Integrated Training : System Designed in association wi club66pro.co.uk question pra ice aid Module 7 f Maintenance Practices : EASA Part-66 f oe | Volume 1 by ; Licence Category J Btand B2 | | Exelusively from WWW.aittechbooks.comPEPHEEEEE c Integrated Training System Module 7 Chapters 1. Safety Precautions Aircraft and Workshop 2. Workshop Practices 3. Tools 4. Avionic General Test Equipment 5. _ Engineering Drawings, Diagrams and Siandards 6. _ Fits and Clearances 7. _ Electrical Cables and Connectors 8 Riveting 9. _ Pipes and Hoses 10. Springs 14. Bearings 12. Transmissions 13. Control Cables 14.1. Material Handling - Sheet metal 14.2. Material Handling - Composite and non-metallic 15. Welding, Brazing, Soldering and Bonding 16. Aircraft Weight and Balance 17. Aircraft Handling and Storage 18. Disassembly, Inspection, repair and Assembly Techniques 19. Abnormal Events 20. Maintenance Procedures Module 7 Preface til ‘TTS Integrated Training System ‘© Copytight 2010Integrated Training System iv ‘TTS Intagratod Training System Copyright 2010 Intentionally Blank Module 7 Preface on: Cs oo oe eae | ee 2fee eee — 0 Integrated Training System Preface Thank you for purchasing the Total Training Support Integrated Training System. We are sure you will need no other reference material to pass your EASA Part-66 exam in this Module. ‘These notes have been written by instructors of EASA Part-66 courses, specifically for practitioners of varying experience within the aircraft maintenance industry, and especially those who are self-studying to pass the EASA Part-68 exams. They are specifically designed to meet the EASA Part-86 syllabus and to answer the questions being asked by the UK CAA in their examinations. The EASA Part-66 syllabus for each sub-section is printed at the beginning of each of the chapters in these course notes and is used as the "Learning Objectives’. We suggest that you take each chapter in-turn, read the text of the chapter a couple of times, if only to familiarise yourself with the location of the information contained within. Then, using your club66pro.co.uk membership, attempt the questions within the respective sub-section, and continually refer back to these notes to read-up on the underpinning knowledge required to answer the respective question, and any similar question that you may encounter on your real Part-66 examination. Studying this way, with the help of the question practice and their explanations, you will be able to master the subject piece-by-piece, and become proficient in the subject matter, as well as proficient in answering the CAA style EASA part-66 multiple choice questions. We regularly have a review of our training notes, and in order to improve the quality of the notes, and of the service we provide with our Integrated Training System, we would appreciate your feedback, whether positive or negative. So, if you discover within these course notes, any errors or typos, or any subject which is not particularly well, or adequately explained, please tell us, using the ‘contact-us' feedback page of the club66pro.co.uk website. We will be sure to review your feedback and incorporate any changes necessary. We look forward to hearing from you. Finally, we appreciate that self-study students are usually also self-financing. We work very hard to cut the cost of our Integrated Training System to the bare minimum that we can provide, and in making your training resources as cost efficient as we can, using, for example, mono printing, but providing the diagrams which would be better provided in colour, on the club66pro.co.uk website. In order to do this, we request that you respect our copyright policy, and refrain from copying, scanning or reprinting these course notes in any way, even for sharing with friends and colleagues. Our survival as a service provider depends on it, and copyright abuse only devalues the service and products available to yourself and your colleagues in the future, and makes them more expensive too. Module 7 Preface i ‘TTS Integrated Training System ‘© Copytight 2010Integrated Training System Intentionally Blank 7 ; ‘| ii Module 7 Preface 4 TS integrated Trang Sytem © Copyright 2010eee ooo TTS Integrated Training System Module 7 Maintenance Practices 7.1 Safety Precautions-Aircraft and Workshop Module 7.1 Safety Precautions-Aircraft and WorkshopCopyright Notice © Copyright. All worldwide rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form by any other means whatsoever: i.e. photocopy, electronic, mechanical recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of Total Training Support Ltd. Knowledge Levels — Category A, B1, B2 and C Maintenance Licence Basic knowledge for categories A, B1 and B2 are indicated by the allocation of knowledge levels indicators (1, 2 ot 9) against each applicable subject. Category C applicants must meet either the category B1 or the category 82 basic knowledge levels. The knowledge level indicators are defined as follows: LEVEL 1 ‘+ _ A familarisation withthe principal elements ofthe subject. Objectives: ‘+The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of the subject. ‘+ The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the whole subject, using common words and examples. + The applicant should be able to use typical terms, LEVEL 2 + Ageneral knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject. + An ability to apply that knowledge. Objectives: + The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical fundamentals of the subject. + The applicant should be able to give a general description of the subject using, as appropriate, typical examples. + The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in conjunction with physical laws describing the subject. ‘+The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches, drawings and schematics describing the subject. ‘+ The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed procedures. LEVEL 3 + Adetailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject. + Acapacity to combine and apply the separate elements of knowledge in a logical and comprehensive ‘manner. Objectives: + The applicant should know the theory of the subject and interrolationships with other subjects. +The applicant should be able to give a detailed description of the subject using theoretical fundamentals. and specific examples. ‘The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical formulae related to the subject. The applicant should be able to read, understand and prepare sketches, simple drawings and schematics deseribing the subject. ‘+ The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using manufacturer's, instructions. + The applicant should be able to interpret results from various sources and measurements and apply corrective action where appropriate. ‘craft 12 Module 7.1 Safety Precautions-Aircraft and Workshop ‘TTS Integrated Training System ee anataiconse ©Copyright 2010, gnonasby mo smioner zi = a. 23 oe oad eee Eee a Jf U Sa eee ¢ tai co Table of Contents Integrated Training System Module 7.1 Safety Precautions-Aircraft and Workshop. 5 Safety Precautions - General 5 Material Safety Data Sheets 6 Container Labelling 8 Fire Regulations. 17 First Aid 20 Electricity 24 High-Pressure Gases. 23 Aviation Oils and Fuels 27 Chemical and Physiological Hazards. 28 General Flight-Line Safety 29 Weather Radar 34 Module 7.1 Safety Precautions-Aircraft and Workshop 13 ‘Pemacty eure TTS integrated Training System ©Copyright 2010,Integrated Training System Module 7.1 Enabling Objectives J Objective EASA 66 Reference |Level| | | Safety Precautions-Aircraft and Workshop TA Z a ‘Aspects of safe working practices including precautions to take when working with electricity, gases especially oxygen, oils and chemicals n Also, instruction in the remedial action to be taken in the ad event of a fire or another accident with one or more of these hazards including knowledge on extinguishing agents. q coe Et i] fl a Module 7.1 Safety Precautions-Aircraft and Workshop id TTS Integated Tianing System Vestn aoaseis Scope 2010 nett scanort 2)j | Integrated Training System Module 7.1 Safety Precautions-Aircraft and Workshop Safety Precautions - General Aircraft, by their very nature and design, make for a dangerous working environment. The danger is further increased by the wide variety of machines, tools and materials required to support and maintain aircraft. Personal safety starts with being appropriately dressed for the work being undertaken, combined with the correct use of eye and ear protection whenever necessary. Technicians should only operate equipment with which they are familiar and which they can operate safely. Hand tools should be kept in good working order. Good ‘housekeeping’ in workshops, hangars, and on flight ine ramps is essential to safe and efficient maintenance. Pedestrian and fire lanes should be clearly marked and NEVER obstructed. They should always be used to keep non-technical personnel clear from the work area. Any spillage of oils, greases and fuels should be immediately covered with absorbent material and cleaned up, to prevent fire or injury. Spillage should be prevented, from running into floor drains. Itis very important, that all personnel know the location of the fixed points where fire fighting equipment and First Aid treatment are available. They must also be aware of the types of emergency that can occur in the workplace (whether in the workshop, hangar or on the ramp), and of the procedures to be followed in any emergency, While the goal of an aviation technician is to maintain aircraft in such a manner as to assure safe flight, you must also be concerned with creating a safe environment while an aircraft is on the ground. For example, the fuel tanks of transport aircraft contain large amounts of highly flammable fuel and, therefore, can pose a considerable risk of fire. In addition, rotating propellers and operating turbojet engines present a serious risk of injury or death to ground personnel. Therefore, you must make every effort to prevent injury to personnel and damage to aircraft while maintenance and servicing are being performed. Accidents in the workplace are one of the leading causes of death and. One reason for this is that after working at a job for a period of time, many people become complacent and do not give workplace safety the attention it requires. Aircraft operation areas contain many dangers to personnel, but a sound safety program and an aware workforce can reduce these dangers dramatically. Make workplace safety one of your primary job duties. Module 7.1 Safety Precautions-Aircraft and Workshop 15 ema aac TTS Integrated Training System pasate eereeeeeIntegrated Training System Material Safety Data Sheets COSHH regulations require an employer to have copies of relevant Material Safety Data Sheets that are readily available to all shop personnel at all times, These data sheets allow for quick reference in case of a chemical spill or injury. In the case of a chemical injury, a copy of the pertinent data sheet(s) should be sent along to the emergency room to ensure immediate medical attention. ‘A Material Safety Data Sheet consists of nine basic sections: 1. Product identification including trade name, and the address and emergency phone ie number of the manufacturer/supplier. 2. Principal ingredients including percentages of mixture by weight. : 3. Physical data describing the substances appearance, odour, and specific technical a information such as boiling point, vapour pressure, solubility, etc. 4. Fire and explosion hazard potential. 5. Reactivity data including stability and incompatibility with other substances. - 6. First aid and health hazard data. 7. Ventilation and personal protection gloves, goggles, respirator. etc. - 8. Storage and handling precautions. 4 9. Spill, leak, and disposal procedures. | ] i u 1-6 Module 7.1 Safety Precautions-Aircraft and Workshop TTS lnogiated Training Sytem Uns rse setonme © Copyaght 2010 comrssoyiwsneret =) forage dele canoeU & Tey Integrated Training System Design ee ore t Material Safety Data Sheet Cm FEEeeeeee oe € Hepes Pee eee eee EERE Cc ca f | o Figure 1.1: Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) provide information on hazardous materials that are present in u the workplace. Furthermore, all employers must maintain current copies of the Material Safety Data Sheets for reference at any time. 17 Module 7.1 Safety Precautions-Aircratt and Workshop ee ae ee 8 intogatedTiiring ystom { Sogn ncn ‘© Copyright 2010Integrated Training System Container Labelling Chemical hazard labels vary in size, style, and the amount of information they convey. | However, all hazardous materials utilize the same colour coding and hazard indexing us information. A typical hazard label consists of four colour-coded diamonds arranged into one large diamond. The colours used in the table are red, blue, yellow, and white. Within three of the coloured areas a number from zero to four appears. The label area coloured red indicates a materials flammability hazard. A zero indicates materials that are normally stable and that do not bum unless heated. A rating of four, however, applies to highly combustible gases and volatile liquids with flash points below 73°F and boiling points below 100°F. The blue area of the label rates a substances health hazard from no significant risk (0), to life threatening or permanently damaging with single or repeated exposures (4). The yellow area of the label rates, a substances reactivity. A zero rating applies to materials which are normally stable, even under F fire conditions, and which do not react with water. On the other hand, materials rated at four are readily capable of detonation or explosive decomposition at normal temperatures and pressures. The white area of the label indicates a personal protection index. Unlike the other three ratings } given, the personal protection index incorporates an alphabetical rating system using the letters |” ‘W through ‘K’. Each letter indicates different combinations of protective equipment to be worn when working with hazardous materials. For example, the letter A indicates the minimum required equipment, including safety glasses or goggles. A “K” rating requires the use of a full body suit, boots and head mask with independent air supply. You should always use the recommended safety equipment when handling hazardous materials. ot | i i Figure 1.2: The material described by this sample hazard label presents a serious flammability hazard (red), a moderate hazard to health (blue), and a minimum stability hazard (yellow). When handling this material, the use of q goggles, gloves and respirator IG) is required for personal protection. ! q A 18 Module 7.1 Safety Precautions-Aircraft and Workshop , ‘TTS integrated Teaning System eases © Gopyight 2010 seereieyieaioret{ AES er Ree eerie c BEERS tee eee eee eee ee C Integrated Training System Safety Around Machine Tools Many kinds of high-speed cutting tools are commonly found in aviation maintenance shops and can be dangerous if misused, However. these tools pose little threat when used for their intended purpose and reasonable safety precautions are observed. For example, do not use any machine tools with which you are not familiar, or any tool whose safety features you are unfamiliar with. The guards and safety covers found on many tools have been put there to protect the operator. Some of these guards may appear to interfere with the operation of the equipment. However, they must never be removed or disabled, The slight inconvenience they cause is more than compensated for by the added safety they provide. Dull cutting tools present a greater threat of injury than sharp tools since a dull or improperiv sharpened tool requires excessive forces to do its job. As a result, the work can be grabbed or thrown out of the machine. Therefore, always make sure the cutting tool is sharp and serviceable before you use it. Figure 1.3: Be sure the eye-protection shields i ate in place when using | a bench grinder. When using a drill press be sure that the material being worked is securely clamped to the drill press table before you begin drilling a hole. If this is not done, it is possible for the drill or the cutter to grab the metal and spin it around, effectively slicing anything in its way. Furthermore, never leave a chuck key in a drill motor or a drill press. If the switch is accidentally turned on. the key will be thrown out with considerable force. The use of eye protection cannot be overstressed. Chips coming off metalworking tools can easily penetrate deeply into your eves. In addition, if someone working near you is using compressed air, a blast of air can easily pick up dirt or dust and spray into your face. To prevent eye injuries, always wear eye protection when using power tools. or when you must enter areas where they are being used. In addition to eye protection. you should always wear the appropriate clothing when in the shop. For example. you should never wear ties or other clothing that could get caught in a spinning tool. Furthermore, if you wear your hair long, tie it back to keep it out of the way. Module 7.1 Safely Precautions-Aircraft and Workshop 1-9 asa ace ‘TTS integrated Training System Eageact me cen ‘© Copyright 2010Integrated Training System When adjusting or changing the blade or hit on a power tool, disconnect the tool from its power source. When maintenance is performed on a power tool that cannot be disconnected from its power source, the electrical junction box for that tool should he turned off and locked out, to prevent someone from accidentally turning the power back on. - Figure 1.4: Face shields or goggles should be used when drilling, arinding, or sawing. Power tools are one of the greatest timesavers found in a maintenance shop. but you must not allow their convenience to cause you to misuse the tool. In other words, never be in a hurry around a power tool and never use a tool for a purpose for which it is not intended. Most important of all, think before using any tool. Welding Welded repairs are common in aircraft maintenance and shops should provide a means of safely accomplishing the task. Welding should be performed only in areas that are designated for the purpose. If a part needs to be welded, remove it and take it to the welding area. Welding areas should be equipped with proper tables. ventilation, tool storage. and fire extinguishing equipment. If welding is to be accomplished in a hangar, no other aircraft should be within 35 feet of the hanger, and the area should be roped off and clearly marked. 