Planeta Fauna:

Life of Reptiles
Abainza, Dimaculangan, Maglaque, Matibag,
Medina, Rigodon, Tamayo, Tan
COMPANA A51

Integumentary
System

Epidermis
Thick, water-impervious stratum corneum with modifications such
as epidermal scales, scutes, beaks, rattles, claws, plaques, and
spiny crests
Modifications are continuous sheet of stratum corneum
Reptiles are able to survive life in a dried up and tough
environment with the help of these features which are
representation of the adaptation of the craniate

Epidermis
Highly keratinized
Keratin may be thick, like those on the belly and tail, or thin, like those
on dewlap
It iis composed of various layers of thin, flat cells, they are pushed off to
the surface of reptile by new keratin cells formed in lower layer of
epidermis, stratum germinativum. This process causes surface to be
compacted

Layers
Stratum germinativum is the deepest
On top of Stratum germinativum: stratum granulosom, stratum lucidum,
and stratum intermedium
Last layer, which is the outermost layer, is the stratum corneum
Not all reptiles have all these layers, turtles and crocodiles has no stratum
intermedium
One characteristic feature of the integument of reptiles is their horny
scales covering their bodies

Ecdysis
Outer layer of stratum corneum
is shed in one piece, called a
cast

Epidermis modifications
Scales of amphisbaenians, legless
squamates, are removed in concentric
ridges, encircling the body, causing
their appearance to be similar to that of
caecilians. For all reptiles, their limbs,
tail, neck, all parts not protected are
covered with small non-overlapping
scales or thick plaques.

Integumentary glands

Function: Secrete dry fatty substances

Located both on the lower jaw of crocodiles and on
the lateral bridges between plastron and carapace
of turtles is a pair of scent glands.

Located on underside of each thigh in lizards are

femoral glands, its function is to secrete substance
that hardens and forms into temporary spines to
restrain female lizards during copulation.

Dermis
Consists of connective tissues and has dermal bone
Like that of the shell of turtles, it has lateral bridges that connect the carapace
and plastron, both are composed of large dermal plates arranged in a pattern
Soft-shelled and leatherback turtles lack the ossification in their dermis,
thats why they have flexible leathery skin
In crocodiles their back looks like a prehistoric appearance, because along
their dorsal surface are overlaid by prominent cornified crests

Leatherback turtle

Soft-shelled turtle

Skeletal System

Regional Specialization

The vertebral column of reptiles is divided into regional specializations. These regions are the sacral,
cervical, thoracic, and lumbar vertebrae.

Sacral

Function: to connect securely to the pelvic girdle.

They are usually formed to a single bone, the sacrum, to provide a strong support. Reptiles
have only 2 sacral vertebrae.

Cervical

Vertebrae in the neck.

Function: to mobilize the head and reptiles usually have 7 cervical vertebrae.

Regional Specialization

Thoracic
the vertebrae with the ribs.

Lumbar
remaining vertebrae anterior to the sacral.

Ribs
Reptiles have long ribs on many of the thoracic and short ribs on
the cervical. Turtles do not have cervical ribs and the ribs of the
thoracic are fused with costal plates of the carapace.

Sternum
Snakes do not have a sternum for the ribs to attach to.

Lizards, meanwhile, have strong pectoral girdles that are firmly

braced against a substantial shield-shaped sternum of cartilage
or replacement bone.

The sternum of crocodilians is a simple cartilaginous plate

attached to the procoracoid of the pectoral girdle

Skull

Reptiles have well-ossified neurocranium, a single occipital condyle, a large

complement of membrane bones, and in rhynchocephalians and many lizards, a
parietal foramen housing a median eye.

Reptiles also have a diapsid type of skull which means they have 2 temporal
fenestrae.

Cranial kinesis is also characteristic of reptiles.

It is the movement of a functional component of a skull independent of another

component.

Skull

It is made possible by the presence of movable intracranial joint between the two
components.

