
by
internals, like tubes or
baffles or disturbed by mal-distribution at the distributor plate. Apart from

the maldistribution caused by the plate that disturbed the flow pattern,
Merry and Davidson (1973) found a phenomenon called gulf streaming. The
gulf streaming phenomenon is caused by a cross-sectionally non-uniform
bubble flow, causing a general upward material flow in one part of the bed,
and downward in the other.
Due to this effect much more material is brought to the top of the
bed by the bubble flow than would be expected on basis of the flow in the
wake phase itself, and thus the downward flow in the bulk is also higher.
Gulf-streaming will cause the fluidization bubbles to move faster than one
would expect from the single bubble velocity. On the other hand, a certain
slip between the bubbles and
the dense phase in the region of upward
motion can be expected. Gulf-streaming will always take place in a fluidized

bed to some extent.

Bed Expansion
With an average bubble velocity <Ub> the average fraction of the bed
area occupied by bubbles can be given as
The expansion of the bed then equals the fraction of the bed consisting of
bubbles:
In practice, the bubble fraction is a bit lower than this theoretical value.
THE FLUID MECHANICS OF BUBBLING BEDS
The idealized instantaneous picturization of a freely bubbling gas
fluidized bed of solids, as illustrated gives rise to a number of questions
forming the bases of realistic scaling criteria and bubble-related kinetics.
1. Bubble formation
Bubbles form at the ports where fluidizing gas enters the bed. They form
simply because the velocity at the interface of the bed just above the hole
represents a gas input rate in excess of what can pass through the interstices
with a frictional resistance less than the bed weight and hence the layers of
solids above the holes are pushed aside until they represent a void through
whose porous surface the gas can enter at the incipient fluidization velocity. If
the void attempts to grow larger the interface velocity becomes insufficient to

hold back the walls of the void and hence they cave in from the sides cutting
off the void and presenting a new interface to the incoming gas. This sequence
is illustrated below.
2. Mechanism of Rise
Bubbles or "gas voids" rise in a fluidized bed

by
being displaced with an inflow of solids from
their
perimeter.
Since
free
flowing
and/or
incipiently fluidized bulk solids have shallow

angles
of repose their walls cannot stand at 90 and
hence
the solids slide down the bubble's walls into
its
bottom where all the peripheral streams
collide
to form a so called "wake".
3.
Bubble Growth

If two bubbles get close enough that their shells of downflowing solids
begin to interact, the touching shells will represent a local downflowing stream
of solids faced with more than one path to the nearest void. The stream could
be squeezed to the point of being insufficient to satisfy both bubbles and
thereby drain off leaving no wall between the voids and hence the appearance
of a single bubble.
Fluidized Bed Reactors

Fluidized bed reactors (FBR) are catalytic reactors in which the catalyst
is fluidized within the reactor. Fluidized bed reactors are heterogeneous
catalytic reactors in which the mass of catalyst is fluidized. This allows for
extensive mixing in all directions. A result of the mixing is excellent

temperature stability and increased mass-transfer and reaction rates. Fluidized

bed reactors are capable of handling large amounts of feed and catalyst.
Fluidized beds are reactors in which small particles (with average size
below 0.1 mm) are fluidized by the reactant gases or liquids. When the linear
velocity is above the minimum required for fluidization, a dense fluidized bed is
obtained. As the superficial velocity increases, the bed expands and becomes
increasingly dilute. At a high enough linear velocity, the smallest particles
entrain from the bed and have to be separated from the exhaust gases and
recycled.
Fluidized beds are used widely in chemical processing industries for

separations, rapid mass and heat transfer operations, and catalyic reactions. A
typical fluidized bed is a cylindrical column that contains particles and
through which fluid, either gaseous or liquid, flows. In the case of fluidized bed
reactors, the particles would contain a catalyst, and for separations, the
particles might be an absorbent or adsorbent. The velocity of the fluid is
sufficiently high to suspend, or fluidize, the particles within the column,
providing a large surface area for the fluid to contact, which is the chief
advantage of fluidized beds.
Fluidized beds contain a bottom support plate over which the solids
reside. The reactant gases typically are fed through a sparging system placed
very near the bottom of the plate. These reactors employ a wide range of
particle sizes and densities