110 Module 7.1 Safety Precautions-Aircraft and Workshop TTS integrated Training System esata eco ©Copyright 2010 govenadby fe aura empanadas oe as) EEE oo poem { c oy (ener EERE Peeper ea ere Cc ft eae ee (eee Integrated Training System i Fire Safety Aviation maintenance shops harbor ail of the requirements for fires, so fire prevention is a vital concern. All combustible materials should be stored in proper containers in areas where spontaneous combustion cannot occur. Since dope and paint solvents are so volatile. they should he stored in a cool, Ventilated area outside of the shop. Spilled gasoline, sanding dust, and dried paint overspray should never be swept with a dry broom, since static electricity can cause a spark and ignite them. Always flush these combustible products with water before sweeping them. Always be aware of the possibility of fire and pro-vide for exits when putting aircraft in the hangar. Be sure that fire extinguishers are properly serviced, clearly marked and never obstructed. The key to fire safety is a knowledge of what causes fire, how to prevent them, and how to put them out. Fire Protection Since aircraft fuels, paints, and solvents are highly flammable, you must take every precaution to pte-vent fires where these materials are present. However, you should also be aware of the proper procedures to observe if a fire does start. Figure 1.5: Be sure that all fire ‘extinguishers are properly serviced, and are clearly marked to indicate the type of fire they are suited for. Xx [alsleh etal ela elafefale 9 A fire is a chemical reaction between a material and oxygen, in which the material is reduced to its elements with the release of a great deal of heat. Three conditions must be met for a fire to occur. First, there must be fuel, which is any material that combines with oxygen. Second, there Module 7.1 Safety Precautions-Aircraft and Workshop wt Use snr dase TTS Integratog Training Syston sae ‘©Copyright 2010Integrated Training System ae must be a supply of oxygen. Third, the temperature of the fuel must be raised to its kinaling point, which is the temperature at which combustion occurs. Different types of fuel have different kindling temperatures, For example, gasoline combines ! with oxygen at a relatively low temperature. On the other hand, materials such as wood must reach a considerably higher temperature before they ignite, nm The concentration of available oxygen also affects a materials combustibility. A petroleum product such as oil or grease ignites at room temperature if it is blanketed with pure oxygen 7 Steel alloy is normally not combustible, but it burns when it is heated red-hot and a stream of pure oxygen is fed into it. The very nature of aircraft makes them highly susceptible to fire. They carry large amounts of =<) highly flammable fuel, as well as oxygen under high pressure. Because of this, aviation technicians must take proper precautions to prevent fires in aircraft. and have the knowledge and tools to deal with fire when it happens. q Personnel, engaged in the maintenance, overhaul and repair of aircraft, should be fully conversant with the precautions required to prevent outbreaks of any fire. They should be qualified in the operation of any fire protection equipment that is provided, and should know the action to be taken in the event of discovering a fire. ) The ‘Fire Triangle’ Fire results from the chemical reaction that occurs when oxygen combines rapidly with fuel to 1 produce heat, (and light). Three essentials of this process form the ‘Fire Triangle’ (refer to figure 1.6). Figure 1.6: The fire triangle ul ‘As can be seen, a fire requires three components to bum, and the removal of anyone of these, components will extinguish the fire, The requirements of the thres components, forming the ‘Fire 7) Triangle’, are: J * Fuel: a combustible material, which may be a solid, liquid or gas q + Oxygen: in sufficient volume to support the process of combustion * Heat: of sufficient intensity to raise the temperature of the fuel to its 7 ignition (or kindling) point. i 7 1-12 Module 7.1 Safety Precautions-Aircraft and Workshop TTS negated Tining System wean sess Tiina Te amen¢ ci Sees f a rae u fi Integrated Training Syste Classes of Fire In Europe, the standard for fire extinguishers is BS EN3. This differs slightly to the American standards. Only the European standards are discussed here. There are, generally, six classes of fires, each determined by the type of material that is being burned. In alphabetical, order the classes of fire are: + Class A: SOLIDS such as paper, wood, plastic ete * Class B: FLAMMABLE LIQUIDS such as paraffin, petrol, oil etc + Class C: FLAMMABLE GASES such as propane, butane, methane etc ‘* Class D: METALS such as aluminium, magnesium, titanium etc * Class E: Fires involving ELECTRICAL APPARATUS * Class F: Cooking OIL & FAT ete Fire Extinguishants The methods of extinguishing fires have led to the development of several types of extinguishants to cater for different types of fire. These methods include: © Cooling the fuel + Excluding the oxygen © Separating the fuel from the oxygen ‘The materials, used as general ‘domestic and commercial’ extinguishants, differ from those used in aircraft Fire Protection systems and, while the aircraft systems are discussed in other Modules of this course, consideration is given here only to the extinguishants and extinguishers which conform to the EN3 Standard fire extinguisher code. The materials used in these extinguishers are: Water (Water/Gas) Aqueous Film-Forming Foam (AFFF) Carbon Dioxide (COz) Dry Powder Applying the incorrect extinguishant to a fire can do more harm than good and may, actually, be dangerous. It is, therefore, important that extinguishers are well marked for quick identification in an emergency. It is also vital that all personnel are aware of the markings, which appear on extinguishers, so that the correct one is chosen to deal with a specific fire. Prior to 1st Jan 1997, the code of practice for fire extinguishers in the UK was BS 5423, which advised the colour coding of fire extinguishers as follows: Water - Red Foam - Cream Dry Powder - Blue Carbon Dioxide (CO2) - Black Halon - Green (now ‘illegal’ except for a few exceptions such as the Police, Armed Services and Aircraft). Module 7.1 Safety Precautions-Aircraft and Workshop 1-13 acon TTS inogated Teaining Sytem Senta ‘© Copyeght 2010Integrated Training System co.uk queston pr New extinguishers should conform to BS EN 3, which requires that the entire body of the extinguisher be coloured red. A zone of colour of up to 5% of the extemal area can be used to identify the contents using the old colour coding shown above. Generally, the requirements are. that the extinguishers are: * coloured red; * to have a zone or block of colour, comprising 5% of the body, whose purpose is to indicate the type of extinguishing medium. This block should be located on the front of the extinguisher so that it can be seen from 1800 when correctly mounted; * tohave a capacity of 1, 2, 8, 6, or 9 litres / kg; and * labelled using standard labelling using pictorials to describe the fire classification and use. Table 2 shows how the EN3 Standard fire extinguisher code has replaced the older Standard, whereby the extinguisher containers were colour-coded all over to signify their contents. The ENS Standard has the bodies of every fire extinguisher coloured red all over, with an identifying band of colour, separated by white lines, identifying the extinguishant contained in the extinguisher. In CAA exams however, you may also be asked questions on the old colour codes Type | Old Code BS EN 3 Colour Code Fire Class Signal ; Water | Bo" Signal Red A Feed with a Gream panel above the operating E an Cream | instructions a8 Dy French | Red with a Blue panel above the operating |, ||] 5] e Powder Blue instructions Carbon : ; : Red with a Black panel above the operating E cont, Black instructions B Wet Red with a Canary Yellow panel above the Chemical |None | operating instructions 7 E Table 1.1: Fire Extinguisher Identification and Uses Water or Water/Gas extinguishers are ONLY to be used on fires involving burning solids (Class A fires). Water could also cause liquid fires to spread and, obviously, using water on electrical equipment could have lethal results, so these extinguishers must NOT be used on Class B nor on Class C fires. Water should, also, NOT be used on burning metal (Class D) fires, as the ‘oxygen, in the water, will cause the fires to burn more fiercely and its use could lead to violent explosions. Figure 1.8: A water extinguisher 1414 Module 7.1 Safety Precautions-Aircraft and Workshop TTS ktepated Taking Sysem ea acon copygnt z0%0 es aera cee she ae Jca C Integrated Training System iam Figure 1.9: A foam extinguisher {ames p foe Aqueous Film-Forming Foam (AFFF) is best suited for Class B fires, due to its smothering and cooling action and to the fact that its finer particles will not cause the fire to spread. AFFF extinguishers can also be used on Class A fires (though its cooling action is not as effective as the water extinguishers), but, u because Foam does contain water, AFFF : Zz extinguishers are considered to be NOT safe on || electrical fires where high voltages are encountered. ,; _ Carbon Dioxide (CO,) is the ‘universal’ fire extinguisher and, being LL non-corrosive, non-conductive, and leaving no residue, itis suitable for almost all types of fire. COz extinguishers must NOT, however, be 4 _ used on Class D fires, as the extinguishant reduces the temperature very quickly, which (in a similar way to the use of water extinguishers) could cause serious explosions. Due to the fact that CO. gas tends to dissipate quickly, the extinguisher is provided with a hom device, which helps to concentrate the COs at the site of the fire. This hom must NOT be held with bare hands, as the intense cold of the released COz will freeze the skin to the hom, resulting in severe injury to the hands. A rubber, insulated coating is provided on the discharge tube and the CO; must be directed towards the fire by grasping and manipulating the insulated tube. Figure 1.10: A CO2 extinguisher Dry Powder is another extinguishant which is suitable for most classes of fire, and, in particular, those involving burning metals (aircraft wheel brake fires). Itis, however, limited in its use on electrical fires, as the powder particles are capable of conducting high voltages (in excess of 1000 V) and, possibly, lesser voltages if they are used at distances of less than 1 metre from electrical fires. Dry Powder (in a similar way to Foam), leaves a messy residue after its use, which could present a problem to electrical contacts and circuitry, Figure 1.11: A powder extinguisher 0 Module 7.1 Safety Precautions-Aircraft and Workshop 1415 atari ‘TTS Inlogratod Training Syeter Set tetra Tring Sys page acioee steIntegrated Training System Note: It is possible that the older Standard ‘Halon’ fire extinguishants (in green-coloured containers) may be found at many indoor locations. Unfortunately, while Halons (Halogenated inl Hydrocarbons) are extremely effective as extinguishants of virtually every class of fire, itis felt.) ‘that they contribute to the depletion of the ozone layer surrounding Earth and, so, in the UK the use of Halon gas is now illegal except under certain situations. Buckets of dry sand may also be placed at the FIRE POINT in workshops (and especially in hangars) as an additional aid to fire fighting. 5 n a6 Module 7.1 Safety Procautions-Aiteraft and Workshop i ‘TTS integrated Training System sean daconse's © Copyright 2010 somnady pe ticranat qe mm SEEEHEPeeeat te oe eee c Integrated Training System Fire Regulations * Whenever possible portable fire-fighting equipment should be grouped to form a fire point. The fire point should be clearly indicated so that it can be readily identified. «In premises that are uniform in layout extinguishers should, whenever possible, be located at the same point on each floor. If for any reason extinguishers are placed in positions hidden from direct view their position should be indicated by suitable signs, as described in BS 5499 : Parts 1 and 3. KNOW YOUR FIRE EXTINGUISHER COLOUR CODE ie a om Figure 1.12: Fire signs ‘* No person should have to travel more than 30 metres from the site of a fire to reach an extinguisher. Module 7.1 Safety Precautions-Aircratt and Workshop et ee nr asenuie “TTS integrated Training System seedy teeters ‘© Copyright 2010 SpueadinccnoerIntegrated Training System Type and Number of Portable Fire-fighting Equipment The basic provision of extinguishers within a building should be one extinguisher, of at least 1A rating, for every 200m’ of floor area, or part thereof, with at least two per floor. However, for those buildings where an upper floor area is less than 100m? , one single 13A rated extinguisher may be acceptable on each floor. Should the premises contain risks from flammable liquids, then B rated extinguishers should be provided. Under normal circumstances a 348 rated extinguisher would equate to a 13A in this respect. Location of Portable Fire-fighting Equipment Extinguishers should be sited in conspicuous positions where they are visible to anyone using an escape route. They should be mounted on brackets fixed to the wall or some other convenient structural feature. Ideally, larger extinguishers should be mounted so that they can be conveniently de- mounted for use without undue effort or risk of injury. In effect, this will mean mounting the extinguisher with the handle no more than 1m from the floor but, circumstances may dictate variations from this recommendation. Smaller and more easily handled extinguishers may be mounted with the handle about 1.5m from the floor level. Suitably constructed floor cradles may be acceptable in certain locations. Where there are special risks, extinguishers should be grouped conveniently in positions where any user will not be placed in danger whilst attempting to use them. Other suitable positions include near exits to rooms or store’s, corridors or lobbies, stairways and landings. Extinguishers should not be sited behind doors or inaccessible positions such as deep recesses or in cupboards, Itis also necessary to consider their exposure to extremes of heat or cold as well as the risk of accidental damage during the normal day-to-day use of the premises. The operation of an extinguisher will be affected by temperature and this could even cause accidental discharge. In premises where theft and vandalism are a problem, extinguishers may be located in secure areas, but always under the supervision of trained staff. Hose Reels and Fire Blankets Where hose reels are provided, they should be located where they are conspicuous and always accessible, such as in corridors. Fire blankets should be located in the vicinity of the fire hazard they are to be used on, but in a position that can be safely accessed in the event of a fire. They are classified as either light-duty or heavy-duty. Light-duty fire blankets are suitable for dealing with small fires in containers of cooking oils or fats and fires involving clothing. Heavy-duty fire blankets are for industrial use where there is a need for the blanket to resist penetration by molten materials. If you are unsure about the number, type or, location of portable fire-fighting equipment or hose reels you need, you should check with the local fire authority before purchasing any such equipment. 