Journal 6

Npsj
Nigeria Poultry Science Journal
ISSN - 2006 0718
Nigeria Poultry
Science Journal
(OFFICIAL JOURNAL OFTHE WORLDS POULTRY SCIENCE
ASSOCIATION-NIGERIA BRANCH)
2009 Volume 6
&
2010 Volume 7
Full paper also available online at

www.wpsa-nb.org.ng/npsj
EDITORS
S.I. Ola,A.V. Jegede & A.O. Fafiolu
Npsj
ISSN - 2006 0718
Nigeria Poultry
Science Journal
(OFFICIAL JOURNAL OFTHE WORLDS POULTRY SCIENCE
ASSOCIATION-NIGERIA BRANCH)
2009 Volume 6
&
2010 Volume 7
Full paper also available online at
www.wpsa-nb.org.ng/npsj
EDITORS
S.I. Ola, A. V. Jegede & A.O. Fafiolu
EDITORIAL BOARD
Dr S.I.Ola - Editor-in-Chief
Department of Animal Science, Obafemi Awolowo
University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria
DrA.V Jegede - Deputy Editor-in-Chief
Department of Animal Nutrition, University of Agriculture,
Abeokuta, Nigeria
Associate Editors
DrA.O. Makinde
(Poultry product and value addition sub-editor)
University Ile-Ife, Nigeria.
Dr J.O.Agbede
(Poultry Nutrition and Feed sub-editor)
Department of Animal Production Technology, Federal
University of Technology,Akure, Nigeria.
Dr R. Kassali
(Poultry Economics and French abstract sub-editor)
Department of Agricultural Economics, Obafemi Awolowo
University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria.
Dr OAdejoro
(Industry and Commentary sub-editor)
Zartech Farms limited, Ibadan, Nigeria
DrA. Ladokun
(Reproduction and Physiology sub-editor)
Department of Animal Physiology, University of
Agriculture,Abeokuta, Nigeria
Prof. M. O. Ozoje (Animal Breeding and Genetics subeditor)
Department of Animal Breeding, University of Agriculture,
Abeokuta, Nigeria Prof. M.A. Dipeolu (Animal Health subeditor)
College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Agriculture,

Abeokuta, Nigeria
InternationalAdvisory Board
Prof E.B. Sonaiya
University Ile-Ife, Nigeria.
Prof M.O. Onagbesan
Department of Animal Physiology, University of
Agriculture,Abeokuta, Nigeria
ProfA.O.Adebambo
Department of Animal Breeding, University of Agriculture,
Abeokuta, Nigeria
Prof S. Yalcin
Department ofAnimal Science, Ege University, Turkey
Dr H.M. Yakout
Department of Poultry Science, Alexandria University,
Egypt
Prof EAIyayi
Department of Animal Science, University of Ibadan,
Nigeria
Prof O.Adeola
Department Poultry Science, Purdue University, Indianna,
USA
Dr V. Olori A
viagen Inc., Scotland, UK
Prof Hui Li
North EastAgricultural University, Harbin, China.
Dr K.M. Shouq
Secretary, WPSA, Pakistan branch
REVIEWERS FOR VOLUME 5

E Babafunso Sonaiya
Anthony O. Makinde
Sunday O. Peters
Saidu O. Oseni
Daisy Eruvbetine
O.M. Sogunle
O.M.O. Idowu
M.A. Dipeolu
M.A. Oyekunle
B.O.Oyebanji
O. Awe
Oluseyi O. Oduguwa
Grace O. Longe
Andrew A. Fatufe
II
A.O. Amao M.O. Ozoje