Figure 1. FBR used for treating aniline-and

nitrobenzene-contaminated wastewater
Fluidized Bed Reactors (FBR) Design

A typical fluidized bed reactors contains a plenum, a gas distributor (such as a
grid plate or sparger), the particle bed region, a freeboard region above the
particle bed, heating and cooling coils if needed, and cyclones.
Figure 2. A typical fluidized bed reactor

Fluidized beds are also used as dryers and heat treaters. Their design
is somewhat different from that of a typical reactor. The bed heights in
fluidized-bed dryers and heat treaters tend to range from 0.3 m to 0.5 m,
whereas fluidized-bed reactors usually have bed heights on the order of 110
m.
Several need to be considered in the design of a fluidized bed to ensure reliable
operation. The grid plate and sparger are subject to pressure drop and spacing
limits. Entrainment rates need to be measured or estimated. Also, cyclones
need to be designed for high collection efficiency and low pressure drop.
Distributors
The primary purpose of a grid plate or a sparger is to provide good gas
distribution. In addition to pressure drop and spacing considerations, their
design also needs to take into account particle attrition, erosion of the vessel
and internal components, and mechanical constraints (i.e, thermal expansion,
bed slumping during emergency shutdowns, etc.
Many distributor designs are available. Grid plates can range from simple
perforated plates to bubble cap plates. Bubble cap grid plates are designed to
minimize particle weeping into the plenum.
Spargers can be designed with jets that point downward, upward, or laterally.
Spargers have the advantage of being easily engineered to accommodate
thermal expansion. Common Sparger designs have ring, orthogonal, or treed
layouts.

Figure 3. Types of Grids and Spargers
Fluidized bed reactors are generally very large. They must be designed so
that the fluid flowrate is sufficient to suspend the catalyst particles. The
particles typically range in size from 10 - 300 microns.
designing a fluidized bed reactor, the catalyst life must also be taken into
account. Most fluidized bed reactors, such as the one shown here have a
separate compartment to regenerate the catalyst.
Good distributor design and the presence of a substantial fraction of
fines (mainly for processes employing group A powders) are essential for good
fluidization, to eliminate maldistribution, and for good performance. Internals
for heat transfer (e.g., cooling tubes) and other baffling for improved
performance provide design challenges as their effect is not yet well understood
(in spite of the voluminous literature).
Factors Affecting Fluidized Bed Reactors Design

The particle size distribution and the linear velocity are important in
reactor design. The minimum fluidization velocity is the velocity at the onset of

fluidization while the terminal velocity is the velocity above which a particle can
become entrained from the bed. The nature of the particles and the linear
velocity determine bed properties such as gas holdup, equilibrium bubble size
(for bubbling systems), entrainment rate of particles from the bed, and the flow
regime transition velocities. The height beyond which the concentration of
entrained particles does not vary significantly is called the transport
disengagement height. Knowledge of this height is required for the design and
location of cyclones for solids containment. In addition to the velocity and the
nature of the particles, the layout of the equipment can determine the particle
attrition rate.
Fluidized Bed Reactors (FBR) Operation

Figure 4. Flow distribution in a fluidized bed
Before the reactor is started the catalyst pellets lie on a grate at the
bottom of the reactor. Reactants are pumped into the reactor through a
distributor continuously, causing the bed to become fluidized. The bed's
behavior after initial fluidization depends on the state of the reactant. If it is a
liquid the bed expands uniformly with increased upward flow of the reactant.
This is called homogenous fluidization. If the reactant is a gas the bed will be
non-uniform because the gas forms bubbles in the bed, resulting in aggregative
fluidization. Sometimes these bubbles in coarse materials can grow larger than
two-thirds of the bed's diameter, which can cause slugging. Slugging can result
in variable pressures, vibrations in the bed, and heat transfer reductions.
Increasing the velocity of the gas leads to a turbulent regime, as shown below.
In the fast fluidization regime the bed surface starts to disappear. Increasing
the gas velocity further results in pneumatic transport, in which the bed is
completely removed and the particles are uniformly spaced in the fluid. During
this process the reactants react due to the presence of the catalyst pellets,
forming products that are removed continuously.
Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages
Even temperature distribution eliminates hot spots.
Catalyst is easily replaced or regenerated.
Allows for continuous, automatically controlled operations.
More efficient contacting of gas and solid than in other catalytic reactors.
Disadvantages
Expensive to construct and maintain.
Erosion of reactor walls may occur.
Regeneration equipment for catalyst is expensive.
Catalyst may be deactivated.