1-18 Module 7.1 Safety Precautions-Aireraft and Workshop TTS Inlegrated Training System sears acosseis © Copyright 2010 ceronasoy tase roe athe pae eee oy a oo SEHIntegrated Training System ve th Sprinkler Systems i + In smaller workplaces, portable fire extinguishers will probably be sufficient to tackle small fires. However, in more complex buildings, or where it is necessary to protect the means of escape and/or the property or contents of the building, it may be necessary to consider a sprinkler system. Sprinkler systems are traditionally acknowledged as an efficient means of protecting buildings against extensive damage from fire. They are also now acknowledged as an i i (Ceaay ni effective means of reducing the risk to life from fire. Systems are being developed which u may be suitable for use in workplaces with residential areas, such as care homes and i houses in multiple occupancy. p + Sprinkler systems need to be specifically designed and installed to the appropriate hazard category in accordance with an approved code of practice. ‘+ Further information on the requirements for sprinkler systems can be obtained from your local fire safety department. eee Pao ee en ae oa u Module 7.1 Safety Precautions-Aircraft and Workshop 1419 ie wate ances ‘TTS Integrated Training Systom p ESSRREEE pisteIntegrated Training System First Aid It has been previously discussed that, when working indoors, whether it is in an office, a workshop or a hangar, there will be fixed points where fire-fighting equipment is available. Similarly, there will be First Aid points where emergency kits, eye washing equipment and call bells are installed and there will be trained First Aid personnel to assist in the treatment of | | injuries. It is the responsibility of every person at work to know: u + The location of the First Aid Points The methods of calling for help The locations of alarm bells, and the siting of appropriate telephones which may be used to summon help in an emergency q + The identity of the trained First Aid personnel in their vicinity In the event of an injury (however slight), it is important that the injured person, or the attending | First Aider, should complete an entry in the Accident Book, which is usually keptnear the First. * | Aid Point, - } treo Module 7.1 Safety Precautions-Aircraft and Workshop ’ ‘TTS Intograted Training System se arate deco 's eee enone otha our 7fea am oe ca Cc Hee a] c fee Integrated Training System Electricity Every aircraft maintenance shop uses electrical power for day to day activities. While electricity performs many useful functions, you must remember that it can injure or kill if mishandled Therefore, itis the responsibility of everyone that uses electrical power to be aware of the safety procedures regarding it. The human body conducts electricity. Furthermore, electrical current passing through the body disrupts the nervous system and causes burns at the entry and exit points. Common 220/240- volt, AC house current is particularly dangerous because it affects nerves in such a way that a person holding a current-carrying wire is unable to release it. Since water conducts electricity, you must avoid handling electrical equipment while standing on a wet surface or wearing wet shoes. The water provides a path to ground and heightens the possibility of electric shock. To understand how common hand tools can create an electrical hazard. consider a typical electric drill that has an AC motor inside a metal housing. One wire is connected to the power terminal of the motor, and the other terminal connects to ground through a white wire. there are only two wires in the cord and the power lead becomes shorted to the housing, the return current flows to ground through the operators body. However, if the drill motor is wired with a three-conductor cord, return current flows through the third (green) wire to ground. To minimize the isk of shock, make sure that ail electrical equipment is connected with three- wire extension cords of adequate capacity. Furthermore, do not use cords that are frayed, or that have any of the wires exposed, and be sure to replace any plugs that are cracked. ‘The human body conducts electricity. Furthermore, electrical current, passing through the body, disrupts the nervous system and causes bums at the entry and exit points. The current, used in domestic 220-240 volt, 50Hz ac electricity, is particularly dangerous because it affects nerves in such a way that a person, holding a current-carrying conductor, is unable to release it. Table 1.2 shows some typical harmful values and effects of both ac and de electricity supplies. Voltage/Current | Possible Outcome 5OV ac or 100V de _| May give rise to dangerous shocks 1mA Harmless tingle 1-12mA Painful, but can be released 12-20 mA Very painful, cannot be released 20-50 mA Paralysis of respiration | > 50 mA Heart stoppage Table 1.2: Harmful Values of Electricity Since water also conducts electricity, great care must be taken to avoid handling electrical ‘equipment of all kinds when standing on a wet surface or when wearing wet shoes. The water provides a path to earth and heightens the possibility of electric shock. To ensure that Module 7.1 Safety Precautions-Aircraft and Workshop 121 ss nd aces ‘TTS inlegrated Training System ety ie atrere ‘©Copyright 2010 BShaad ncnIntegrated Training System Designed : a equipment is safe, the minimum requirement is through the use of three-core cable (which 4 includes an earth lead) and, possibly, a safety cut-out device. 0 In conjunction, more often than not, with ignorance or carelessness, electrical hazards generally arise due to one or more of the following factors: = + Inadequate or non-existent earthing uJ + Wom or damaged wiring, insulation, plugs, sockets and other installations + Bad wiring systems and the misuse of good systems 7 + Incorrect use of fuses i + Inadequate inspection and maintenance of power tools and equipment All electrical equipment must be regularly checked and tested for correct operation and us electrical safety. To show that this has been done, a dated label should be attached, showing when the equipment was last tested and when the next inspection is due. q Any new item of equipment must have a test label attached. The presence of a test label does not, however, absolve the user from checking the equipment for any external signs of damage, 7] such as a frayed power cord (or missing safety devices) before use. \ In the event of a person witnessing another person receiving an electric shock, the basic 1 actions, to be followed by the witness, are: Shout for help and ensure there is no danger of also becoming a victim } * Switch off the electrical current or remove the victim from the supply by means of insulated material If the vietim has ceased breathing, initiate resuscitation Call for professional medical help If the victim is suffering from burns, exclude air from wounds | Treat for shock by keeping the victim warm : The approved methods of artificial resuscitation must, by law, be displayed on walll charts in workplaces. e) q 1-22 Module 7.1 Safety Precautions-Aircraft and Workshop , TTS integrated Taning Sytem mans crnn SCopyrign 2010 setae ‘one zathie case ooohco Pee ca L Cc eee eee eat oo feo C3 eat eee (res) Integrated Training System High-Pressure Gases Compressed gases are frequently used in the maintenance and servicing of aircraft. The use of compressed gases requires a special set of safely measures. The following rules apply for the use of compressed gases: * Cylinders of compressed gas must be handled in the same way as any high-energy (and therefore potentially explosive) sources Eye protection must always be worn when handling compressed gases Never use a cylinder that cannot be positively identified When storing or moving a cylinder, have the cap securely in place to protect the valve stem + When large cylinders are moved, ensure that they are securely attached to the correct trolley or vehicle Use the appropriate regulator on each gas cylinder Never direct high-pressure gases at a person Do not use compressed gas or compressed air to blow away dust and dirt, as the resulting flying particles are dangerous * Release compressed gas slowly. The rapid release of a compressed gas will cause an unsecured gas hose to whip about and even build up a static charge, which could ignite a combustible gas + Keep gas cylinders clean. Oil or grease on an oxygen cylinder can cause spontaneous combustion and explosions Safety Around Compressed Gases Compressed gases are found in all aircraft maintenance shops. For example, compressed air powers pneumatic drill motors, rivet guns. paint spray guns, and cleaning guns. In addition, ‘compressed nitrogen is used to inflate tires and shock struts while compressed acetylene is used in welding Most shop compressed air is held in storage tanks and routed throughout the shop in high pressure lines. This high pressure presents a serious threat of injury. For example, if a concentrated stream of compressed air is blown across a cut in the skin, it is possible for the air to enter the bloodstream and cause severe injury or death. For this reason, air dusting guns are usually equipped with a restrictor that reduces the pressure at their discharge to 30 PSI of less. Be very careful when using compressed air not to blow dirt or chips into the face of anyone standing nearby. To prevent eye injury. you should wear eye protection when using pneumatic tools. To prevent injury from a ruptured hose, always keep air hoses and fittings in good condition. Far too many accidents occur when inflating or deflating tires. Therefore, wheel assemblies being worked on should be placed in a safety cage to minimize injury if the wheel or tre fails during inflation, Always use calibrated tyre gauges, and make certain to use a regulator that is in good working condition. High-pressure compressed gases are especially dangerous if they are mishandled. Oxygen and Module 7.1 Safety Precautions-Aircraft and Workshop 1-23 Ls ane scone ‘TTS integrated Training System roman tastes ‘© Copynght 2010 SSpeadmeeuserIntegrated Training System nitrogen are often found in aviation maintenance shops stored in steel cylinders under a J pressure of around 1,800 PSI. These cylinders have brass valves screwed into them. Ifa cylinder should be knocked over and the valve broken off, the escaping high-pressure gas. 7 would propel the tank like a rocket. Because this would create a substantial hazard, you should |) make sure that all gas cylinders are properly supported. A common method of securing high pressure cylinders in storage is by chaining them to a building, Furthermore, a cap should be securely installed on any tank that is not connected into a system. This protects the valve from damage. itis extremely important that oxygen cylinders be treated with special care. In addition to having =! all of the dangers inherent with other high-pressure gases, oxygen always possesses the risk of explosion and combustion. For example. you must never allow oxygen to come in contact with petroleum products such as oil or grease, since oxygen causes these materials to ignite u spontaneously and burn. Furthermore, never use an oily rag, or tools that are oily or greasy, to install a fitting or a regulator on an oxygen cylinder. To minimize the risk of fire. use only an approved MIL Specification thread lubricant when assembling oxygen system components. When checking oxygen systems for leaks, use only an] approved leak check solution that contains no oil. J Figure 1.13: Be sure the protective n cap is screwed on a cylinder 5} containing high-pressure gas to prevent damage to the valve when 7 the cylinder is not connected into a system. ul eee - i 124 Module 7.1 Safety Precautions-Aircraft and Workshop a TIS Integrated Teining System Ue ree sacs © Copyigh 2010 coatcteyiedsornt seein 1)eee 7} C co ft fee Integrated Training System Gas Bottle Identification High-pressure gas cylinders contain various types of gas, the most common used on commercial aircraft being nitrogen and oxygen. To ensure correct identification of these containers, they are colour coded and the name of the gas is stencilled on the side, In the UK, gas containers use BS 381C as the standard to determine the correct colour and shade for each gas type. Nitrogen bottles are painted grey on the body with a black neck, whilst oxygen bottles are black with a white neck. Be aware that bottles of US manufacture use an alternative system, the main difference being oxygen bottles are painted green all over. High-Pressure Gas Replenishing When replenishing aircraft services such as tyres and hydraulic accumulators with high- pressure gas, care must be taken to ensure that only the required pressure enters the container. When full, a gas storage bottle can hold as much as 200 bar (3000 PSI) whilst an aircraft tyre pressure may only require 7 bar (100 PSI). To safely control the gas, two pressure regulating valves are used, one at the storage bottle end and one at the delivery end of the system. If one valve fails the other will prevent the receiving vessel from taking the full bottle pressure with the consequence of an explosion. For added safety the gas bottle valve opening key should be left in the valve whilst decanting operations are completed. If problems occur then the high-pressure bottle can be quickly isolated before the situation becomes dangerous. The transfer of high-pressure gases from a large storage bottle to the aircraft component is often called decanting and must be done at a very slow rate. If the gas is decanted rapidly the temperature of the receiving component will increase in accordance with the gas laws. Again using the same gas laws the temperature of the gas in the container will drop to ambient, and the pressure in that vessel will reduce. The component pressure will now be incorrect and require the decanting process to be repeated. In workshops, compressed air is, sometimes, produced by a compressor (which is housed in a remote building), and fed, via galleries, to work stations. Care must be taken to ensure that no damage occurs to the piping whilst in use. If a concentrated stream of compressed airris blown across a cut in a person's skin, then air can enter the blood stream and cause injury or death. For this reason, air-dusting guns are restticted to about 2000 kPa (30 PSI). Aircraft tyres can require very high pressures and must be inflated inside a strong cage. This cage would protect the personnel working on the wheels in the event of a tyre or wheel bursting. Module 7.1 Safety Precautions-Aircraft and Workshop 1-25 sear aascese ‘TTS Integrated Training System Soret be catsert (@Copynght 2010, Snbapeaarrescanaroy Integrated Training System PEE Oxygen Systems Modem aircraft fly at altitudes where life support systems are needed. Even though most of these aircraft are pressurised, emergency oxygen must be carried in the event that the pressurisation system fails. Smaller aircraft can carry oxygen in cylinders whilst the larger, civil, =.) aircraft have individual oxygen generator units. These units are stowed in the overhead cargo bins, above the passenger seats, and are known as the passenger service units or PSUs. A PSU produces oxygen, by means of a chemical reaction, and is activated when its mask (which drops from the overhead bin in an emergency) is pulled by a passenger. Note: When PSUs reach their life expiry and have to be returned to their manufacturer, it is vital n that all precautions are followed to make the units ‘safe’ for transit. PSUs get very hot when Ad working and have caused the destruction, due to fire, of an aircraft, which was carrying these units as cargo. 7 ‘The main oxygen systems are serviced from trolleys or vehicles that carry a number of high- pressure bottles of oxygen, which can be at 140 bar (2,000 PSI) or more. Some trolleys may 7 also have a bottle of nitrogen, to allow the replenishment of hydraulic accumulators and landing gears. The two types of bottles must be separated, in order to prevent the accidental mixing of the gases. n Itis extremely important that oxygen cylinders be treated with special care, because, in addition to having all the dangers inherent with all other high-pressure gases, oxygen always possesses] the risk of combustion and explosion. ) As previously stated, oxygen must never be allowed to come into contact with petroleum products such as oil and grease, since oxygen causes these materials to ignite spontaneously. and to burn. Furthermore, an oil-soaked rag, or tools that are oily or greasy (or badly oil-stained overalls), must never be used when installing an adapter or a regulator on an oxygen cylinder. } Due to the risk of fire and explosion, replenishing trolleys must never be parked close to hydraulic oil replenishing rigs, or in any area where petroleum products are likely to come into } contact with the oxygen servicing equipment. Similarly only specially approved thread lubricants. | can be used when assembling oxygen components. eee eee Eee u 1-26 Module 7.1 Safety Precautions-Aircraft and Workshop TTS integrated Trang System sare secoe Copy 2010 cowry rr pepe ite seco om ot 7 c Integrated Training System Aviation Oils and Fuels Aviation oils, generally, are a fairly low-risk material when compared with the more volatile, higher distillates of petroleum such as the aviation fuels - petrol (gasoline) and paraffin (kerosene). Most lubricating oils are flammable, if enough heat is generated but, when the materials are kept away from excessive heat sources, they are (compatatively) quite benign. Synthetic lubricating oils, methanol and some hydraulic oils may be harmful or even toxic if their vapours are inhaled. Also, if they come into contact with the skin or eyes, they can cause injury or blindness. Particular note should be taken of any warnings of dangers to health that may be contained in the relevant maintenance manuals and the recommended procedures for the handling of these liquids should always be observed. Oils and fuels also have an adverse effect on paintwork, adhesives and sealants and, thus, may inhibit corrosion-prevention schemes. Care should, therefore, be taken not to spill any of these liquids but, if a spillage should occur, it must be cleaned up immediately. Note: Sweeping up gasoline spillage with a dry broom can cause a build up of static electricity, with the accompanying risk of explosion. With gasoline and kerosene there is a much greater chance of fire, so more thorough precautions are required. These start with the basic rules, such as not wearing footwear with nails or studs (to prevent sparks), not carrying matches or cigarette lighters and ensuring that ALL replenishing equipment is fully serviceable. Note: All references to refuelling, normally, also include the action of de-fuelling and both are considered under the common term of fuelling. During any fuelling operation, in a workshop, a hangar or on the flight line, the relevant fire extinguishers must be in place. Module 7.1 Safety Precautions-Aircraft and Workshop 1-27 sorters “TTS Iniegated Training System iat Sacer ‘© Copyght 2010 Sipe 2d enerIntegrated Training System navn ae i" Chemical and Physiological Hazards Many chemical compounds, both liquid and solid, are used in aircraft maintenance and these may need specific precautions. Any precautions can be found in the relevant maintenance manuals and in the Control of Substances Hazardous to Health (COSHH) leaflets applicable to those materials. The range of adhesives used for repair and sealing during the maintenance of aircraft is vast. A large number of these produce vapours which, generally, can be dangerous in any enclosed space, both from the results of inhalation of narcotic fumes and from the fire risk associated with those which give off volatile, flammable, vapours. Surface finishes present another area where the various types of material used (etchants, celluloses, acrylics, enamels, polyurethanes etc.), dictate specific precautions. The solvents used, before the actual painting and afterwards, need safety precautions with regards to ventilation, reaction with other materials and, most importantly, their possible corrosive, toxic, irritant and addictive effects on personnel. Some materials have a mildly radioactive property, although they emit little ionising radiation in normal circumstances. These materials are sometimes referred to as ‘heavy metals’ and can be found in balance-weights as well as in smoke