Olufunmilayo A. Adebambo
I.O. Matanmi
Eustace A. Iyayi
Abimbola O. Ladokun
E.A. Laseinde Olusegun
O. Ojebiyi
Y.P. Mancha
Tunde E. Lawal
Akinola F. Letorn
Oluwatosin O. Olawoyin
A.O. Talabi Adebayo S. Bamire
Okanlawon M. Onagbesan
O.A. Yesufu Rabirou Kassali
Oluwatunmininu A. Adebambo
Johnson O. Agbede
F.A.S Dairo
G.O. Adeyemo
A.O. Owosibo
O.A. Abu
O.O. Oni
A.A. Odunsi
O.J. Akpodiete
Ofelia G. Omitogun
C.O.Betiku
E. O. Ewuola
Nigerian Poultry Science Journal
About NPSJ
Introduction
Nigerian Poultry Science Journal (NPSJ) is an international journal published by the World Poultry Science
Association-Nigeria Branch (WPSA-NB). It reports original work, review and commentaries on a broad range of
poultry topics including nutrition, breeding and genetics, health, welfare, physiology, reproduction, processing,
economics, education, farming and any other relevant topic. The journal is published in English with a French
translation of the abstract, in both online and hard copy media.
Medium and Frequency of publication
Four issues per year in March, June, September and December. Issues from 2008 will be available online at
www.wpsa-nb.org.ng/npsj and as print version. Online edition will appear prior to the print edition.
Scope of journal
The journal accepts and publishes articles in all field of poultry production as original, short/rapid communication,
commentary and review articles.
Disclaimer
a. All statements, conclusions and opinions expressed in individual articles in NPSJ are those of the authors and
do not in any way represent the position and endorsement of the publisher and thus the journal accept no
responsibility or liability on them
b. The journal will use its best endeavours to ensure that work published is that of the named authors and that the
published results and conclusions are consistent with the primary data. However it takes no responsibility for
fraud or inaccuracy on the part of the authors. c. Papers reporting work with animals must include a
reference to the code of practice adopted for the experimentation. It is expected that reported experiments
have been performed according to appropriate ethical and legal standards. The journal reserve the right not to
publish such experiments that violate ethical and welfare issues and take no responsibility for the breach of
such rights by any reported experiment.
Page charges and subscription NPSJ charges authors for publication of their article. The publication charge and
subscription rate are subject to review at anytime depending on the prevailing cost of publication. The current charge is
given below:
Processing fee
Article
Coloured image
Subscription rate,
including VAT and
postage
Nigerian Naira
N1,000
N5,000 for the first 12 pages and
N500 for each additional page
N1, 000 per page
N1, 000 per issue
US dollar
Free
$100 for the first 12 pages and
$5 for each additional page
$10 per page
$ 25 per issue
Editorial office
C/o Dr S.I.Ola
Department of Animal Science,
Obafemi Awolowo University
220005 Ile-Ife, Osun State,
NIGERIA.
sola@oauife.edu.ng, safiriyuola@hotmail.com
III
Content of Volume 6 (2009) & Volume 7 (2010)

VOLUME 6 (2009)
Economics of Egg Wholesale Market in Osun State, Nigeria

R. KASSALI
11
Replacement value of millet for maize in practical diet fed to Japanese quail chicks
IJAIYA, A.T., AREMU, A., ALABI,J.O., JIYA, E.Z., MALIK, A.A., CHAKWEN, S.J. and
ONYEMEREKWE, C.D.A.
17
Utilization of Fermented Pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan) meal in diets for broiler chicken.
A.V. JEGEDE,A.O. OSO,A.M. BAMGBOSE andA.O.ABIOYE
24
Performance and Early Lay Characteristics of Growing Pullets Fed Graded Levels of Rumen Filtrate
fermented Corn cobs
O.A.ADEYEMI, J.A.AGUNBIADEANDA.O. OYEFESO
32
Asurvey of helminth parasites in migratory water birds at sabon gida wetland Jos South, Nigeria
IKPA.L.T, NNABUIFE.H.E, TANKO.J.T, GBISE.D.S, KAMANI J.
36
Utilization of instant noodle wastes in diets of cockerel chicken