Visceral Skeleton
The embryonic Meckels cartilage may continue to grow and become a
prominent core of cartilage within the adult mandible.
More often, little remains in adults.
In reptiles, an elongated bony process, the entoglossus, extends from the
body forward into the long darting tongue. In some male lizards, a similar
process extends caudad into the dewlap, or gular pouch.
Snakes have no hyoid.

Pectoral Girdle
Clavicles are uncommon in recent nonavian reptiles other than lizards.

Pelvic Girdle

The tetrapod ilium is braced against the stout transverse processes of the sacral, 2 in
nonavian reptiles.

The structure of the pelvic girdles of reptiles is correlated with their diverse body structure
and with their mode of locomotion that varies from lumbering to highly agile.

In most reptiles, the pubis is directed away from the ischium, resulting in a triradiate
girdle. In some reptiles, a broad ischiopubic fenestra develops between the ischium and the
pubis on each side.

Limbs

Reptilian limbs (absent in snakes) are jointed.

The digits are oftenly armed with claws.

The hands of nonavian reptiles tend to remain pentadactyl and to have five
metacarpals and a nearly full complement of carpals except central carpals, or
centralia.

In crocodilians, however, the wrist has been reduced to five adult bones.

Living reptiles display considerable loss and fusion of ankle bones, turtles to a lesser
degree than others.

Limbs

Most reptiles have 5 toes, although alligators and some lizards have four, and some
freshwater turtles have three.

Muscular
System

Axial Musculature

Epaxial Musculature
To extend or straighten the spine and provide some lateral flexion
Lacks myosepta and becomes complex
Hypaxial muscles
To bend the spine and provides lateral bending
Subvertebral group
Rectus abdominis group
Lateral group

Appendicular Musculature

More diverse and numerous than in AMPHIBIANS

Intrinsic muscles
Quadrupedal locomotion = Dorsal extensor & Ventral flexor musclesInserted
on the underside of the dermis
Extrinsic muscles
Inserted on the underside of the dermis

Forelimbs

Trapezius muscles derived from the branchial musculature

Most muscles derived from the axial musculature
Several appendicular muscles are derived directly from appendicular muscles of fish
ancestors

Hindlimbs

Dorsal and ventral muscle groups are

again recognized
Caudofemoralis- a prominent flexor
of the thigh of repltiles

Extrinsic Eyeball Muscles

Eyeball can no longer be rotated

around its optical axis
Pyramidialis- muscles inserted on
the upper lids and nictitating
membrane of reptiles

Integumentary Muscles

Reptiles= first group of vertebrates to have integumentary muscles capable of moving

the skin
Snakes= locomotor apparatus may include separate muscles, to move ventral scutes

Respiratory
System

What kind of respiratory do reptiles

have?
Lungs are the main component of their respiratory system
They have a complete respiratory system: Lungs, Trachea,
Glottis and Nostrils
Among the main types of
reptiles, there are some distinct
differences in the details of their
respiratory system functioning

Respiratory System
Reptiles lungs are hallow sacs with folds inside
The interior of it have a chambers that are divided into different compartments.
The type of respiration that reptiles has is a bidirectional respiration, its lungs
work like a suction pumps, just like in the mammals.
The muscles are the one controlling the lungs, causing them to expand. The
expansion causes the pressure in the lungs to be lower than the pressure
outside the lungs; therefore, air fills the lungs.
All reptiles use their lungs as the primary source of air, some also use their skin
to bring oxygen into their bodies.

Respiratory System
The air is brought to the trachea which has several cartilaginous rings
The bronchial ramifications division is not present in reptiles, so the air goes
into a cavity that opens the lungs.
Except for the crocodilians, reptiles doesnt have a diaphragm thats why the
chest movement is the one working for inhaling and exhaling.

Scaled Reptile Respiration

The most diverse group of
reptiles are those with
scales a group called
Squamata, which includes
the snakes and lizards.