detectors, luminescent ‘EXIT’ signs and instruments. This radiation differs from that used for non-destructive testing (NDT) procedures, where high levels of radiation are employed, by specially trained personnel, and which, therefore, require many safety precautions to avoid personal injury. The safety precautions for NDT procedures will be found within the manuals applicable to their employment. alia Module 7.1 Safety Precautions-Aircraft and Workshop TTS ltegrated Training System nan canes © Conyaght 2010 ccneedytie amet pope fee cana ™ pee ia Us oo7 Cc {sans} oo c fo Integrated Training System General Flight-Line Safety Many sources of accidents on the flight line are involved with propellers and rotor blades. They are difficult to see when they are turning, and personnel (despite being familiar with the hazards of propellers and rotors), sometimes become distracted and forget about the danger. The main difference between these, and other flight-line accidents, is that they are almost always fatal. Propellers - Most blades have high-visibility markings, to ensure that they can be seen when they are turing. These markings vary & from a yellow blade tip marking, to black and white alternate j stripes along the full blade length. To reduce the risk of \ propeller and rotor blade strikes, it is best to follow strict rules as to the correct way to approach and leave the vicinity of an aircraft or helicopter whilst itis under power. For Figure 1.14: Effect of example (and propeller high visibility allowing for the fact markings that there are specific rules laid down for each aircraft), installing and removing chocks should normally be done from the wing-tip direction. Boarding and leaving a helicopter should always be done from the side. Figure 1.15: Propeller ties and ‘engine and exhaust blanks Jet Engines - When dealing with running jet engines there are similar dangers. These come not ‘only from the noise risk, which can result in'deafness, but also from the risk of intake suction, which has resulted in ramp personnel being sucked into the engine and being killed. At the rear of the aircraft, there is the risk of jet blast, which, at maximum thrust is quite capable of overturning a vehicle if it passes too close behind the aircraft. (refer to figure 1.16). Piston- powered aircraft (depending on their size) will have similar danger areas. Module 7.1 Safety Precautlons-Aircraft and Workshop 1-29 esa asoraree ‘TTS Integrated Training System ee renner {© Copyight 2010, Rowpezet ecoIntegrated Training System Distance 0 10 (eetees) | Figure 1.16: Aircraft Doors - Never open or close an aircraft passenger door or cargo door without first receiving training on how to do this safety. Most aircraft passenger doors have an emergency operation mode, which activated inadvertently could cause damage and serious injury. Aircraft cargo doors are usually electrically or hydraulically activated. Incorrect operation on these doors will also cause damage or injury. Figure 1.17: “Door Armed” warning Aireratt access panels and engine cowlings - Always ensure that all aircraft access panels and engine cowlings are supported by their hold open stays, where fitted. Supporting them on steps or ground equipment is likely to cause damage. When closing access panels and engine cowlings, make sure open stays are correctly stowed, all tools spares and other items used during maintenance are removed, and that all panel and cowling latches and fasteners are locked. ee Module 7.1 Safety Precautions-Aircraft and Workshop 7 negated Trang Syston Users denis © Copyright 2010 consti aces hpnge dette snr J i] J co =] Cc) eee aere ere ee ce aH ceed cee fe) a ft 7 C4 Integrated Training System Fire Precautions - When carrying out maintenance tasks such as engine ground runs, o system function checks, ensure correct fire extinguishing appliances are available, usually a twin cylinder co 2 trolley and a power extinguisher. All fuel spills such as fuel, oil and hydraulic fluid should be cleaned up immediately. If a fuel spill is extensive, then the airport fire service should be contacted to deal with it. Blanks and Blanking - Be aware of blanks and covers that can be fitted to all aircraft during maintenance or as the situation requires, these include: + Engine Intake and Exhaust unit blanks * Pitot probe and pitot static blanks * Wheel covers * Windscreen covers The above are general, but aircraft type specific blanks are also available. When removing and fitting aircraft components, : always ensure that blanking caps and covers are Figure 1.18: Engine intake and transferred from the new component to the old one. exhaust cover If removing a component for maintenance purposes that is not going to be replaced immediately, ensure that the component and the aircraft connections, pipe lines, electrical connections, are all blanked. Failure to do this will allow the ingress of foreign materials, which if go undetected, could cause future system failure. When handling electric or electronic equipment, special anti-static blanks and packaging is always used. It must be remembered that when removing and fitting these blanks, normally coloured black, care must be taken not to touch the pin connections undermeath, as static discharge from Figure 1.19: Engine blanks with flags the fingers, will damage the internal electronic visible form cockpit components. Ground Locks - Several systems, especially flight controls and landing gear, are equipped with locks. These are designed to safety hydraulic actuators during maintenance. It is essential, that where available these locks are used to ensure personal safety, and stop systems damage. All Jocks and pins are equipped with a red pennant, with the words “REMOVE BEFORE FLIGHT” printed on it. It is of course essential for flight safety, that all locks are removed before flight. A record of ground locks fitted during maintenance is raised on a job card, or in the aircraft technical log. Module 7.1 Safety Precautions-Aircraft and Workshop 1-31 ee rr sensors ‘TTS Integrated reining Systom orray coro ‘@ Copyright 2010, SieageadenmewerFigure 1.20: Engine and pitot tube blanks and “Remove Before Flight” flags Circuit Breakers - Circuit breakers are provided to isolate electrical actuation or electrical control systems. This ‘enables the flight crew to isolate a system during an ‘emergency, and allows ground crew to isolate a system for maintenance. Pao (ae INOPERATIVE Donor Of Circuit breakers are usually identified in groups by a siaioll number/letter code, and individually by shorted words and/or numbers. Figure 1.21: Circuit breaker tags Ha circuit breaker is pulled to deactivate a system, a safely tag must be attached to it to. indicate this to other maintenance personnel. On no account should a circuit breaker be reactivated until the person who isolated it has been consulted. a Module 7.1 Safely Precautions-Alrcraft and Workshop TTS integrate Training System andor decors © Copyegt 2010 setanadey hessIntegrated Training System tases © British Caledonian WARNING—SAFETY FIRST [ waa ras HOST HoT be REN UED OF THE STREN] WARNING Seer te er eat sorean® exo 4 co fo DO NOT = = ' OPERATE as q Figure 1.22: Circuit breaker, switch and lever label — front and rear 0 Aircraft Systems Isolation - Prior to carrying out maintenance or system breakdown, some aircraft systems will require depressutization, draining, venting or cooling. U Hydraulic systems require depressurization of the system, and depressurization of the reservoir head pressure, this is usually pneumatic. On some aircraft, electrically operated valves will isolate sections of the hydraulic system, when [} operated u Fuel systems often require draining and venting, this is certainly the case with fuel tanks. Fuel {| supply systems can sometimes be isolated with the use of electrically operated valves. + Pneumatic systems sometimes require depressurization. cS «Aircraft toilet and water systems require draining and flushing. ‘+ Engine oil systems require depressurization and cooling. C + All systems require deactivation of their motive power, prior to maintenance or breakdown. n i | ul fl ia fi Module 7.1 Safety Precautions-Aircratt and Workshop 1-33 en TS regio ening Sten Perret : Key-Seat Rule Key-seat rules are used for marking-off lines, parallel to the axis, on the surface of tubes or j round bars (refer to figure 3.4). Sometimes referred to as ‘Box Squares’, key-seat rules are i usually graduated and are classified by their length. a oo Figure 3.4; Scribing lines with a key-seat rule on shaft for marking-off keyway eae, Module 7.3 Tools fe TTS nega Ting Syston sarees Seopyngn 2076 nent eer coPEE on c Fitter’s Square The fitter’s square is used for setting out lines at right angles to an edge or surface, and for checking right angular work for ‘truth’. Squares are made, to very fine limits, of high-carbon steel and are classified by the length of the blade. The blade and the stock have their opposing edges ground truly parallel with the two limbs set at exactly 90° to each other. To preserve its accuracy it is essential that it is handled carefully at all times and, when not in use, kept in a protective case or box. When testing a square for accuracy, it may be checked for truth against an accurately machined right angular test piece such as a ‘V’ block or master square. If this is not possible, a test may be carried out (refer to figure 3.5) as follows: * Place the stock against the true edge of a flat surface and scribing a line on the surface, using the outside edge of the blade + Tum the square over and check the outside edge of the blade against the previously scribed line. If the square is accurate, the blade edge and the scribed line will be in line. In a similar manner, the inside edge of the blade can be tested. Length of blade = Size of square True edge Noteh for clearance TR cee error Testing a titter’s square Blade and stock riveted together Figure 3.5: Fitter’s square Module 7.3 Tools ; calls covered te anor ‘TTS Integrated Training System Sroepe2 echo ‘©Copyright 2010Integrated Training System deeines she Combination Set The Combination Set (refer to figure 3.6, 3.7, 3.8 and 3.9), consists of a graduated steel rule, which has a machined groove running along the centre of its entire length. The rule can be slid into three different ‘heads’ and secured, by a locking screw device, so that the combination of rule and ‘head’ will enable certain tasks to be accomplished. The Centre Head is used, with the rule, to locate the centre line of bars or round tubes. b The Square Head (or Stock Head) has one working surface at 90°and another at 45° to the locked rule. This allows the tool to be used, either in a similar manner to the Fitter’s Square (to fe check the squareness of work), or it may be used for the marking out of mitre joints and bevels. A spirit level and scriber are sometimes accommodated in the base of the Square Head, to permit a check to be done on the horizontal or vertical accuracy of workpieces. The Protractor Head also has a spirit level, which rotates with the head, and allows the head to be used, singly, as a clinometer or, in conjunction with the rule, it may be used to mark out and check angles on workpieces. Figure 3.6: Components of a Combination Set ry] nm ae Module 7.3 Tools td ‘TS integrates Training System se a son © Copyright 2010 cxrenosy atone aon Solna aoIntegrated Training System es TTT Ele at e ee tC CENTER HEAD seas PROTRAGTOR HEAD 1 series —~~ Figure 3.7: Combination Set 7 fo c Zero mark co Spirit level eS eae Checking the truth of an Angle with the Protractor Head + Scriber * ! u Figure 3.8: Using the Protractor Head and the Stock Head u eet Module 7.3 Tools 8-413 ate ene “TTS integrated Taining System f 1 Smead Sacer ‘© Copyright 2010Integrated Training System Design Centering the end of a bar with the Center Head Figure 3.9: Using the Centre Head to find the centre of a bar Surface Plates Surface plates (and surface tables which are larger), while not actually being classed as marking out or measuring tools, are simply blocks of grey cast iron with finely machined faces which can be used as a standard of flatness. They may also be used to provide a true surface, from which marking out, measuring and testing can be done. Surface plates are usually mounted on a bench and, normally, only have three supporis, or feet, to ensure steadiness, if the surface of the bench were to be slightly uneven. Surface tables are free standing, on the workshop floor, and their sheer weight provides the required steadiness. The standard of the surface finish varies. The better grades are scraped and the ‘cheaper ones are merely planed, The accuracy of a planed table depends upon the accuracy of the machine producing it Figure 3.10: Surface Plate Surfaces of grade ‘A’ standard would only be used in Standards Rooms, grade ‘B’ surfaces are for inspection work while grade ‘C’ surface plates and tables would be found in typical workshops. a4 ‘TTS integrated Training Systom ©Copyright 2010, Module 7.3 Tools,Integrated Training System ined sith slubs6pr9 co a Grade ‘A’ plates are accurate to less than 0.02mm being scraped to obtain this accuracy. Provided with three feet to prevent rock the undersides are ribbed to prevent warping and twisting of the top face handles are provided for carrying the plates. NM . Surface plates and tables can be used to Foot test for flatness, providing the standards required are not too high. The surface of the plate is lightly smeared with a mixture of engineer's blue and a few drops of oil The piece to be tested has to be rubbed lightly on to the surface plate and any high spots will show up as blue spots on the test : piece. These spots will be filed or scraped i ae Ribbing until the whole surface shows blue. £ | Figure 3.11: Underside components of a Ll Surface Plate After use, a light film of oil should be applied to the working surface of the surface plates and tables. They should, then, be protected with a wooden cover, L. to prevent the onset of corrosion. Figure 3.12: Surface plate with handles i \ = eee eee ami eee Module 7.3 Tools 315 oats “TS integrate Tranng System Sanne ‘conan 200 icIntegrated Designed in Angle Plates ‘These are made of cast iron and machined accurately on the outer faces and edges, they are Fe used for supporting work for marking out and machining slots are provided for bolting down, i size range 75mm to 300mm. a Slots for bolting down Testing the accuracy of an Angle Plate with Fitter's Square on Surface Plate i Figure 3.13: Angle Plate Figure 3.14: Typical use of an Angle Plate a) J ul Marking-Out Tables These are used to support work for marking out, and form a base from which measurements can be taken. They are made of close grained cast iron and are strongly ribbed on the underside for tigidity, the working surface is accurately machined to give a true flat surface and the edges are square. To preserve the surface no other work than marking out or measurement should be done on the table, after use the surface should be lightly oiled and then covered with the wooden cover. 7 ei 4 Figure 3.15: Marking-Out Table oe: oe Module 7.3 Tools f TTS ttegated Trang System Laeeraronccere © Copyright 2010 ceroradby osu5 u Bae) C (mea f Integrated Training System V-Blocks are accurately machined, six-sided, rectangular blocks (generally made of cast iron), which may be used on surface plates and tables to hold a round bar, which can then be marked in a vatiety of ways to give centres and lines parallel to its side, V-blocks are classified by the maximum diameter of the work, which they can hold. All opposite sides of the blocks are parallel and all adjacent faces are square to each other. A 90° groove (in the shape of a V) is machined in two (longer) opposite faces, but the grooves are cut at different depths, to cater for bars of different diameters. Figure 3.16: V-Block The V-cut grooves have a small, square-cut, clearance groove in the bottom of the V. This ensures that any oil, or dirt runs off the sides of the V and does not clog the bottom of the V, causing an imperfect seating of any bar which were to be placed in the blocks. \V-blocks are made in (identified) matching pairs, which must always be used together, so that a block of one pair should not be used with one of another pair. This is because each pair was cut from the same machined stock to ensure they are of identical size regardless of the tolerance of the machine from which they were manufactured. Some V-blocks also have grooves machined along the other two longer, parallel sides, to locate specially designed clamps (as shown in figure 3.17), which may be used to securely hold work while it is being accurately marked out or drilled. Surface Gauge (Scribing Block) Figure 3.1 A Surface Gauge, or Scribing Block (refer to figure with clamps 3.18), is another marking out tool, used, on a surface plate or table, in conjunction with a scriber (and, occasionally, with V-blocks), for the marking of lines, which are parallel to a true surface. -Blocks used in pairs The scriber is clamped to a spindle, which can be accurately pivoted, by means of a fine adjustment screw, on the heavy base. The base, which is generally made from cast iron (or hardened steel) is machined to be as flat as the surface plate on which it slides, but itis also Module 7.3 Tools B47 sett some ‘TTS integrated Tisining System Sores te Se Copyright 2010Integrated Training System Designed in association vif he grooved (in a similar manner to the V-block) so that it can be used on round stock when required. pans | ‘Two friction-fit pins, in the base, may be pushed down, to assist in drawing lines parallel to a true edge. Figure 3.18: Use of a Scribing Block Marking-off table Scribing Figure 3.19: Scribing lines with a Scribing Block 318 Module 7.3 Tools: rt TIS images raining System esonterdcancae Scapa aleeSpring Dividers Dividers are used to set out distances and to scribe arcs and circles. The legs are made of high-carbon steel, the spring made of spring steel and the adjusting mechanism of mild steel. Dividers are classified by the length of their legs. The points should be kept sharp and of equal length by stoning only the outside of