A.O. LALA,A.O. OSO,A.M. BAMGBOSE, D. ERUVBETINE and MARTHABEMJI
44
Quality characteristics of Patties Prepared from Chicken Broiler, Duck and Turkey Meats
FANIMO O.AMOS, EKUN O. SAKIRAT, SOGUNLE O. MARKAND JOLAADEADEGBITE
51
Alternative feed ingredients to meet the present environmental challenges: lessons from other parts
of the world
P.A. IJI
57
Local fowl and their egg quality in six local governments of Imo State, Nigeria.
C.T. EZEOKEKE, I.C. OKOLI, C.S. DURUNNA, M.C. UCHEGBU, H.O. OBIKAONU and V.M.
OKORO.
VOLUME 7 (2010)
66
Plasma and liver cholesterol status of laying hens fed unpeeled cassava root meal based diets
IDOWU O.M.O., DAISY ERUVBETINE , OSOA. O., JEGEDEA. V. and FAFIOLU,A. O.
75
Use of Information Communication Technology to Boost Poultry Production in South Western Zone
of Nigeria
OLADEJI. O., BOLARINWA, K.K., LADOKUN, B.
84
Application of canonical discriminant analysis to performance traits in broiler strains

YAKUBU,A.,AKINFEMI,A.,ABIMIKU, H.K. and HASSAN, D.I.
89
Poultry breeding and climate change: The role of feed efficiency.

VICTOR E. OLORI
IV
94
Growth Performance and Cost Benefits of Chicks and Growing Pullets Fed Fermented and
Unfermented Groundnut Husk Meal Based Diets
BELLO, K. O., FANIMO, O.A., ERUVBETINE, D. andAINA, B. J.
104
Relationship between hatching egg quality or incubation conditions and day-old chick quality
K. TONA, O. ONAGBESAN, V. BRUGGEMAN, F. M. GBEASSOR,AND E. DECUYPERE
113
Effect ofArtificial Incubation and Brooding On Productivity of Village Chicken

THOMAS JUNNE KAUDIA
116
Observations on the parasites and pathology of gastrointestinal tract of free-range chickens in

Abeokuta, Southwestern Nigeria.
OLANIYI, M. O.,AKINYEMI, A.A., AKANDE, F..A., TAKEET M.I., AJAYI O.L. AND
OLUGBOGI E.I.
VI
Editorial
Education! One of the tripod stands of the Worlds Poultry Science Association was the primary reason for starting the
publication of Nigeria Poultry Science Journal in 2000 by the WPSA-Nigeria Branch. Unfortunately the journal has
not been excused from the usual attendant problems of journal publication in Africa, causing the erratic appearance of
the journal. Only four volumes/issues in eight years!.
In putting together this latest volume, the new editorial board took advantage of the enormous potentials and
opportunities opened to the journal to expand its scope, coverage and visibility. To assist the editor-in-chief and his
deputy, seven associate editors and ten international advisory board members were appointed by the editor. The short
profiles of the enlarged editorial board members are provided later in this book.Another major change to the outlook of
the journal was the decision to include French abstract of every paper so as to entice audience from the francophone
countries, especially from within Africa. Perhaps the most important thing to happen to the journal was the decision to
make its full paper contents appear online. Thus full papers of this Volume 5 can now be accessed and downloaded
from www.wpsa-nb.org.ng/npsj. From now on the online version of the accepted papers will appear as early as
possible before the hard copy version.
To cater for the large number of manuscripts envisioned to follow the sweeping changes in the outlook of the journal,
we decided to publish 4 issues in a year at 3-month interval. This current volume contains seven original papers each in
issue numbers 1-4. Geographical analysis of the sources of the papers in this volume revealed that about 77 % were
from Nigeria and the remaining 23 % from Europe,America,Australia and neighboring W/Acountries.
NPSJ hopes to accept articles free of charge from authors in the near future but, not until the major challenges currently
faced by the journal are over. These challenges include low patronage and subscription, unnecessarily long processing
time of manuscripts, inadequate reviewers and sponsorships.
Volume 6 and 7 of NPSJ is no doubt a very significant improvement over the past editions of the journal, both in terms
of packaging and content. The credit goes to all members of the editorial board, the reviewers and also the very
supportive assistance of the executives of WPSA-Nigeria branch. I implore all readers to see every page of this book
for the important information contained in them. I also solicit for your support and advice to assist the journal to reach
its targeted goals.
I hope you will find the contents of this book very rewarding as you go through.
S.I. Ola Phd