Can't be used with catalyst solids that won't flow freely.

Large pressure drop.
Attrition, break-up of catalyst pellets due to impact against reactor walls,
can occur.
Applications
Fluidized beds are used as a technical process which has ability to promote
high levels of contact of gases and solids. In fluidized bed a characteristics set
of basic properties can utilized indispensable to modern process and chemical
engineering. These properties include:
Extremely high surface area contact between fluid and solid unit bed
volume.
High relative velocities between the fluid and the dispersed solid phase.
High level of inter mixing of the particulate phase, frequent particleparticle particle-wall collision.
Taking an example of processing industry: fluidized beds are used to
accelerate fringing in some IQF (individually quick frozen).
These fluidized bed tunnels are typically used on small products like
peas, sliced vegetables.
The fluid used in the fluidized may also contain a fluid of catalytic type;
that's why it is also used to catalyses the chemical reaction and improve
the rate reaction.
Fluidized beds are also used for efficient bulk drying of material,
Fluidized bed technology in dryers increase the efficiency by allowing for
the entire surface of subject of the drying to the suspended therefore
expose to air. This process can also be combined with heating and
cooling as the application if necessary.
Fluidized bed dryers used in drying of various materials such as powder,
tablets, granules, coals, fertilizers, and plastic material.
This process is being used in a granulation of the pharmaceutical
powders
Fluidized bed coater are used widely for coating of powders, granules,
tablets, pallets, beds held in suspension of column of air.
Fluidized bed coating is used for test masking, enteric release and
barrier films tablets and powders

Types of Fluidized Bed Reactors

Bed types can be coarsely classified by their flow behavior, including:
Stationary or bubbling fluidized bed is the classical approach where the gas
at low velocities is used and fluidization of the solids is relatively stationary,
with some fine particles being entrained.
Figure 5. Bubbling fluidized bed
Circulating fluidized beds (CFB), where gases are at a higher velocity

sufficient to suspend the particle bed, due to a larger kinetic energy of the
fluid. As such the surface of the bed is less smooth and larger particles can
be entrained from the bed than for stationary beds. Entrained particles are
recirculated via an external loop back into the reactor bed. Depending on
the process, the particles may be classified by a cyclone separator and
separated from or returned to the bed, based upon particle cut size.
Figure 6. Circulating fluidized bed

At higher gas velocities the slip velocity increases and the fluidized bed
changes its behavior. The defined boiling surface disappears with the
expansion of the fluidized solids. The fluidization gas has enough energy to
entrain solids particles. The entrained particles are separated from the gas
by a cyclone and recirculated via an external loop back into the fluidized bed
reactor. In addition an internal recirculation of the solids in the fluidized
bed reactor takes place. Both internal and external circulation results in a
homogenous temperature distribution in the CFB system. CFB has been
successfully applied for coal combustion, roasting of gold ores, direct
reduction of iron ore fines and other uses.
Transport or flash reactor (FR). At velocities higher than CFB, particles
approach the velocity of the gas. Slip velocity between gas and solid is
significantly reduced at the cost of less homogeneous heat distribution.
Figure 7. Flash Reactor
With further increase of the gas velocity, the solids are approaching the
velocity of the gas. In the flash (transport) reactor the slip velocity between gas
and solids is considerably decreased compared to the circulating fluidized bed.
At the same time the advantages of homogeneous temperature distribution and
ideal heat and mass transfer are decreased. This type of reactor is used in
selected applications where low gas and solid retention times are sufficient.