the legs. If grinding is used to sharpen the points, it must be done very carefully, as the temper of the points can be drawn, leaving them soft. The points of dividers should be protected, when not in use, in a similar manner to those of scribers and such tools. Callipers \ Integrated Training 3) Figure 3.20: Spring Dividers Callipers (refer to figure 3.21) are a type of measuring device, typically used to measure diameters and distances or for comparing sizes. The three basic types of calliper are: * Outside Callipers: Used to measure the outside diameter of an object and have legs that point inwards Inside Callipers: Used to measure the inside of a hole and have legs that point outwards Odd-Leg Callipers (Hermaphrodite or ‘Jenny’ Callipers): This tool is really halt callipers and half dividers. It may be used for scribing arcs on metal surfaces from an edge, for scribing lines parallel to an edge or surface, (provided accuracy is not of great importance), and for finding the centre of a round bar. Module 7.3 Tools Sedona it soy anna 22h epee Figure 3.21: Inside and Outside Callipers 3-19 ‘TTS Integrated Training System © Copyriit 2010aining System Sutside Inside Figure 3.22: Using Inside and Outside Callipers parallel line _ straight edge Figure 3.23: Using Odd-Leg Callipers 3-20 Module 7.3 Tools TTS Integrated Training System Use eno: cinconare is Copyright 2010 lanally ssa het a cee fuses |Trammels Used for drawing circles of large diameter or stepping off, distances beyond the limit of dividers. The head or point are always used in pairs and are fixed to a rectangular or round beam of convenient length one of the heads is usually fitted with a fine adjustment. Bowed strut Marking-out table Twice the error Yinch Figure 3.24: Measuring the bow in a strut, using a three- legged Trammel and surface plate Module 7.3 Tools 321 marae 7S ttegated Ting Stor serueass omnesIntegrated Training System Hammers Hammers (refer to figure 3.25) are classified by their weight and type of head. Steel heads are forged and manufactured from high-carbon steel. Most shafts are made from straight-grained ‘Ash ot Hickory and are secured to the head by wedging. BARES Pall Pein Cross Pein Straight Pein . CopperorLead ~ ‘Hide Faced Figure 3.25: Common types of hammer As can be seen from figure 3.25, the main types of engineering hammers are the: Ball Pein: The flat surface is used for most general-purpose work whilst the ball pein is used primarily for riveting-type operations Straight Pein: Used for general work, the narrow, straight pein being particularly suitable for use where access to the work is limited Cross Pein: As for the straight pein, but the axis of the pein is at 90°to that of the shaft. jide/Copper Face: The rawhide facing enables heavy blows to be delivered without damaging the surface of the work, while the copper face may be used for heavier types of work than hide faced hammers. Rubber Head and Plastic Face: More modern versions of the Hide Face hammer. & Can often have one of each type of face on each end of the head. Figure 3.26: Plastic face hammer * Claw Hammer: More commonly used for e woodworking, The face is used for hammering 2) nails whilst the claw is used for removing nails Figure 3.27: Claw hammer ee Module 7.3 Tools Tis negated Tsing Sytom Yossie Scopyegtan oageaipeararat hrage Zot per eee cy ae } eee a aaa 4' u c t oe ec Integrated Training System + Plannishing Hammer: Little used in aircraft work, as they are primarily used to remove dents and blemishes from sheet metal. They are also known as body hammers. The weight of hammer required can be found with experience. EB Before use, it must be ensured that the head is secure on the shaft, The shaft should be gripped close to the end opposite the head, as | proper control is not possible if it is held close to the head. Figure 3.28: Plannishing hammer Punches Although punches are not ‘pounding tools’, they do allow the force from a hammer blow to be concentrated in the immediate area of the punch tip. This in turn means that the pressure at the end of the punch is increased compared to a hammer blow without a punch. Over a period of time, the hammered shank end of a punch, tends to deform into the shape of a mushroom. To reduce the chance of a metal chip flying off and causing injury, during punching operations, the deformation should be removed and the shank end returned to its original shape by the use of a bench grinder. Eye or face protection should always be used when using punches of any type. The types of punches, more commonly found in an engineer's toolkit, include: * Centre Punches * Pin Punches * Hollow Punches * Drifts The first three punches are, usually, constructed from hexagonal (or knurled, round) rods of tempered, cast steel with a length of approximately 127 mm (6 in), a gripping diameter of approximately 3.175 mm (0.125 in) and a smaller, driving end of the appropriate size. Centre Punches are relatively sharp-pointed tools, used to make an indentation in metal. The indentation aids in locating the centre of a hole and for starting a drill bit when drilling the hole. The points may be ground at angles Figure 3.67: A hand-brace iba Module 7.3 Tools TIS intapates Training Sytem sean decaie © Copyngt 2010 needy sot copage dane caper rH eee eee ) co J eee ee eto oeC EOE BH Peta ei eee Cee eo Hee i Beet EeE eet Integrated Training System cubsgprc aiesio pede While the range of tools, designed to create holes in metals and other materials is vast, the Morse-lype (named after its inventor, an American engineer) of Twist Drill (refer to figure 3.68) is the one most commonly used in aircraft (and in general) engineering. The shank is the part of the twist drill that is gripped and driven by the chuck of the drilling machine and itis on the shank that the details of the type (grade) and diameter of the drill can usually be found printed or engraved. On drills up to 12.5 mm (¥4") diameter, the shank is parallel and placed into the jaws of a self- centring chuck. On drills above 12.5 mm the shank is usually tapered (to a Morse Taper) of 1:20. The tapered shank fits directly into a matching tapered housing in the drilling machine spindle. The tapered shank usually ends in a tang and this arrangement provides @ more positive drive, which is necessary to overcome the higher forces when driling with the larger diameter drills. Land mae Point ~ Body ‘Shank Figure 3.68: Twist drill nomenclature: The helical flute (or fluting), formed in the drill body, provides a rake angle for the cutting edges of the drill. The fluting also allows any lubricant to flow towards the cutting edges and provides a path for the waste metal (‘swarf), to move clear. ‘The land of the drill actually touches the wall of the hole and steadies the drill during rotation. Immediately behind the land, metal is removed from the body of the drill, to reduce the friction during rotation. In order that the drill will cut properly, the point must be ground to the correct shape (refer to figure 3.69). The cutting angle of 59° (118°inclusive), a clearance angle of 12° and a web angle of 130° are typical for normal metal cutting, such as aluminium alloys, steels, cast iron and copper. These can be changed to suit the cutting of different materials such as harder metals, softer metals or plastics. Module 7.3 Tools 347 cores ‘TTS integrated Training System Smee Resa ‘© Gopyert 2010Integrated Training System Designed in association vith he lub65pr0. co.uk Total Clearance 4 \nitial Figure 3.69: Twist drill Clearance (top), Web (bottom left) and Cutting angles (bottom right) Itis essential that the drill point is central and that the cutting angles of 59° are equal. An offset point or unequal cutting angles will cause an unbalanced rotation that will, in tun, produce an oversized hole. To achieve the desired cutting and clearance angles (and resulting web angles), a drill grinding attachment may be found attached to a grinding wheel in a workshop. Hand grinding/sharpening of drills can be achieved (especially after practice), to an acceptable standard for general work. For the high standard of hole, required to receive rivets, in the pressurised skins of aircraft, it is common practice to discard drills, which have become blunt and to replace them with new drills. There are many different grades of metal, used in the manufacture of twist drills, the most common being: + Carbon Steel * High Speed Steel * Cobalt Steel. iiaee Module 7:3 Tools TTS intgeated Training Syston ensiyacret © copyig 2010 nanalty cant Sopaeo dee cee Bees Bea eee eee Geet eee eter oo eee 3He Ae > Io oe ee ee =~ Integrated Training System the a Carbon Steel drills, in addition to iron and carbon, contain various amounts of manganese, silicon, sulphur and phosphorus. The letters CS may be found on the shanks of these drills. High Speed Steel (HSS) drills, contain a comparatively high percentage of tungsten (8%-12%) with a lesser percentage of chromium (5%) and smaller amounts of vanadium and, possibly, molybdenum added to the carbon and iron in this steel. HSS diills retain their hardness at low red heat and can, thus, be used at much higher speeds than carbon steel drills. This results in much less damage to the cutting edges and, although HSS drills are more expensive than CS drills they can, over a period of time, result in a greater economy in the purchase of dlls. Cobalt Steel drills, contain up to 12% cobalt, with as much as 20% tungsten, 4% chromium, 1%-2% vanadium and traces of molybdenum combined with 0.8% carbon. These drills are normally used on metals such as stainless steels, titanium and other very hard metals. Being extremely hard, Cobalt Steel drills are also quite brittle. Because of this, the use of these drills can be very dangerous, and, so, strict observance of the recommended cutting speeds is essential. Drill Sizes Drill diameter sizes are also usually marked upon the shank of the drill and can be identified by the method used in their sizing. The most common methods of identifying the diameter of twist drills are: * Metric * Fractions of an inch + The Number/Letter range. In the Metric range, the smallest, commercially available, drill has a diameter size of 0.35 mm. The full range proceeds in increments of 0.05 mm up to 5.0 mm, and, for larger sizes, in increments of 0.1 mm. The Fractional (Inch) range has a minimum size of "/e4" diameter, proceeding in steps of ‘/eq” up to 1%", and then in steps of %2" up to 3” diameter. Table 3.2 shows the Number/Letter Range method of sizing drills. This method utilises numbers from 80 to 1 and letters from A to Z. The smallest size being the Number 80 (0.35 mm diameter) drill, and the decreasing number of sizing indicating an increase in the drill diameter. The letters supersede the numbers after number 1 (5.80 mm) is reached, with the next largest drill diameter being labelled A (5.85 mm). The letters then move through the alphabet to the dill diameter size Z (10.50 mm), which is the end of the scale. Module 7.3 Tools aa veces TTS integrated Tilning System sein ‘© Copy 2010 Sepapsaeme chaserIntegrated Training System Designed in association with the club8Spro.ca.uk question practice a c } Decimal | Drill Decimal | Drill[__| Decimal | Drill Decimal 0195; 43 |.089 @| [199 [25/64] |.3906 n 0145 42, 0935 7 201 x 397, U ies|[otse | g/a2| |.0938 | 1a/64| | 2037 Y| [404 78 016 AV 096 6 204 13/32, 4063, nq 77 018 40 098 5 2055 Zz 413 76 020° 39 0995 4 -209 27/64 4219 75. 021 38 1015 3 1213 it A375. 74 0225 37 104 7/32 2188 29/64 A531 0 73 024 36 1065. 2 221 15/32 4688 72 025 7/64 1094 4 228 31/64 4844 nm 71 026 35 4410 A 234 12 500 7o{_[.028 34] it ise | [2344 [oarea |__| .5156 se eo _|.0298 33, [113 Bl [298 [172 [1.5313 68 | |.031 32{ [116 || -242[asv64 | [5469 gj 1/32 0313 31 120 D 246 9/16 5625, 67 |_| .032 we | |.1250 [474 (E)|__|-260 | S7/ea| [5781 pa 66 033 30 1285 Fs 257 19/32 5938 65 | _[-035, 2a] [136 Gl [261 —_[se/ea || .600a 64 036 28 1405 17/64 2656 5/8 625 63] [037 wea | [1406 H{ [268 | 41/64] _|.6406 Q 62 038 27 144 1 272 21/32 6563 61 039 26 147 J 277 A364 6719 Pe 60 040 25 1495 K 281 116 6875 59 041 24 152 9/32 2813 45/64 7031 58 042 23 154 - .290 23/32 7188 Bee 57 043 5/32 1563, M 295 47/64 7344 56 0465 22 157 19/64 2969 3/4 750. u 3/64 0469 21 159 N 302 49/64 7656. 55 2052 20 164 SAG “3125 | 25/32 7813 A 54 { [055 19 [ [166 O[_ [36 —[s1e4 [ [-7969 J 53 0595 18 1695, P 323 13/16 8125 TA6 0625 | 11/64 1719 21/64 3281 | 63/64 8281 fn 52 0635. 47 173 Q 332 27/32 8438 al 067, 16. 177 R 339 55/64 8594 50 070 15, 180 11/32 3438 78 875, 0 49 073 14 182 Ss 348 57/64 8906 48 076 13 185 i 358 29/32, .9063_ 5/64 0781 3/16 1875 23/64 13594 59/64, 9219 47|__|.0785 12[ [189 Ul [368 [15/16 | [9375 g 46 081 1 191 EI 375 61/64 9531 45 082 10 1935, V 377. 31/32 9688, 44 086 9 196. Ww 386 63/64 9844, Table 3.2: Number/Letter Range of Drill Sizes ‘The Metric sizes have virtually superseded the numbered and lettered ranges and, usually, a metric size can be found as a replacement for an obsolete size. 3-50 Module 7.8 To's ‘TTS integrated raining System Usa cusoveis © Copyright 2010, "apse doin cao ooo ere oe cece) eee ee eee:eo ieee Hier ee eee ee eee eee Integrated Training System If the drill is too small to have the size stamped on the shank, then either a drill gauge or a micrometer should be used to establish its size correctly. Drill Lubricants The use of a suitable lubricant when drilling is very important, not only does the use of lubricant improve the quality of the hole, but it also assists in dissipating the heat produced by drilling. This improves the cutting efficiency and prolongs the life of the dril. Table 3.3 shows some of the recommended lubricants, which may be employed when drilling metals. Material Lubricant Mild Steel Soluble Oil High-Carbon and Alloy Steels Kerosene or Turpentine Aluminium Alloys Kerosene. Cast Iron and Brass Usually no lubricant required Table 3.3: Recommended Lubricants for Metals Drill Speed For a twist drill to cut efficiently it must rotate at the correct speed, in a particular metal, for a given diameter drill. Most hand drills (excepting Breast Braces) are limited to one speed, which is a compromise on the ideal speed for the material and for the drill size. The speed of most static drilling machines can be varied by means of a gearbox or variable drive belt/pulley arrangement. Centre Punching and Centre Drilling When drilling small holes, up to 6,0 mm (‘4”) diameter, the depth of the centre punch mark will, usually, accommodate the non-cutting, chisel-like point of the drill, keeping it on centre and guiding the drill until it is established in the metal. When a hole larger than 6.0 mm diameter is to be drilled, the centre punch mark is not large enough to accept the non-cutting point of the drill. In this instance it will be necessary to employ the use of a pilot drill (refer to figure 3.70) to provide a guide for the larger drill. Firstly the centre of the hole is marked out on the metal and care must be taken to accurately centre punch the metal. ‘Asmall drill (the pilot drill), whose diameter is slightly larger than the non-cutting point of the ‘finished size’ drill, is selected and a pilot hole is drilled in the metal (ensuring that the correct lubricant, for the particular metal, is used). The pilot drill is replaced by the ‘finished size’ drill, which can, then (and again using lubricant), be guided through the pilot hole to complete the hole to the appropriate size. Module 7.3 Tools 3-51 ence rer TTS Integrated Training Syston Stes ed meets ‘© Copyright 2010Integrated Training System Subopetour veto atic od Figure 3.70: Use of a pilot drill Drill Shanks The grip exerted on a self centering chuck is adequate for smaller drills. A considerably stronger grip is required with larger drills and they usually have a Morse Taper terminating in a flat tang. The Morse Taper is 1-in-20 which engages directly with the tapered socket of the drilling machine or where necessary a Morse Taper adaptor. A slot is provided in the machine or adaptor to remove the drill by inserting a wedge, which sits on top of the drill tang, and tapping the wedge with a hammer to free the drill. A square shank is provided on some drills to fit a drill brace fitted with a pair of jaws with a “V" seating e.g. Carpenters Brace. TAPER OF DRILL lin 20 ADAPTOR x a Z- DRILL TANG Figure 3.71: Morse taper adaptor 362 Module 7.3 Tools TS itagated Trang Sytem nat nen Scopyign 2010 aes enemas C feceeeeeeeteet 3 (ont 3 7 oo coIntegrated Training System Designed in assoction vit he ‘lubespro.co.uk question practice alt Stop and Press (Dimpling), Countersinking Tools Two special tools, used during the riveting process, are the ‘Stop’ countersinking bit and the ‘Press’ countersinking, or (as it is more commonly known), the Dimpling tool. Both of these tools have evolved as a result of the need for flush skins on high-performance aircraft. In order to have the rivet heads flush with the surface, the skin must be prepared by either cutting away a portion of the metal to match the taper of the rivet head, or by indenting (by pressing) the edges of the hole to accept the rivet head. If the top sheet of the metal, being joined, is thicker than the tapered portion of the rivet head, then the material should be ‘cut’ countersunk. Whilst the standard countersink bit (or a twist drill, twice the diameter of the rivet hole) can be used, in a hand or power drill, to form a countersunk hole, the lack of accuracy and consistency means they are only useful for small jobs and certainly they should not be used where pressurised skins are concerned. Where a large number of holes need to be countersunk to a consistent depth, then the Stop Countersink tool should be used (refer to figure 3.72). This tool can be adjusted to cut an exact countersink repeatedly, regardless of the force applied to the drill/tool combination. The pilots can be changed, depending on the size of holes in the material, leaving the remainder of the too! to be used for all jobs unchanged. The stop may be held rigidly, during cutting, to prevent marking the surface. Figure 3.72: Stop countersink. Press countersinking or ‘dimpling’ is done where the aircraft skin is too thin to