Editor-in-Chief
VII
VIII
2009 VOLUME 6
Nigerian Poultry Science Journal Vol 6, 2009
Nigerian Poultry Science Journal 6:2 - 10

Worlds Poultry Science Association - Nigeria Branch
Economics of Egg Wholesale Market in Osun State, Nigeria

R. KASSALI
Department of Agricultural Economics, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile Ife
E-mail: rkassali@oauife.edu.ng
Abstract
The wholesale distribution of a commodity from the point of production to retailing and consumption is an
important function of marketing. This study analyses the structure conduct performance and problems of
poultry egg wholesaling in two Local Governments Areas of Osun State. Ninety (90) egg wholesalers were
randomly selected and a structured questionnaire administered to collect the data. The analytical tools used
include descriptive statistics, structure conduct- performance paradigm, concentration ratio, Gini
coefficient, profit, Operational efficiency and mark up analysis. Results indicated that poultry egg wholesale
firms were small in size, adopted mostly sole proprietorship and stored eggs at room temperature. The
wholesale industry was relatively competitive, and the price determined by the profit goal of the wholesaler
and prevailing market conditions. Egg wholesaling was relatively profitable and operationally efficient but
with a low mark up. Egg wholesaling problems include lack of finance, egg spoilage during transportation
and difficulties of production to meeting market demand.
Keywords: poultry egg, wholesaling, model S-C-P, Operational efficiency, Mar upAnalysis
Introduction
Egg is one of the products of the poultry industry in
addition to chickens and turkeys (Kohls and Uhl,
1980). It is an important source of highly digestible
animal protein which contributes to human nutrition
and improves the palatability of many dishes;
weight to weight an egg contains about the same
amount of animal protein as pork, about of beef
and 2/3 of whole milk cheese (FAO, 2003). In terms of
composition egg is one of the most complete and
versatile foods available consisting approximately
of 10 percent shell, 58 percent white and 32 percent
yolk. It is an essential vitamin supplier to the human
body and a good source of minerals (Coutts and
Wilson, 2006). According to Mountney and
Parkhurst (1995), egg can serve as leavening agent
in baked foods, binding agent to hold ingredients
together, thickening agent (in custards, puddings),
etc. Eggs are an important and fundamental
foodstuff for developing countries due to
accessibility, low cost, ease of preparation and low
caloric value (FAO, 2003). However, it is not
enough to produce eggs at a reasonable cost;
arrangements must be made to ensure that the eggs
reach the consumers. With increasing urbanization,
eggs will need to be assembled, packaged and

transported in good condition to distant cities and
distributed through retail outlets close to consumers
(FAO, 2003).
Generally problems of poultry egg include quality,
grading, poor handling by producers and marketers
resulting in loss of freshness and quality in addition
to consumer's unwillingness to pay price premiums
for higher quality grades (Kohls and Uhl, 1980).
Quality determines acceptability of product to
potential buyers. The factors influencing the
marketability of eggs include shell thickness,
colour, condition of the egg, size, uniformity in
shape, etc. A successful marketing requires
cleanliness and grading of eggs. Consumers value
tangible characteristics of the egg, most especially
shell strength, albumen consistency and yolk colour
(Coutts and Wilson, 2006).
Poultry eggs could be used to tackle the problem of
protein malnutrition in most developing countries
and be a means by which rapid increase in animal
protein consumption can be achieved (Oluyemi and
Roberts, 2000). In Nigeria, egg production is one of
the business concerns of the poultry industry. Eggs
2
are produced from different systems: extensive,