Scaled Reptile Respiration

The muscle that controls their lungs also controls their movement. With this
kind of respiration, during rapid movements such as running after prey or away
from a predator they must hold their breath which makes it hard for them.
A few reptiles in these groups have developed ways around this problem.
For example, the Tegu lizards proto-diaphragm allows him to inflate his lungs
more fully, while monitor lizards can use their throat muscles to handle
respiration during movement

Crocodilian Respiration
The Crocodilian group includes crocodiles, alligators, caimans and gharials.
Compared to lizards and snakes, they have developed a more efficient
respiration method.
They have a diaphragm muscle, which also called as hepatic piston, attached
to their liver; the opposite side of the liver is attached to the lungs.
With this kind of set up the reptile
that muscle, then liver moves
downward in their bodies to give
the lungs more room to expand so
they can hold more air.

Testudine Respiration
The Testudine group has the
most diverse methods of
respiration, this group includes
the turtles, tortoises and
terrapins.

Testudine
Unlike other reptiles, due to the rigid shells present to most turtles and their
cousins they are not capable of expansion.
But some turtles can expand or contract the space within their body cavities to
allow for breathing.
Muscular sheet around their lungs that is present to Indian flapshell turtles
allows to expand and contract to allow for respiration.
Like snakes, they must hold their breath while moving. But there are some who
can breathe and walk at the same time like the American box turtles, while
red-eared slider turtle take smaller breaths while moving. Some aquatic turtles
even have gills on their bodies to assist them in respirations.

Digestive
System

ORAL CAVITY

Formed from the mostly

form the anterior portion of
gastrointestinal system and
respiratory system which
includes the mouth and
internal choanae.
Contains ciliated and
mucus- secreting cells

TONGUE
Tongues are varied. It can be protrusible (chameloens), forked
tongues (freshwater sliders), fixed tongues (freshwater sliders
and crocodilian) and mobile fleshy tongue (geckos and tortoise).
Its functions include transporting food to the back of mouth,
providing taste, capturing the prey. Also, it delivers scents to
vomeronasal organ in the roof of the mouth which is specifically
for squamates.

TEETH

All turtles lack teeth.

Snakes, lizards, crocodilians and tuataras all
have teeth.
Teeth attachment may be classified as
thecodont (rooted in sockets), acrodont (on
the attached to rim side of jawbone) or
pleurodont (attached to the lingual side of
jawbone)
Thecodont- Crocodilians
Acrodont- snakes, tuataras
Pleurodont- most lizards
Heterodont dentition (arcade having more
than one tooth type)- tuatara, crocodilians and
venomous snakes

ORAL GLANDS/ SALIVARY GLANDS

Lacrimal and Harderian glands lubricate the eyes and
vomeronasal organs through ducts that connect the eyes to the
mouth.
The Duvernoy's gland is present in all snakes and creates a
serous material that is released on the maxillary teeth. This
gland is modified in the venom gland in poisonous snakes

PHARYNX

Have a set of thin, sheet- like, superficial muscles (mm.

constrictor colli, intermandibularis posterior, and depressor
mandibulae) innervated by the same cranial nerve ( VII, the
facial) which primarily elevate and constrict the pharynx

ESOPHAGUS
Esophageal epithelium is ciliated and
contains goblet cells which increases
in number to the point of almost
covering the terminal mucosa in
alligators and snakes.
May be very distensible, serving as a
storage area during gastric digestion of
large prey
Esophageal glands may be present
Pepsinogen- secreting glands are
mostly seen in chelonians

STOMACH

Tends to be tubular
Crocodilia- out pocketed with a very muscular
pylorus
Alligator- pylorus is separated from the
remainder of the stomach by a constriction and
from the intestine by semilunar valves
Divided into proventiculus- secretes digestive
enzyme and serves as the glandular stomach
Ventriculus/ gizzard- a grinding mill that makes a
mash of food mixed with gastric secretions and
serves as the muscular stomach

INTESTINE

Small: lined with fingerlike or leaflike villi

Coiled small intestines & a relatively short
large intestine (that empties into the cloaca)
large intestine: divisible into colon- which
commences at the ileocolic sphincter and
rectum- a straight terminal portion in the
pelvic cavity
The small intestine ends at the ileocolic
junction.
A cecum is present in some snake species.
A cecum is present in both lizards and turtles.