countersink, and without the attendant risk of enlarging the drilled hole. The edges of the hole are formed, to accommodate the head of the rivet, by using a set of dimpling dies, using either ‘coin dimpling’ or ‘radius dimpling’ methods. Coin dimpling forces the sheets into the lower die, leaving a sharply defined and parallel-sided hole. This process also allows a number of sheets to be ‘stacked’ together at the expense of a Module 7.3 Tools 3-53 essen ance TTS Integrated Training Systom Foie ‘© Copytight 2010Integrated Training System Designed in association vth the labédpro.co.uk question practi aki complex pair of tools and leaves a neat, clean dimpled hole with smooth sides (refer to figure 3.73). Radius dimpling uses a male die to drive the sheets into a female die. The sides of the formed holes are not as smooth as the coin dimpling method, but this less- precise operation is quicker and cheaper to achieve. ‘ With harder materials, such as magnesium and certain aluminium alloys, a process called hot dimpling is used. This method involves pre-heating the metal, so that it forms more easily and is less likely to crack when shaping takes place. Dimpled Punch Skin SF= Skin Kee eC KEE SSSR Aes Rivet has [A ; tate ——— Figure 3.73: Dimpling of sheet metal ae Module 7.3 Tools x TTS intgratoa Training System snd sete copy 2010 oneal at noage Sele case 4 oO momnp oo an Integrated Training System utpcouh concen paces a Reamers HAND (StRATGHT FLUTED) cS MAND EXPANDING Figure 3.74: Reamer types Reamers are precision-ground tools, which are used to enlarge drilled holes to accurate dimensions and provide a smooth intemal finish to accommodate precision-ground bolts and some special types of rivets. Reamers are manufactured from high-carbon steel or alloy steel and are fluted to provide a series of cutting edges. They are available, either for use by hand, or for using with a suitable dling machine. Machine reamers can usually be identified by the Morse tapered shank, which is inserted directly into the spindle of a drilling machine. The use of machine reamers is, usually, the prerogative of specialist machinists and not of line- ‘or hangar-based aircraft engineers so that only the hand-operated reamers will be discussed here. Hand reamers are rotated, by means of the hand wrench, which locates on the squared portion of the shank. They must always be rotated only in the cutting direction, even when withdrawing from a hole. The cutting lubricants, used on specific materials, are those which are used for drilling procedures. Module 7.3 Tools Sr wc ees “T78Igraod Tiinng Systom es ‘© Copy 2010 Sno 2dhtie hoonIntegrated Training System Desiened in nsaone ‘lud08re.20.0k quest Reamers are used for removing only small amounts of material, which, typically, for hand reamers, is approximately 0.2 mm-0.3 mm (0,008 in-0.012 in), so holes should be drilled with this fact in mind. Reamers are supplied in protective sleeves, to protect the fine, vulnerable cutting edges, which Tun along the body of the tool and, to preserve the sharp edges, they should be kept in their sleeves when not in use. The three most common types of hand-operated reamers are the: + Hand Parallel Reamer + Hand Expanding Reamer + Hand Taper Reamer. Hand Parallel Reamers (refer to figure 3.75) are fixed-size, parallel-bodied reamers, possessing either straight or spiral flutes. The straight fluted reamer can be considered to be the general- purpose reamer, whilst the spiral fluted reamer is used for reaming holes which have keyways or grooves as the spiral flutes smoothly bridge the edges of the gap in the metal while the reamer rotates. at Straight Fluted Reamer Spiral Fluted Reamer Figure 3.75: Hand parallel reamers Hand Expanding Reamers (refer to figure 3.76) are used where standard parallel reamers of the required dimension are not available. This type of reamer has separate, replaceable blades that slide, in tapering slots, and which are held in position by a pair of circular nuts. The reamer blades can be adjusted to the required cutting size by slackening one nut and tightening the other. ‘The shape of each blade is such that, at any point along the slot, its cutting edge is always Parallel to the axis of the reamer. The size range of each expanding reamer is stamped on its a Module 7.3 Tools TIS itegated Taig Syste sean Scapyign 2010 oapeaiprmene Sebage dal teecke q c foo aojamais Boat ee Integrated Training System Designed in astociaiion wih tha ‘lubogpro.co.uk question practice aid shank. The actual size set during adjustment can be checked using either a ring gauge or micrometer/calliper. nl Figure 3.76: Hand expanding reamer Hand Taper Reamers (refer to figure 3.77), are used to produce a tapered hole for the insertion of a standard taper pin. The two types of tapered reamers are the: * Metric: This type, and its corresponding taper pins, have a taper of 1:50. Its size is etched, or stamped, on the shank, and refers to its smaller diameter * Imperial: The reamers and the taper pins, for which they are used, have a taper of 1:48. The size of a reamer is indicated by numbers {which range from 0 to 10), or by a fractional designation. The size is etched or stamped on the shank and refers to its larger diameter. ss) Figure 3.77: Hand taper reamer The difference between the Metric and Imperial tapers is very slight, but its sufficient to make the taper pins incompatible. When replacement taper pins are required, particularly when both types are available, then great care must be taken to ensure that pins of the correct taper, size and type are installed. Module 7.8 Tools 357 evmosy be tare ‘TTS Integrated Training Systom Errage2 dines oer ‘©Copyright 2010Integrated Training System Designed in association wi he ‘clubSepr0.co.uk question practice ai Internal Screw Thread Cutting Taps ‘Taps are used for the hand cutting of internal (female) screw threads of the common types, up to a maximum diameter of approximately 25.4 mm (1.0 in). They are short, threaded bars of hardened and tempered steel, which are fluted to give cutting edges and the end of the shank is ‘squared, to facilitate turning with a wrench (refer to figure 3.79). Taps are normally made in sets of three, with the exception of the BA thread tap sets, which have only two taps to a set. Taps are supplied in sets of three except for B.A. sizes where the second tap is omitted. A tap set, which all have the same maximum diameter, normally consists of a: eee eee * Taper Tap a * Second Tap * Plug Tap 7 Taper Tap. pet hh Aen Second Tap LLPALA TERE BEEN Ete eee AAAI Ey Plug Tap Figure 3.78: Taper, Second and Plug taps The Taper Tap is used to start the thread cutting process. It is tapered gradually from the point for about two thirds of the threaded length, so that it can enter the pre-drilled hole easily and assist in the correct alignment of the tap (which is very important) before cutting commences. The last third of its length has fully formed threads. The Second (or Intermediate) Tap is used, following the taper tap, to deepen the thread. This tap is tapered for the first two or three threads only and, where it is possible for the tap to pass 0 the whole length through a hole, it is capable of cutting a fully formed thread. The Intermediate is the tap that is not available in BA thread tapping sets, n The Plug (or Bottoming) Tap has no taper and its purpose is to finish the threads in deep, through holes or to cut threads to the bottom of ‘blind’ holes. n a Module 7.3 Tools, U “TrSinegiated Tsing Syiom Seer soenscyteswerent py ©Copyright 2010, esaoe 3a hecteSot Eee eee eee eee ‘aE EEE Eee eS Hie ee Meee eee eee eee eee eee Hee eee Integrated Training System Designed in essocialion with he ‘lube pre.co.uk quest aie eS Ee ee Figure 3.79: A tap wrench Square End (fits in tap wrench) Softer and tougher Size marking ‘Type of thread ‘Threads per inch = eran Parallel brittle Tapered ‘Second Tap Figure 3.80: Tap nomenclature Before the thread can be cut, a hole must be drilled in the workpiece. This hole must be of the correct size and the drill that is selected (the ‘tapping’ drill), must have the same diameter as the minor diameter of the thread needed to be cut. The correct tapping drill size can be obtained from workshop charts and reference books. Unfortunately, because taps are ‘glass hard’ they are also brittle and can, thus, be easily broken if due care is not given to their use, It is imperative that the tap’s location in the drilled hole be constantly confirmed and that its main axis is maintained in proper alignment with the corresponding axis of the hole. Adequate cutting fluid (as used in the drilling procedure) must be applied, and the arms of the wrench should be of an appropriate length (not too long) so that the possibility of the tap wobbling in the hole, or excessive turning force being applied to the tap (and especially to the smaller diameter taps), is minimised. Module 7.3 To's 3-59 (prevesoy fe saterct ‘TTS imegrated Training System Saeedmomee SoGIntegrated Training System signed in association wth the eapr0.90 uk question practos ald Ita tap jams, and snaps off in a hole, its removal can cause serious difficulties. 7 *— Plug Tap Full Length Threads Second Tap = —_____» 2-3 Thread Full Taper Threads —— Taper Tap ee Gradual Full Teper Threads Conventional Tap Set Figure 3.81: Taper, Second and Plug tap set Following the drilling of the correct sized hole, the tapping procedure involves ensuring that the workpiece is securely held (firmly attached to another component or clamped in a vice) and that the taper tap is attached to the correct sized wrench. Taps, incidentally, may have ‘right’ or ‘left hand’ threads. Applying lubricant as required, the taper tap is inserted into the hole and its correct alignment verified (by use, for example, of an Engineer's square), before it is rotated clockwise (for a ‘right hand’ thread), slowly and gently, until the initial threads are established. Once the initial threads are established, the tap must not be rotated continuously, otherwise the cuttings will not break off and the tap will, consequently, jam in the hole and, if forced, it will shatter. To this end, the tap, after each full turn, is rotated backwards, approximately % to % of a tum, to break the cuttings off. The forward rotation is then continued, with subsequent cutting breaks, Until the full thread portion of the tap has cut sufficient full threads in the hole. After the preliminary cut, the process is repeated, using the second tap (if not a BA thread), and, if required, repeated again using the plug tap. The thread, and each end of the hole (where accessible), should be cleaned out if burrs or swarf are present and, with ‘blind’ holes, the swarf must be cleared out of the hole regularly to prevent the tap binding at the bottom of the hole. a Module 7.3 Tools TTS intgatos Taina Sytem Less siscee © Copyrgt 2010 nena sitet onpeae soln snrc Peso oo c om | Integrated Training System Designed In assoniaon wth the ‘lubSpr0.98 uk question pracice ait In the event of a tap breaking in a hole, it may be necessary to resort to specialist procedures (spark erosion for example) for its removal without causing further, and, possibly, expensive damage, to the component or workpiece. Cutting Internal Threads a) The first step in producing a well cut internal screw thread lies in the drilling of the hole to the correct tapping size. This should be the core diameter of the thread, but practically, the hole needs to be slightly larger to prevent the tap from binding and possibly breaking. b) To find the correct drill for use, consult an Engineers Pocket Book which will give tapping drill sizes. If the book is not available, the correct drill size may be obtained by: () Measuring the core diameter and taking the nearest size drill which is slightly larger than the core diameter. (i) Select a drill which will just pass through a nut of the appropriate size. ©) Having drilled a hole to the correct dimensions, ensure that the work is held rigidly ina vice. d) _ Enter the tap perpendicular to the face, tum in the cutting direction until the thread is just started. e) Test the tap for squareness using a fitters square. f) When satisfied that the tap is square, continue tuming in the cutting direction for half a turn, then reverse the direction for a quarter tum. This continuous action will break the cutting into chips and prevent straining the taps. 9) Continue cutting the thread as described until either the bottom of a blind hole has been reached or the full cutting length of the tap has been used. h) Change to the second or plug tap as required and continue until the thread has been properly cut. i) Lubricate the work using: (i) Cutting oil for steel, copper and bronze. (ii) Paraffin for aluminium and aluminium alloys. (iii) Brass and cast iron do not require a lubricant. Module 7.3 Tools 361 See aie Tro coteIntegrated Training System undlprce ln pace ad Reasons for Tap Breakage a) Not using taps in the correct order. b) Undersize drilled hole. c) Blind hole not drilled deep enough to allow clearance for chippings. d) —_Chippings not being cleared out of blind hole. ) _ Bottoming tap in blind hole. Removing a Broken Tap a) Ifa sufficient amount of tap is projecting above the surface and not too great a length embedded in the hole, it is sometimes possible to remove the tap with a pair of pliers. b) Providing the melting point of the work is above the annealing temperature of the tap, anneal both the work and the tap. The tap can then be drilled out and the hole re-tapped ©) Large taps can often be unscrewed or broken into pieces with an old punch or chisel. 4) Broken taps can be removed using an extractor. There are two types of extractor: (i) Ascrew extractor which has a left hand thread. It requires the tap to be annealed and drilled. (ii) For larger taps only, an extractor can be used that has a set of prongs which fit inside the flutes of the tap. No drilling or annealing is required. a Module 7.3 Tools ‘TTS Inlogratod Training Syetem Le te Secale © Copytight 2010 sommeccyiie sored copape Soltero EEE on oO oO Me a co q L J u oH BEER oo coco n U mM Ci fe eee eee C 1m Cc 2 Cc Integrated Training System Designed in socaion with the clubespro.c.ak question practice ac External Screw Thread Cutting Dies Dies are used for the hand cutting of external (male) threads on round rods or bars of comparatively small diameters. While there are several designs of dies (depending on the diameter of the thread being cut), consideration is given here only to the ‘split’ circular or button dies (refer to figure 3.82), which are, typically, found in aircraft maintenance workshops and may be used, by aircraft technicians, for the manufacture of studs and similar items. Circular dies consist of an internally threaded (‘right’ or ‘left handed’) disc of hardened and tempered steel, which is fluted to form several cutting edges. Dies also need to be rotated (in a similar manner to the previously mentioned taps), in order to cut threads but, unlike a tap and wrench, a die is rotated by the use of a stock. Die discs, within the smaller diameter ranges have a standard outside diameter, which allows a range of dies, with different internal sizes, to be used with the same, standard, stock. The discs are ‘split’, to allow for a degree of adjustment to the depth of the thread being cut. The manufacturers name, thread type, diameter and number of threads per millimetre (or inch) are marked on the face of the die (Taps, incidentally, are similarly marked on their shanks). Figure 3.82: A Die and Stock A shallow taper, or chamfer, must be ground or filed onto the end of the rod; to assist in the location of the die before cutting commences and the rod should be clamped firmly, and, preferably, vertically in the bench vice with the tapered end uppermost. Once more, adequate lubrication must be used throughout the procedure, again, using the same lubricants as used for the drilling and tapping tasks. Ensuring that the die is set to cut the maximum diameter, as described previously, the die should be placed squarely onto the taper of the rod and, with steady downward hand pressure, the die is carefully rotated (clockwise) to start the cut. It must be ensured that the die remains square to the rod at all times during the cutting, which is continued in a series of small arcs, reversing each time to sever the cuttings, in a similar manner as is done when using the taps. Module 7.3 Tools 3-63 Beoradly Su Sure ‘TTS integrated Training System Sramoo2drns chap Copyright 2010,co eee When enough thread has been cut, the die is removed and the thread checked, using a finished nut. If the thread proves to be too tight, then, after backing off the centre adjusting screw and (carefully) turing the outer adjusting screws inwards another cut is made with the die. co The procedure is repeated as often as necessary until a satisfactory fit is achieved between the two, mating, threaded items. co As the internal tapped thread is NOT adjustable, the internal thread should be cut first. The external thread, which CAN be slightly adjusted, should always be cut last to ensure the desired degree of fit between the respective threads. moo There are two types of die: a) Circular This type is generally used for cutting threads of a smaller size. Slight adjustment can be effected by the screws in the side of the stock. The die thread is tapered to allow an easier start to be made. When fitting the die to the stock, the tapered side must always be away from the shoulder of the stock. oo on oo Figure 3.82: A circular die and its stock eee b) Rectangular This is @ two piece die which is adjustable and is used for cutting Larger diameter threads. Two or three cuts may be required to cut the full thread, the die being closed up after each cut. The die has tapered threads to allow easier starting. The engraved numbers on the two halves must be fitted on the same side. c fete Eee =eEE co Figure 3.83: A rectangular die and its stock echt oo Module 7.3 Tools TIS intagiated Training Sytem Unsanaercusoncie © Copytight 2010 sored aac ‘onpayetal hace ccIntegrated Training System Designed in assocaion withthe U Cutting External Threads (Using Circular Die) a) Secure the work in the vice. b) Slightly taper the rod end to assist the start. L} ©) Slacken the two outer screws in the stock. Tighten the centre screw and re-tighten the outer screws. u d) Place the stock and die squarely on the rod and commence cutting the thread using the same technique as for taps. w ) With the thread cut, try a nut on the new thread 1 f) If further cutting is required, slightly loosen the centre screw of the stock, tighten U the two outer screws and re-tighten the centre screw. 