semi-intensive and intensive. Between 1999 and
2004 estimations show that egg productions grew
by an average of 1 percent only (FAO, 2004). But
this annual rate of growth in output is far from about
the 3 percent population annual growth making a
shortage of supply in meeting national demand.
Poultry egg production in Nigeria is still seasonal
and takes place under small scale farms in rural,
peri-urban and urban areas. It could be observed
that more and more of the marketing of egg occurs
under integrated production/marketing systems
while indications show preferences for brown eggs
predominant in local markets and problem of
inadequate supply to be responsible for the low egg
share of consumer's food expenditure.
Marketing is the performance of all business
activities involved in the flow of goods and services
from producer to the ultimate consumer and
efficient marketing is important in order to close the
gap between supply and demand (Kohls and Ulh,
1980). Marketing is efficient if it provides higher
price to producer and lower price to consumer.
Marketing has become more relevant as the gap
between producers and consumers is widening in
the world economy and an efficient marketing must
meet consumers' preferences while allowing the
producer to allocate production resources more
efficiently (FAO, 2003).
The tasks involved in marketing eggs include
collecting, transporting, grading, packaging,
storing, moving through wholesale and retail
channels and selling directly to consumers.
Marketing begins on the farm and it involves three
processes. Firstly, the products have to be
transferred from the site to the consumption centers.
Secondly, storage is needed due to the seasonality of
the products and thirdly, products need grading,
cleaning, packaging and hence attractiveness to
create awareness and acceptability from the
consumer (Akinokun, 1974). However, there are
many problems that the marketers encounter which
may also hinder the free flow of the market
processes and these may include: instability in the
product price, lack of education of marketers,
inadequate or lack of storage facilities leading to the
spoilage of the product, inadequate transportation
systems and instability in supply and distorting
market prices. However, the provision of more
technical and better management practices, the use
of exotic breeds which can lay good number of eggs
and the availability of loans and credit facilities to
3
marketers, can bring improvement in egg

production and marketing.
Wholesaling is the part of marketing in which
goods are assembled, stored, and transported to
customers, including retailers, foodservice
operators, other wholesalers, government, and
other types of businesses (ERS/SDA, 2007). The
wholesaler is a significant institution in the
marketing system with the ability of monitoring the
movement in prices over space and time using
modern communication systems. According to
Baker (1985), wholesalers vary considerably in
terms of both the nature and extent of the services
which they provide, and it is common to draw a
broad distinction between 'full' and 'limited' service
institutions. The full service wholesaler employs
his own sales force, holds stocks from which to
make immediate delivery, provides information,
advice and technical service, and is usually
prepared to extend credit. As the name indicates
limited service wholesaler generally performs a
restricted function, and often confine itself solely to
stockholding and distribution. According to Kohls
and Uhl (1980) wholesalers' functions include:
buying from the point of production; assembling in
bulk form; storing; risk bearing; grading or sorting
out according to size, color and quality;
standardization and transportation. How efficient is
the wholesaling function in the distribution of
agricultural products needs to be addressed.
Structure-Conduct-Performance Paradigm
Market structure is the relatively stable features of
the market that measures the degree of competition
among market participants. It refers to certain
characteristics of marketing which are believed to
influence the nature of competition and the process
of price formation. The elements of market
structure include the size and number of firms, ease
of entry and exit of new firms into an industry,
product differentiation, the degree of concentration
of production or sales and the extent of vertical
coordination (FEWS Net, 2008). Research interests
therefore can focus on changes in market structure
across the food system and analyze the relative
impacts on prices, production, efficiency, and other
performance measures (ERS\USDA, 2007).
Marketing channel as an element of market
structure is the vertical sequence of market
institutions in the marketing system through which
the commodity transits when moving from
producer to consumer (Adegeye & Dittoh, 1985;
FEWS Net, 2008).
Market conduct is the ensemble of behaviours and