As an extension of the fluidized bed family of separation processes, the flash

reactor (FR) (or transport reactor) employs turbulent fluid introduced at high
velocities to encourage chemical reactions with feeds and subsequently achieve
separation through the chemical conversion of desired substances to different
phases and streams. A flash reactor consists of a main reaction chamber and
an outlet for separated products to enter downstream processes.
FR vessels facilitate a low gas and solid retention (and hence reactant
contact time) for industrial applications which give rise to a high throughput,
pure product and less than ideal thermal distribution when compared to other
fluidized bed reactors. Due to these properties as well as its relative simplicity
FRs have the potential for use for pre-treatment and post-treatment processes
where these strengths of the FR are prioritized the most.
Various designs of a FR (e.g. pipeline FR, centrifugal FR, vessel FR) exist and
are currently used in pilot industrial plants for further development. These
designs allow for a wide range of current and future applications, including
water treatment sterilization, recovery and recycling of steel mill dust, pretreatment and roasting of metals, chemical looping combustion as well as
hydrogen production from biomass.
The vessel flash reactor is a design commonly used and is shown in the figure
to the right. Gas is introduced from the bottom at an elevated temperature and
high velocity, with a slight drop in velocity experienced at the central part of the
vessel. Chamber A is designed to be "egg shaped", with a relatively narrow
bottom cross sectional area and a wide upper cross sectional area. This
configuration is designed to increase the fluid's velocity at the chamber's
bottom, allowing for heavy feed particles to be in a continuous circulation that
promotes a reaction site for separation processes.
Annular fluidized bed (AFB). A large nozzle at the center of a bubble bed
introduces gas as high velocity achieving the rapid mixing zone above the
surrounding bed comparable to that found in the external loop of a CFB.

Figure 8. Annular Fluidized Bed
The annular fluidized bed is a new type of fluidized bed that has a specific type
of motion where it moves in radial. There is relatively little axial mixing of gases
and there is radial motion. The axial flow profile of the annular fluidized bed
can be determined by pressure drops along the plant height, which can be
divided into three major parts: the annulus, the bottom and the top part of the
mixing chamber. Based on the height of the bed, while the annulus has a
porosity close to the solids minimal fluidization porosity, each region of bed is
characterized by different pressure gradients. The closer to the central nozzle,
the lower the pressure gradient and the higher the pressure drop in the mixing
chamber.
Annular fluidized bed a type of fluidized bed which improves the introduction
and mixing of hot dust laden process gases. These gases enter the reactor
through a large central nozzle, with additional fluidization gas introduced
through an annular nozzle ring. As a result, a very intense mixing zone is
achieved within the reactor above the central nozzle, comparable to the
conditions achieved by an external loop of a CFB. Further advantages are
excellent process control and improved mass transfer conditions. The AFB can
be combined with any other fluidized bed type.


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PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA

(University of the City of Manila)

COLLISION MECHANICS FLUIDIZATION

intermediate hydrocarbons, and Fischer-Tropsch synthesis for chemicals and

momentum,namely, the total momentum before collision equals the total

PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA

Figure 1: Swinging Ball

Collision Mechanics And FluidizationPage 2

PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA

PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA

MOTION OF PARTICLES IN A FLUID

Figure 2: Particle in a fluid

Imagine the relative motion between a particle and an infinitely large

stationary particle in a moving fluid

These forces cause the particles to accelerate

PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA

Collision Mechanics And FluidizationPage 5

PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA

PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA

Projected Area of particle,

v r = Relative velocity, m/s

less aerodynamic or hydrodynamic drag. The drag

Collision Mechanics And FluidizationPage 7

PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA

In order to determine the drag coefficient in the Stokes's regime, we can

There are several assumption associated with the Stokes's Law:

The fluid is incompressible.

The motion of the particle is constant.

The particle is spherical and rigid.

The air velocity right at the particle surface is zero.

Drag Coefficient in Different Flow Regimes

Collision Mechanics And FluidizationPage 8

PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA

Relative Motion between a Fluid and a Concentration of Particles

crystallization processes, fluidization, (catalytic) slurry reactors, trickle bed

Collision Mechanics And FluidizationPage 9

PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA

Single particle moving through a fluid

Two Types of Settling

and other particles that its fall is not affected by them.

PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA

It can be shown that for particles having a diameter of less than

settling of an individual particle may be hindered by the other particles and

Similarly, elutriation, can also be used to classify particles where small

Collision Mechanics And FluidizationPage 11

PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA

Table: Values for the Richardson-Zaki Index

Collision Mechanics And FluidizationPage 12

PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA

= terminal settling velocity for a single particle

= voidage fraction of the suspension which is unity for a single

particle in an infinite amount of fluid

Equations for Terminal Settling Velocity Ratios

, for the streamline flow range of

Reynolds numbers is given by:

Consider two spherical particles 1 and 2 of the same diameter but of

PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA

is the ratio of particle diameters.

Collision Mechanics And FluidizationPage 14

PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA

Fluidization is a process in which solids are caused to behave like a fluid

into two categories, i.e.,

commercial operations; the applications can be roughly