9) Repeat the process in (d), (e) and (f) until the nut is a good fit on the thread. Die Nuts These are similar in shape to normal hexagon or square nuts. They are not intended for cutting Li threads but are used for easing or restoring damaged threads on studs or bolts. They are turned by a suitably sized spanner. c ca ao Figure 3.84: Two forms of die-nut U Module 7.3 Tools a Usa cele TTS Integrated Training Systom Stina ee rch ‘© Copynght 2070,Integrated Training System >: association withthe "question practice aio Tap and Die Precautions Precautions 1. Use the tap before the die as taps are not adjustable. 2. Use taps in the correct order. 3. Ensure the tap is entered square in the wrench, 4. Ensure the die fits square in the stock. 5. Ensure the die is the right way round in the stock. 6. Chamfer the rod before starting the die. 7. Use the correct size tapping drill. 8. Check for square once cutting has started. 9. Ensure blind hole is deep enough to allow for clearance of chippings. 10. Ensure that there is no vertical leverage of wrench or stock. 11. Use a cutting solution where necessary, 12. Give backward turns. 13. Take care when tapping a blind hole. 14, When tapping a deep blind hole withdraw the tap occasionally to clear chippings. 15. Take a roughing cut with the die Result if not observed Loose fit between male and female threads Difficulty in starting the thread possible tap breakage. Uneven threads. Uneven threads. Difficulty in starting the thread, inefficient thread. Difficulty in starting the thread. Oversize holes result in partial threads. Undersize holes may result in a broken tap, Uneven thread. Hole too shallow in depth may cause a broken tap. Drunken thread. Overheating, binding, seizure and consequent tap breakage. Ragged or stripped threads. Ragged or stripped threads Tap breakage. Tap breakage Poorly fumished thread, undersize first, then follow with a finishing thread. ace Module 7.9 Tools yaad Teng Sytem User deals Tiinogte rate St eonatiy Serat neon Zoli ap eee eee BEE PPE ee oe eee eH eee, Cc Eee ee Pee eee co 7 oPee cory ¢ eas} Se tcc arr ered ere oe momo [ee i a ca Integrated Training System clubeoprocesik uation patice sd Screwdrivers Despite the many shapes and sizes which may be met, it can be stated that screwdrivers may be divided into two main groups, which, basically, are: * Blade Screwdrivers * Cross-Point Screwdrivers. Blade (or Common) screwdrivers consist of a high carbon or an alloy steel blade, mounted into a wooden or composite handle. The end of the blade is ground to engage the diagonal slot in the head of the screw. If the blade is of high carbon steel, it will be hardened and tempered. ‘Screwdrivers in this category are classified by type and by the length of blade, which can be from approximately 35 mm (1.5 in) to 300 mm (12 in) long, although special screwdrivers can be obtained with blade lengths of 500 mm (20 in). Some variations may incorporate a reversible ratchet device in the handle while others may also have an Archimedes’ drive (as in a ‘Pump’ screwdriver). All of these features would form part of the classification of the screwdriver. The correct engagement of the screwdriver blade in the slotted head of the screw or bolt is most important (refer to figure 3.85). The most common faults can be seen in the illustration. The end of the blade should never be ground to a sharp chisel edge and a blade of the correct thickness and width should always be chosen. ‘Screwdrivers of the wrong size can cause serious damage to fasteners, surrounding aircraft structure and to the persons using them. Blade too Small Blade Correct Blade too Large Figure 3.85: Screwdriver blade sizes Module 7.3 Tools 3-67 sreetiy so ‘TTS Integrated Training Systom eoeteeeeet ‘Copycat 2010Integrated Training System Designed in association vat the ‘lubS6910.cosuk question practice aid fom] ca ‘When inserting or removing slotted screws the screwdriver blade should fill at least 75 percent of the screw slot width. For a screwdriver to be effective, it should be kept sharp, with the side of the blade entering the screw slot parallel to the base of the screw slot. A dull screwdriver blade} or one that is ground improperly can slip out of the screw slot and damage the work. ly The shanks of some screwdrivers are square or have a hex-shaped bolster where the blade enters the handle. These features allow you to tum the screwdriver with a wrench to provide additional leverage in torquing or loosening screws, Cross-Point Screwdrivers The two types of cross-point screwdrivers used in aviation maintenance are the Phillips, and the Reed and Prince. These types look similar and care must be taken to ensure use of the correct screwdriver. The cross in a Philips screw head is cut with a double taper and the sides are not } fe exactly parallel. Furthermore, the Philips screwdriver has a relatively blunt point that fits into a flat-bottomed hole. aS The Reed and Prince screw slot has straight sides and co forms a more perfect cross than the Phillips screwdriver. There is also only one taper to the point of a Reed and Prince screwdriver and it has a smaller width than the Philips. Eola Figure 3.86: Cross-Point Screwdriver A Tri-Wing Some airlines use screws with a special screw head produced by the Phillips. Screw Company. These screws have three slots instead of the four slots found on the regular cross-point screw. The screw head and bit are identified by their registered trade name TRI-WING. Posidriv A Posidriv bit resembles the Phillips bit in that it has a cross shape. However, there is a significant difference in the bottom of the recess that allows the bit to interlock with the C) screw head. This design is produced by the G4) BD Phillips Screw Company and provides a 4) tighter and more positive connection between a the screwdriver tip and the recess in the screw. L—_—— 7 J Cy \ Figure 3.88: Posidriv Screwdriver a Module 7.3 Tools Tis megeates Tang Syste foes Copy 20%0 oatnangyigiser cepooe dot con(eae co a (om fo eee ieee eee eee eee {ee Baa] S28!) cm ae cf Integrated Training System lobed eouk ueson tee we Torx The Torx screwdriver is used to remove and install torx-type screws which have a six-pointed slot. The Torx type screwdriver should not be used for an Alllen type screw. Using the wrong type of screwdriver can damage both the screw and the screwdriver. Figure 3.89: Torx screwdriver bits There is also a wide selection of other specialist screwdrivers, which have been made to allow certain tasks to be accomplished. These can include: + Offset (or Cranked) Screwdrivers: which can reach screws with little clearance above their heads (and which may, also, have a blade at one end and a cross-point at the other). + Reversible Tip Screwdrivers: with hexagonal shanks, that allows the shank of the screwdriver to be reversed in the handle to provide a different tip, with a blade at one end and a cross-point at the other end of the hexagonal shank. «Interchangeable Tip Screwdrivers: which have a selection of socket-like tips that can be interchanged to suit any particular type of screw head. Module 7.3 Tools 3-69 eee eae TTS Integrated Trainir stem ues ‘leanpagn 200Integrated Training System Designed in association with th huD88pr0.00.uk question prac! Pliers Pliers are classified by type and overall length and usually made from alloy stee!, with an insulated handle. They are designed for gripping, bending or moving small items that cannot be easily handled with the fingers. Some of the many types, that are available for a variety of purposes, include: * Side-Cutting Pliers: which are the general-purpose type, and are useful for the installation and removal of split pins. They also have a facility for cutting wire a Figure 3.90: Side-Cutting Pliers + Round-Nosed Pliers: which are useful for putting small radius bends into wire in addition to a variety of other tasks Figure 3.91: Round-Nose Pliers * Flat-Nosed Pliers: which, because the jaws are much thinner, A. may be used for many small holding and bending tasks, that : are not possible with the side-cutting pliers 3-70 TTS integrated Training Systam ©Copyright 2010 Figure 3.92: Flat-Nose Pliers + Needle-Nosed Pliers: which have finely pointed jaws and can be used in electrical and electronic work, that involves holding small components and thin wires. Needle-nosed pliers may, sometimes, have the jaws turned at right angles to the handles, to allow the ‘operator to see the work being held Figure 3.93: Needle-Nosed Pliers Module 7.3 Tools sevomadty bearer ‘page dalee cher acer eee He co Keeler efecto co cm orco Oo eS > ena He Goa hooee Integrated Training System Designed 1a association vit he c@ubsspro.ce.k question practice ate aoe + Wire-Locking Pliers: which are used for the p specific task of gripping wire during the wire- 4% : locking of components. Due to their integral 4 Archimedes’ screw, they are also able to spin { and so twist two wires, so that a neat and tight wire-locking is obtained. G Figure 3.94: Two sizes of Wire-Locking Pliers oe m Figure 3.95: Circlip Pliers mo © Circlip Pliers: which may be found in two basic forms (Intemal and External). Both types have pins on the ends of the jaws, which are used to install and remove circlips from around (and from within) components. The mechanisms are designed so that, squeezing the handles together, either results in the jaw pins coming together, (Internal), or spreading apart (Extemal). eee There are other groups of gripping tools that could, loosely be called pliers, but they usually go under the names of grips or clamps. These include mo ‘+ ‘Mole’-type Grips: which can be locked, holding a component, freeing up the operator's hand for other work, + Pipe Clamps, which can be used for gripping pipe unions, and * Slip-Joint (or Water Pump, or Swan-neck) Pliers that can have several, different gripping ranges, due to their multi-pivot mechanisms. ao cS [a Figure 3.96: Mole-grip and Swan-Neck Pliers U Module 7.3 Tools av react ‘TTS Integrates Training System Etace2d ms cnam ‘©Copyright 2010 BaalIntegrated Training System Designed in association wth the ouuk question practice ald Wire Snips (Nippers) u Wire Snips (which are also, often, 5 called ‘Nippers’) can be found with u straight or diagonal jaws and are both . very useful for cutting and stripping wire, They are also useful for removing 0 split pins. n u Figure 3.97: Wire Snips fi Care must be used when cutting with wire snips, as the cut-off pieces (locking wire and split pin legs in particular) can fly off, causing injury or getting lost within the aircraft structure or engine bays, which could lead to corrosion or to the jamming of vital control systems. me Cc eg ee eee acre a oOo J 372 Module 7.3 Tools a TT ktogratea Tang Syston sr aan (© Copyright 2010 rewoetotmscan: TY| ae jege GEES joan SE] mo mI mr OI AIO MeO SS fos co Heo eer Bee Integrated Training System Scrapers ‘Scrapers are made of high carbon stee! hardened and tempered. They are used to produce an accurate finish on a surface that has already been as accurately finished as possible by tiling or ‘machining. It is essential for scrapers to have a very sharp cutting edge and this is obtained by grinding on a grind stone followed by sharpening on an oil stone. When not in use, scrapers should be stored with their cutting edges suitable protected. The types of scraper in general use are: * Flat Used to produce accurate flat surfaces. * Three Square Useful for working in awkward comers. + Half Round Used for scraping curved surfaces such as bearings. To produce a flat surface, it is necessary to use a surface plate and engineers blue. Make sure that the surface plate and the piece of work are clean. Smear a thin layer of engineers blue on to the surface plate, then place the piece of work on the surface plate and move it backwards and forwards. Remove the piece of work, and the high spots will be coloured blue. Remove the high spots using a scraper and then rub the piece of work on the surface plate again. Keep repeating the above procedure until the work is as fiat as possible. ‘The same procedure can be used with bearings by applying engineers blue to the journal. Half Round Figure 3.98: Scrapers Module 7,3 Tools 3-73 ‘Seanecoy ne Salone ‘TTS Integrated Training System Ronee ecw ‘@ Copyright 2010Integrated Training System tyro cok cuesion rade Spanners, Sockets and Wrenches The commonest spanners are those which are used on the standard hexagonal heads of bolts, nuts, screws and similarly shaped fastening devices. Other spanners are often referred to as special or non-standard spanners, and are used on different types of screw thread fastenings. Some of these special spanners have a limited application, whilst others are specifically produced for a particular component, and will only be found in special toolkits applicable to that component. Most spanners are manufactured from case-hardened mild steel, hardened and tempered high- carbon steel or alloy-stee!, though there are some which are made from copper alloys, where spark-resistant tools are required. The size of a spanner is either marked on the jaw face, or on the shank, in the units of the type of thread system being used on the fastening device. The units, shown on a particular spanner, however, relate to different parts of the fastening devices (refer to figure 3.99), so a knowledge of the spanner sizing systems is necessary, The two main sizing systems are those of the: * British Standard Institution (BS) and British Association (BA) Imperial system + American/Unified (Imperial) and the Metric system. The British Standard system uses Imperial units (fractions of an inch etc.) and embraces two of the three main thread systems, used in British engineering, one of which is no longer used in aircraft engineering. The sizing, on BS spanners, relates to the nominal diameter of the nut, bolt or stud, upon which the spanner is to be used. For example, a spanner marked as % BS indicates that the spanner is used on a %2" diameter bolt (nut, stud etc.), although the actual distance across the jaws of this spanner would be 0.820". oe Module 7.3 Tools TTS itogates Taig System ore cing S copy 2010 = mpage Zoe ape: (esas) oo oor co oor oa ea co See eee ce co ae oS coco Integrated Training System cloedgroce custo pes ee ate ts Earlier BS spanners can be found with two figures stamped adjacent to each other (2.9. “he BSW ', BSF). The BSW figure relates to the Whitworth thread system, which is not used on aircraft, due to its tendency to loosen when subjected to vibration. The BSF refers to the British Standard Fine thread but, to avoid confusion, the older system has now been brought into line with the BS system, so that a %" BS (BSF) spanner can (for general engineering purposes) also = | beused on a %" Whitworth boltinut combination. ub British Association (the third British thread system) sizes, also use Imperial measurements, and, | although they are in decimal fractions of an inch, they are represented by a whole number (2BA, u 4BA, 6BA and so on) which again relates to the nominal diameter of the fastening device. The American Fine and Unified thread systems, also use Imperial measurements. The sizes, stamped on spanners, refer to the dimensions across the spanner jaws (or across the flats of the hexagon of the fastening device). A spanner marked ¥%" A/F, would be used on a bolt with an actual diameter of "6" > ca ___ Metric spanners are marked with a number also denoting the width (millimetres) across the | flats, of the hexagon shaped fastener on which it is used. BS and BA ._(Imperial) Dimensions American/Unified (Imperial) and Metric Dimensions Figure 3.99: Spanner sizing systems } tis important that the correct procedure is followed to avoid incorrect tools being used to install U — orremove a nut, bolt, stud or any other fastening device. 