LIVER AND GALLBLADDER

Shape and form of liver may vary

Snake liver- has a more distinct fusiform or spindle
shape
Usually to fill all available space located in abdominal
region between heart and stomach
Gallbladder may or may not be contiguous with the
liver
Many lizards and chelonians- gallbladder is located
within the confines of hepatic tissue
Snakes and some lizards- gallbladder is located
posterior to the main hepatic mass

PANCREAS

Pancreas is located on the caudal of gall bladder on the

mesenteric border of the duodenum.
It has both endocrine and exocrine functions much the same as
in mammals.

Circulatory
System

CHARACTERISTICS

Intermediate in size

In most chelonians, the heart lies on

midline just caudal to the thoracic
girdle, ventral to the lungs.

Heart rate of reptiles depends on the

species, size, temperature, and the
level of metabolic function.

CHARACTERISTICS

A reptiles hear has three chambers that

allows for some separation of
oxygenated blood and deoxygenated
blood.

Has two atriums, one atrium

receives blood returning from the
body, and one atrium receives
blood from the lungs.

The ventricle is undivided so there is a

possibility that oxygenated and
deoxygenated blood can mix

CHARACTERISTICS

The only separation of blood is in

the timing of when blood enters the
ventricle

After passing into the conus

arteriosus blood flows into the
truncus arteriosus, which
bifurcates and travels through the
rest of the body

STEPS
1.

Deoxygenated blood from the body

4.

passes through the vena cava of the

the left atrium

heart to the right atrium

5.

2.

Which then goes to the ventricle

again to the ventricle

3.

And from the ventricle, it passes

through the pulmonary artery which
leads to the lungs and turns the
deoxygenated blood into an
oxygenated blood.

6.

Goes back to the pulmonary vein to

And from the left atrium, it goes

After going to the ventricle, the

blood is now distributed to all the body

parts through two systemic arteries. The
left and right systemic arteries.

Urogenital
System

KIDNEYS AND NEPHRONS

* Kidneys - nephrons dorsal to the coelom.
* Nephron - tubular structure that reabsorbs substances from a
coelom if fluid derived or plasma derived filtrate.

STRUCTURE of NEPHRON
*Coelomic funnel - ciliated opening where the. Coelomic fluid
enters
* Bowmans' capsule - end of nephron that surrounds a mass of
capillaries.
* Glomerulus - mass of capillaries wherein the plasma enters to the
nephron.
* Urine - concentrated waste fluid

DEVELOPMENT of NEPHRON
* Nephric tubules - it forms nephron ridges from the intermediate
mesoderm

KIDNEY REGIONS in the STAGES of

DEVELOPMENT
* Pronephros - segmental and it develops first. This encompasses
the coelomic funnel
* Mesonephros - segmental and grows posterior to the pronephros.
This covers the coelomic funnel and Bowman's capsule.

KIDNEY REGIONS in the STAGES of

DEVELOPMENT
* Metanephros develops last and segmentally but obscured by
nephron proliferation. It covers the Bowman's capsule and goes
posterior to mesonephros.

KIDNEY DEVELOPMENTS (ducts)

* Archinephric duct - duct that is formed with the initiation of the
pronephros. This drains the pronephros, mesonephros and
sometimes the metanephros.
* Metanephric duct or the ureter - develops as bud from the base of
the archinephric duct. It drains the metanephros

TYPE of KIDNEY
* Reptiles have a metanephric kind of kidney that is composed of
non segmental metanephric tubules only. This is drained by
metanephric duct.