strategies adopted by market participants towards
the market with regard to price, product
characteristics, etc. It refers to the firms' adjustment
patterns susceptible of affecting buying and selling
in a market (Caves, 1992). The elements of conduct
include: pricing, predatory behaviour, integration,
merger, promotional measures, buying and selling
practices. Together with the market structure,
market conduct determines market performance.
Market performance is the extent to which markets
result in outcomes that are deemed good or preferred
by the society. Market performance refers to how
well the market fulfills certain social and private
objectives. It is the normative appraisal of the social
quality of the allocation of resources or the success
of a market in producing benefits for society through
product innovation and efficiency in the use of
resources (FEWS Net, 2008). Olufokunbi (1977) in
analysing structure and organizational efficiency in
the distribution of fresh produces found that
functions such as transportation, storage and
packaging were performed in egg marketing.
According to the author, once the cost incurred on
equipment, labour, management are known the next
thing to know is the cost of performing the marketing
functions. Adeyokunnu (1973), working on
marketing margin of price in Egba Division Western
Nigeria found that multiplication of traders,
duplication of function and small scale operation
tend to make overall margin per sale unit high. She
found that if marketing functions are combined and
the scale of operation enlarged savings can be made
while wholesaling whould be seen as a value adding
function rather than mere speculative activity.
Adekanye (1988) found that egg is a normal
commodity that is income elastic in southwestern
Nigeria at low level of income and a policy aiming at
reducing egg prices to increase demand would
improve protein content of diet in the area.
Akinwumi (1979) noted that egg marketing needs
more dynamism in Nigeria because the industry is
yet to equip itself with necessary tools against period
of glut and the four Ps (Place, Product, Promotion
and Price) of the marketing mix were tools needed
by the industry to stimulate egg marketing and
consumption. He also emphasized that the industry
should recognize advertisements as a means of
improving Nigerians egg consumption level.
Advertisement would create awareness while
reducing health fear concerns as quality control is a
major concern of poultry products. Lack of
advertisement and storage facilities are some of the
adduced problems bedeviling egg marketing in
Nigeria which often account for increased

marketing costs, higher retail prices and reduced
marketing efficiency.
The growing egg production at commercial level in
large scale intensive systems brings about the
importance of marketing especially egg
wholesaling function that ensures the assembling of
eggs from scattered egg farms to reach retail and
consumer markets. There is growing evidence that
sustainability of any agricultural production calls
for effective and efficient marketing system
(Babatunde and Oyatoye, 2005).
This study mainly analyses the performance of
poultry egg wholesaling in Ilesa East and Ife Central
Local Government Areas of Osun State.
Specifically the study: (1) examines the structure
and conduct of egg wholesaling in the area; (2)
assesses the operational efficiency of egg
wholesaling; (3) analyses the costs and returns and
markup to egg wholesaling; and (4) analyses the
determinants of egg wholesaling performance in the
study areas.
Materials and Methods
Study area
The research was carried out in two Local
government areas of Osun State, Ilesa East and Ife
Central LGAs of Osun State. Agriculture and
especially poultry farming and trade are major
occupations of people of the area. Important egg
distribution activities are taking place in major
consumers markets across the state. Egg distribution
takes place throughout the year and the study
covered important wholesale markets. These
generally are local multi-commodity markets
variable in size, importance, physical structure, type
of participants, with daily or periodic operations.
Sampling and Data collection
Ninety (90) egg wholesalers were systematically
selected from different markets in Ilesa (40
respondents) and Ife Central (50 respondents) local
government areas of Osun State, making a total of
ninety (90) egg wholesalers for this study. The
markets purposively surveyed for convenience and
proximity were Oja-oba, Isona, Bolorunduro, Imo
and Oke-Iro in Ilesa East; Lagere, Oja Tuntun, Sabo,
Mayfair and Opa in Ife Central Local Government.
A structured questionnaire was administered to
collect data on: quantity of egg bought, number of
crates sold, labour and other inputs used, buying and
selling prices, transportation cost, tax paid,
marketing expenses, monthly cracks recorded and
monthly rent paid.
4
Methods of analysis
The data collected were analyzed using the market
structure-conduct and performance paradigm.
Market structure analysis used concentration ratio,
Gini Coefficient and Herfindahl Index measures.
Market performance was captured using
Operational efficiency, profit and Mark up
analyses. Frequency distribution, percentage,
mean-variance and tables and figure were also used
to describe egg wholesale market.
Concentration Ratio
The concentration ratio is a measure of the relative
share of the size of n largest firms only in an
industry to determine its structure and competitive
nature. It is expressed as the share of the n largest
firms' shares in the egg industry as follows.
Sales of firm(i ) 2
)
Total Sales
s(i) = market share of firm i
HHI varies between 0 and 1. It takes the value 1/n
when all the firms are of equal size. When HHI
tends toward 1, this translates greater inequality in
market shares and increase in monopoly tendencies
with reduced competition. The value of 1 means
there is only one single firm controlling the industry
(perfect monopoly).
HHI below 0.01 indicates highly competitive
market, an index below 0.1, un-concentrated
market, between 0.1 and 0.18 implies moderate
concentration like monopolistic competition and
HHI above 0.18 means high concentration and
monopolistic tendencies (Wikipedia, 2010).
Measure of profit to wholesaler
= TR - TC
= profit (N)
TR = Total revenue (N)
TC = total cost (N)
TC = FC + VC
TR = Selling price * total sales
FC = fixed cost = rent + depreciation (on crates,
tables)
VC = egg purchasing cost (N) + marketing cost (N)
Purchasing cost = Purchase Price * Number of egg
crates bought
Marketing cost = transportation cost + labour cost +
market tax.
Crn =
Measures of Markup and Markup Percentage