1) insome instances the correct tool size may be quoted in the maintenance manual. This must be U strictly followed. U Module 7.3 Tools ee ve et “TS intgratedTiining Syatom seat Sata ‘Soya 2010 EeeIntegrated Training System Designed in associat ehubbapre cout Wrench Types The majority of removable fasteners used in aircraft construction are bolts and nuts. Therefore it makes sense that the largest number of individual tools in a well-equipped tool box is an assortment of wrenches. American aircraft use nuts and bolts with English sizes. However, now that the metric system is becoming the standard across the globe, metric size wrenches may also be needed for aviation maintenance. English (Inches) Metric (mm) 14-516 6-7 3/8-7/16 8-9 12-916 10-14 5/8-11/16 12-13 3I4-13/16 15-18 TIB-A5IN16 21-24 1-11/8 25-28 Table 3.4: English and Metric wrench sizes Good quality wrenches are forged of chrome-vanadium steel. This combination of metals is an extremely tough alloy. After being forged, burrs are removed and then the wrenches are plated with cadmium or hard chrome to protect them from rust. The plating process improves the wrench's appearance and makes it easier to clean, Open-End Wrenches ‘Open-end wrenches have an opening in each end that fits a bolt head or nut. The openings of an open end wrench are parallel to each other and are normally angled at 15 degrees to the handle. This angle allows you to turn a nut even when the space for the handle is severely restricted. However, while the 15 degree head angle is standard, there are many other angles available. For example, one type of open-end wrench has the same size opening on both ends with one opening angled at 30 degrees and the opposite ‘opening at 60 degrees. Box-End Wrenches (Ring Spanner) Nuts that are exceptionally tight can spread the jaws on even the best open-end wrench. To break the torque on tight nuts a box-end wrench is used. Box ‘end wrenches have a six- or twelve-point opening attached to each end and offset from the axis of the handle by about 18 degrees. Figure 3.101: Box-End Wrenches a Module 7.3 Tools 7S itogated Teaning System ess ease Scone ser6 ig Syste ‘governed by the steteres ‘ope Satie par eo Ctr oe Poe eo ao moc co f= oo aa cao co eet. Sate Ceo tCaamnoer oer mm MMO Aaa fer br eee co = = = Integrated Training System Designed in asociaion vith he clunsapre co.uk ave Combination Wrenches The disadvantage of a box-end wrench is the limita- tion of always having to lft and reposition the wrench in order to continue loosening a fastener. On the other hand, an open-end wrench is much easier pare to slip off and onto a nut. The combination wrench Figure 3.102: Combination Wrenches has the advantage of both a box-end and an open- end wrench, This popular configuration has a box end broached on one end, and an open end of the same size attached to the other end. This allows hard nuts to be broken loose with the box end and then removed with the open end. The box end is typically angled 15 degrees to the handle to allow clearance for your hands between the wrench and the work, The open end of the wrench is offset by 15 degrees to the axis of the handle to allow for a new grip on the nut ach 15 degrees of handle movement. Flare Nut Wrenches: ‘As you know, aircraft fluid lines are connected to components with flare nuts. While these nuts are typically not tightly torqued, they are often situated in Figure 3.103: Flare Nut Wrenches locations where the swinging of the wrench handle is severely restricted, To help remedy this, a special type of box-end wrench is used. A slot is cut into the box end to allow the wrench to slip over a fluid line and then the hex of the nut is engaged each 15 degrees of handle movement. Ratcheting Open-End Wrenches A special design of open-end wrench allows nuts to —— a be turned without removing the wrench. One of the jaws of an open-end wrench is cut back just enough to engage one edge of a nut. This type of wrench is : called a ratcheting open-end wrench and, while ithas Figure 3.104: Ratcheting Open-End no ratcheting mechanism, the' action it allows is ences ratcheting. Ratcheting Box-End Wrenches Another type of ratcheting wrench is the ratcheting box-end. This type of wrench consists of a box-end wrench set into a handle with a ratcheting mechanism. Figure 3.105: Ratcheting End-Box Wrenches. Module 7.3 Tools 3.77 er access “TTS Integrated Tisnng System Sepoosacteecap Se opyngnt 2010Integrated Training System Sockets Sockets are tools that typically have a square hole in one end for a drive handle, and another end with a six- or twelve-point opening designed to fit different sized nuts. Sockets are available [] in both standard and metric sizes and can be used with a wide variety of handles and extensions. Socket sets are available in a wide variety of drive sizes. However, in aviation maintenance the |] 1/4 inch square drive and the 3/8 inch square drive are the most popular. Additional drives that u are available include the 1/2 inch, 3/4 inch, and 1 inch square drives. In fact, for extremely large work, socket wrenches are available in square drives as large as 2 1/2 inches. Q Standard Sockets Standard sockets are available in all of the popular drive sizes and with either four-, six-, eight-, or twelve-point openings. These ‘sockets are also deep enough to fit over a bolt head or a nut if too much shank does not protrude. The six- and twelve-point sockets are used in aviation, whereas the four- and eight-point sockets are available to turn square head pipe plugs. Deep Sockets There are several applications where a bolt extends through a nut too far for a standard socket to grip the nut. In these cases deep sockets are available to allow the socket to grip the nut and still allow room for the bolt end. Flex Sockets When additional clearance is needed between the socket drive and the socket, a flex socket is used. Flex sockets have a pivot point between the drive handle end of the socket and the nut end, These sockets are made with both six- and twelve-point ‘openings and are available in the drive sizes most used in aviation maintenance. Figure 3.108: Flex Socket [] Crowsfoot Sockets Nuts are sometimes placed in locations on aircraft where neither a box-end, nor open-end wrench, or standard socket wrench can be used. The. crowsfoot socket is designed to reach these nuts n and is available with open, box, and flare-nut ends. Furthermore, ib crowsfoot sockets are available in several drive sizes including = 1/4 and 3/8 inch. A f ul Figure 3.109: Crowsfoot Socket 3-78 Module 7.3 Tools ws TTS inepated Trang System Usanter aeons © Copyaight 2010 cnonadby sacra Sra Zolhie Soar roegE er eee co ee eee Hear mone co o Integrated Training System Designed in asoctaon with clunGpro co uk gusstonpractes aid Handles and Adapters The chief advantage for using socket wrenches over any type of nut-tuming device is the wide variety of handles and adapters available. Some accessories include ratchets, breaker bars, speed handles, exten- sions, universal joints, and adapters. For example, when a socket is snapped onto a ratchet handle, minimum handle movernent is required to turn a nut or bolt. Figure 3.110: Socket wrench Ratchets are available with long or short handles, and with either solid or flexible heads. When selecting a ratchet, choose one that has a small handle movement between the positions at which the pawl grips the drive gear. If a socket drive does not have any ratcheting ability, several ratchet adapters are available to convert the ratchet into a reversible ratcheting wrench. When a nut is extremely hard to break loose, and more force is required than a ratchet handle is built to take, a socket is placed on a breaker bar and the required amount of force applied. When more force is required than can be applied with a breaker bar, use a socket and handle of the next larger drive size. It is not recommended that you use a piece of pipe over the handle of a breaker bar to increase the leverage. Time is an expensive commodity in aviation maintenance and, therefore, any tool that decreases the time required for all inspection or repair is typically used. One tool that can save a great deal of time is the speed brace. A speed brace resembles a bow type brace and has a socket or a screwdriver bit snapped onto its end. Screws or nuts are turned much faster Figure 3.111: Speed brace with a speed handle than they are with a conventional screwdriver or ratchet wrench. Straight bar-type extensions are used to put sockets further away from the wrench handle. These extensions are made of forged steel alloys and are available in lengths from less than ‘two inches up to two or three feet long. Module 7.8 Tools 378 grceely ea toseert TTS Integrated Telning System ‘Spepe zai car ‘©Copyright 2010Integrated Training System Designed in assacaton wih the lubesgre.co.uk question recice ele Universal joints have a square opening on one end that fits onto a socket drive or extension and a male socket drive on the other end. The universal joint is used to tighten or loosen nuts and bolts that cannot be accessed with a straight extension. Adapters are available to allow different size sockets and drives to fit together. For example, an adapter allows a 1/4 inch drive socket to fit onto a 3/8 inch drive handle or vice-versa. Adapters are also available between 3/8 inch and 1/2 inch drive components. When using an adapter to put a smallor socket on a larger drive, use good judgment because the additional leverage obtained on the drive can break the adapter or the socket. There might also be enough added force to strip the threads of a fastener. [Figure 9-78] Impact Driver Impact tools are turing tools that come in both hand and power types. They are used when corro- sion or rust on a fastener causes it to resist any loosening effort. A sharp blow from a hand-held impact driver utilizes mechanical advantage to give the fasteners a quick twist. An impact driver set for aviation maintenance tech- nicians consists of a driver, an assortment of special six-point impact sockets, and bits for the screw sizes and types most often found on airplanes. To use an impact driver, select the proper bit or socket and insert it onto the driver. Next, place the impact driver on the fastener and strike the driver with a sharp hammer blow. Some stubborn fasteners may need more than one blow before they can be tumed with a conventional wrench. An impact driver has both a forward and reverse setting. The reason for this is that it is ‘sometimes necessary to slightly tighten a fastener in order to break it free. However, use care not to over tighten the fastener and further damage the structure. Figure 3.112: Impact driver in use Hand-held impact drivers typically break loose most stubborn fasteners. However, some fasteners may require an air-driven impact tool. Power impact wrenches apply force in a series of jerks or impacts. This means that an impact wrench set to a specific level of torque actually applies a much higher peak torque than what the wrench is set for. These torque spikes, of peaks, cannot be used on any fastener whose torque is critical, because it over stresses the fastener. 3-80 Module 7.3 Tools TTS itogted Taig Syste Late dnteorle © Copy 2010 sora ra a ape CHC eae ioe: ci Pe a co cr on 3 mc =]eno Seco: eer eee Ee ce meee dc ee eee cre to ao oO 3 Integrated Training System Torque Wrenches The holding power, of a threaded fastener is greatly increased, when it is placed under an initial tensile load that is greater than the loads to which the fastener is, normally, subjected. This task is accomplished, by tightening a bolt or nut, to a pre-determined torque or pre-load. Ifa fastener is under-torqued, there is danger of the joint being subjected to unnecessary loads, leading to premature failure. When a fastener is over-torqued then the threads are over stressed and can fail. A Torque Wrench is a precision tool that governs the amount of force applied to a fastener and allows accurate torque values to be applied consistently. Under controlled conditions, the amount of force required to tum a fastener is directly related to the tensile stress within the fastener. The amount of torque is the product of the turning force multiplied by the distance between the centre of the fastener and the point at which the force is applied (usually the length of the wrench handle). Table 4 shows various units of torque, including Imperial, Metric and SI values. Imperial Metric si pound force foot (Ibft.) _| kilogram force metre (chg.) Newton metre (Nm) pound force inch (Ibf.in) _| kilogram force centimetre (kgf.cm) _ | centi-Newton metre (Nm) Table 3.5: Various Units of Torque There are, again, many different designs of torque wrenches, so consideration is given here only to three basic types of torque wrench. They are the: * Deflecting Beam * Torsion Bar « Toggle Type. The Deflecting Beam torque wrench, has a square drive, on one end of an accurately-ground beam, with a handle, mounted on a pivot, at the other end. Figure 3.113: Deflecting Beam Torque Wrench Module 7.3 Tools 3-81 arte cee TTS integrated Training Systom Stimoned mechs ‘© Copyright 2010Integrated Training System Designed in essociation withthe luba9pre.c0. uk question practoe ad Hee oe A pointer is attached to the square drive end of the beam, whilst a scale is attached to the beam near the handle. When a force is applied to the handle, the beam bends and the pointer deflects over the scale. The deflection is directly proportional to the torque applied. 9 u ‘The Torsion Bar (or dial type) torque wrench, uses the principle that a bar accurately deflects in torsion, as well as bending, when a force is applied. The square drive is accurately ground nq and has a rack gear on one end. U ca ca c Figure 3.114: Torsion Bar Torque Wrench a When the bar is twisted, the rack moves across a pinion gear in a dial indicator, which shows the amount of bar deflection. The dial is calibrated in units of torque. eee The Toggle type of torque wrench, is pre-set to the desired torque before itis put on a fastener. When this pre-set torque is reached, a sound (a click), is heard and the handle releases a few degrees, indicating that the set torque value has been exerted. Once this release cours, then all force is removed. SE Cee eee et Car: Figure 3.115: Toggle Type Torque Wrench Note; When a castellated nut is being torque loaded, it must, first, be torqued to the lowest value of the given torque range. The torque may then be incroased until the holes are in line, Qn but before the maximum torque value is reached. J oe Module 7.3 Tools wb TTS itograted Training System Le sate seconele ©Copyright 2010 “erotitetoe(3 ca cs Cts Hee eo eee oe. oO fea eed A Coe oe) oe pam) 4 4 7} Integrated Training System Designed in astcciaion wih Clubespre.co.uk question practi Extensions: Figure 3.116 shows a typical beam type torque wrench which has an extension spanner attached. If this combination is used to torque load a fastener then the following formula should be used to calculate the wrench scale reading which corresponds to the specified torque value: Scale reading = specified torque x + Ux Where L = distance between the driving tang and the centre of the handle X = length of extension spanner between centres HAND GRIP FLEXIBLE BEAM EXTENSION SPANNER Figure 3.116: A torque wrench fitted with an extension spanner A simple way of calculating the scale reading required without using the formula is set out in the following example, for which the specified torque loading is 300 Ib in and the lengths of the wrench and spanner are 10 and 5 inches respectively. (a) Force required on wrench handle to produce a torque of 300 Ib in is 300 Ib in divided by the distance between nut and wrench handle, which is 800 thin. _ 20 Ip 10 in+6 in. (b) Scale reading when force on handle is 20 Ib is, 20 Ib x 10 in 200 Ib in. Force must therefore be applied to the wrench handle until a reading of 200 Ib in is shown on the wrench scale, and this will represent a 300 Ib in torque load applied to the nut. With the ‘preak’ type wrench, the adjustment must be preset at 200 Ib in. NOTE: For the purpose of conversion, 1 Ib.in. = 115 kg cm or 0.113 N.m. When using an extension spanner with a torque wrench, the spanner and wrench should be as nearly as possible in line. If it is necessary to diverge by more than 15°%from a straight line (due, Module 7.3 Tools 3-83 orcredoy ne extra ‘TTS Integrated Training System Ena 2el ie cheee "©Copyright 2010,Integrated Training System Designed in association vith the ‘lubépro.co.uk question practice aid for example, to intervening structure), then the direct distance (D) between the nut and wrench 0 handle must be substituted for ‘L + X’ in the formula for calculating wrench scale reading. This is shown in figure 3.117, and the scale reading in this instance will be equal to specified torque x 9 f Figure 3.117: A torque wrench fitted with an extension ub spanner positioned out-of-line with the wrench | Whenever a torque wrench is used, it must be confirmed that the ‘specified torque and the 5 wrench scale are in the same units; if not, then the specified torque should be converted, by calculation, to the units shown on the wrench scale, and any measurements taken in 9 appropriate units. U 0 When applying torque the wrench handle should be lightly gripped and force applied smoothly f at 90°to the axis of the wrench. Us 3-84 a Module 7.3 Tools Se TTS tntegrated Training System swans dasonte © Copyright 2010 mera by fe soca ohonge Zale haeAit CeCe ete Se cree eee eee et Gee Cot e ee ee Cet Oe eee ree: (c fl Integrated Training System ein aseaciaion wih he lubaspro eae question practice i Common Power Tools Powered tools have to be treated with respect because they can injure, and in exceptional cases, can cause death if they are incorrectly operated. Before using any powered machine/tool, personnel must make sure that: * They have been properly trained and are currently authorised to use it * All protective guards and fences are securely in place + No part of the body or clothing can come into contact with moving parts * Protective clothing is fastened and neck ties (if worn) tucked in or removed All rings and other jewellery are removed * Safety glasses/goggles are wor wherever there is a debris risk * Where necessary, the appropriate fire extinguisher is readily to hand * A safety mat is available to stand on where electrical machinery is used * Machinery is checked for any ‘Warning” notices indicating it is unsafe for use. Possibly the most common method of powering tools is through the use of electricity, which is readily available from the ac mains supply and can also be provided from portable, dc batteries. However, because of the fire hazard, associated with the operation of electrically powered tools, and where there is a possibility of flammable vapours being present, pneumatically powered hand tools are provided for aircraft maintenance tasks, such as drilling, cutting, shaping, screw driving, riveting, nut running and setting. As previously mentioned, these pneumatic tools may be operated from a fixed air supply gallery, in a workshop or hangar, or from a mobile air compressor. Electrically Powered Pillar Drills Electrically powered, Pillar Drills, are used for heavy-duty drilling tasks, where larger drill sizes and rigid holding-down of the workpiece are required. Pillar drills also have an advantage in that they are equipped with a method of altering the speed of rotation (rpm) of the chuck to suit the material being drilled and the size (and type) of the drill being used, e . a This flexibility is needed to enable drills of all sizes I to cut efficiently and safely for different types of materials. If the rpm of the machine were constant, a then the cutting speed of any drill being used would x be dependent upon the diameter of the drill. Small drills would cut slowly and larger drills more rapidly. Figure 3.118: Pillar Drill Module 7.8 Tools 3-85 esaramasongc ‘TTS Integrated Training Systom Stage ett cone ‘© Copyrgnt 2010,