NITROGENOUS WASTE
* Ammonia - secreted in large amounts
* Uric acid - less toxic than ammonia and slightly soluble in water,
it goes out in cloaca. This requires a small amount of water and
reptiles produce large amounts of these.

REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
* Gonad -organ that produces gametes
* Testis -male gonad
* Seminiferous tubules - site of sperm formation in the testis
* Ovary - female gonad
* Follicle - specialized cells that surround a developing ovum in the
ovary.
* Gamete or sex cells

DUCTS
* Archinephric duct from the testis
* Mllerian duct from the ovary

GENITALIA
* Genitalia is an external reproductive structure
* Intromittent organ is a structure used to trnsfer sperm to facilitate
internal fertilization
* Cloaca is ectodermal and most posterior chamber. The intestine,
urinary system and reproductive system empty here.

GENITALIA
* Developed a genital tubercle
- Homologous to glans penis and glans clitoris
* Genital tubercle often regresses in female
* Median penis are found in reptiles and derived from the genital
tubercle. It is an erectile tissue and a sulcus spermaticus
* Reptiles also have hemipenis or paired cloacal structure and it is
grooved for sperm transfer

Nervous System

Consists of;

Brain
Spinal Cord
Sense organs
Nerves

Brain

In comparison with mammals, reptiles have smaller brains.

Forms less than 11,500 of total body weight. Mammalian brain accounts for 1/100 of
its body weight.

The most important difference lies in the size of the cerebral hemispheres, the brains
principal associative center.

It is Lissencephalic - no gyri(folds) or sulci(grooves) in the surface.

Reptiles were the first group to have a cerebral cortex separated into hemispheres
and to have a brain offset from the spinal cord and extending back over the
diencephalon.

Brain
Two meninges; Pia-arachnoid and Dura mater
Pia-arachnoid - vascular and lies directly on the surface of the brain and spinal cord.
The dura mater lies over the pia-arachnoid layer and is relatively avascular.

Enlarged parts than those more primitive vertebrates(amphibians):

1. Forebrain - the more complex motor skills and sensory input require a larger
telencephalon to process input and coordinate responses.
2. Midbrain - which permits interpretation of more complex visual images.
3. Cerebellum

Spinal Cord

Unlike mammals, reptiles do not have a cauda equina, and the spinal cord extends to
the tip of the spine.

Nerves

Reptiles are the lowest vertebrates to have 12 cranial nerves; fish and amphibians only have 10. The spinal nerves of reptiles are
also advanced beyond those of fishes and amphibians, and only sensory fibers are found in the dorsal roots and motor fibers in
the ventral roots.

Cranial nerves: olfactory (I), optic (II), oculomotor (III), trochlear (IV), trigeminal (V), abducent (VI), facial(VII),
vestibulocochlear (VIII), glossopharyngeal (IX), vagus(X), accessory (XI), and hypoglossal (XII).

Reptiles depend more on spinal segmental reflexes and locomotion centers for the control of movement than they do cerebral
stimulation. As a result, body movements are more autonomous in reptiles than in mammals and birds.

Senses

Hearing
Sight
Chemoreception
Thermal Relationships

Hearing

Variously Developed

Hearing of Crocodiles and Lizards

Both hear reasonably well

Lizards - the majority have their best hearing in the range of 400 to 1,500 hertz and possess a tympanum, a
tympanic cavity, and a eustachian tube.

Crocodiles - All crocodiles have an external ear made up of a short tube closed by a strong valvular flap that
ends at the tympanum. The American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis) can hear sounds within a range of
50 to 4,000 hertz.

The hearing of crocodiles is involved not only in the detection of prey and enemies but also in their social
behaviour; males roar or bellow to either threaten other males or to attract females.

Hearing of Snakes

Snakes and turtles are sensitive to low-frequency vibrations, thus they hear mostly
earth-borne, rather than aerial, sound waves.

Sound waves travel more rapidly and strongly in solids than in the air and are
probably transmitted first to the inner ear of snakes through the lower jaw, which is
normally touching the ground, thence to the quadrate bone, and finally to the stapes.
Snakes have neither tympanum nor eustachian tube.

Hearing of Turtles

Sensitive to airborne sounds in the range of fifty to two thousand hertz.

Have well-developed middle ears and usually large tympana

Chemoreception
Chemically sensitive organs, used by many reptiles to find their prey, are located in
the nose and in the roof of the mouth.

Jacobsons Organ - which originated as an outpocketing of the nasal sac in

amphibians; it remained as such in tuatara and crocodiles. Most developed in lizards
and snakes and lost in turtles.

Chemoreception

Jacobsons Organ is most evident in snakes, If a strong odour or vibration stimulates a snake, its tongue is
flicked in and out rapidly. With each retraction, the forked tip touches the roof of the mouth near the opening
of the Jacobsons organ, transferring any odour particles adhering to the tongue. In effect, the Jacobsons
organ is a short-range chemoreceptor of non-airborne odours, as contrasted to the detection of airborne
odours, smelling in the usual sense, by olfactory sensory patches in the nasal tube.

Chemoreception

Some snakes (notably the large vipers) and scleroglossan lizards (such as skinks,monitors, and burrowing species of other
families) rely upon the olfactory tissue and the Jacobsons organ to locate food, almost to the exclusion of other senses.

Some diurnal lizards and crocodiles, appear not to use scent in searching for prey, though they may use their sense of smell for
locating a mate.

The pit vipers (family Viperidae), boas and pythons (family Boidae), and a few other snakes have special heat-sensitive organs
(infrared receptors) on their heads as part of their food-detecting apparatus. Just below and behind the nostril of a pit viper
is the pit that gives the group its common name.

Chemoreception

Many pit vipers, pythons, and boas are nocturnal and feed largely on mammals and
birds. Infrared receptors them reptiles to direct their strikes accurately in the dark,
once their warm-blooded prey arrives within range. The pit organs confirm the
identity of the prey and aim the strike.

Thermal Relationships

Ectothermic - No internal mechanism for the production of heat and maintenance of

an elevated body temperature; they are dependent upon heat from their surrounding.
Poikilothermy - Body temperatures fluctuate with that of the environment.

Mammals and birds are homoiothermic, they produce heat by a cellular process and
maintain relatively high body temperatures independent of the environment.

Thermal Relationships
*FUN FACT

For Turtles, Earth's Magnetism Is A Built-In GPS

Loggerhead turtles are born with an ability to know where they are on Earth, and
which way to swim to get to favorable feeding grounds. That's the conclusion from a new
study by scientists at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. The turtles appear to
accomplish this by being exquisitely sensitive to the Earth's magnetic field.

Sight

Like those of other vertebrates

Except snakes, near vision is accomplished by pressure being exerted on the lens by
the surrounding muscular ring (ciliary body), which thus makes the lens more
spherical. In snakes the same end is achieved by the lens being brought forward.

The pupil shape varies remarkably among living reptiles, from the round opening
characteristic of all turtles and many diurnal lizards and snakes to the vertical slit of
crocodiles and nocturnal snakes and the horizontal slits of a few tree snakes

Sight

The lower eyelid has the greater range of movement in most reptiles

Crocodiles -- the upper lid is more mobile. Tuatara and all crocodiles have a third eyelid, the nictitating membrane( a
transparent sheet that moves sideways across the eye from the inner corner, cleansing and moistening the cornea without shutting
out the light.).

Snakes -- no movable eyelids, their eyes being covered by a fixed transparent scale.

Visual acuity varies greatly among living reptiles, being poorest in the burrowing lizards and snakes (which often have very
small eyes) and greatest in active diurnal species (which usually have large eyes).

Colour vision has been demonstrated in few living reptiles.

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