The markup is the percentage or amount by which a
seller hikes up his buy-in price when determining
his selling price. In other words it is the amount a
firm adds to its cost of goods in order to arrive at its
5
selling price (Baker, 1985).

Mark up price = selling price unit cost
Unit cost = purchasing cost + marketing cost.
Markup Percentage = (Mark up price/Unit Cost)
* 100
Measure of Operational Efficiency
The unit marketing cost for each firm was obtained
by dividing the total marketing cost by the total
quantity handled per month. The firm with the
lowest marketing cost was identified and chosen to
be the most efficient. The firm with the most
efficient unit was determined using the following
formula.
UMC = Total Marketing cost/ Total sales.
OE = Operational Efficiency =
(UMC0/UMCi)*100
UMC0 = Lowest Unit Marketing Cost
UMCi = Unit Marketing Cost of each firm i
Results and Discussions
Market structure of Egg wholesaling
From table 1 experience in egg wholesaling ranges
from 1 to 10 years for 60 percent of wholesalers, 30
percent had between 11-20 years of experience
while 10 percent only had more than 20 years in egg
business for a mean age of 10 years. This shows that
egg wholesale firms are relatively established in the
industry implying a mastering of the egg business.
Results also show that 98 percent of wholesalers
are sole proprietors of the business against 2
percent of partnership only. Thirtyeight (38)
percent of wholesalers had primary education,
forty (40) percent had a secondary education and
eighteen (18) percent had a tertiary education level
against 2 percent only who had no formal
education. All surveyed marketers are member of
an egg wholesalers' Association. Forty-one (41)
percent of wholesalers keep records of the business
against 49 percent that did not. The types of labour
used include family, hired and own labour with 38,
60 and 2 percent respectively. Labour tasks include
loading/offloading of eggs, stock maintenance and
sales management. In terms of size egg wholesale
firms could be grouped into: small size wholesalers
with less than 300 crates handled per month,
medium size wholesalers selling between 300 and
500 crates per month and large firms handling more
than 500 crates of eggs per month. The mean of
crates handled was 360. The firms' size distribution
shows small scale firms with 60 percent, medium
size 30 percent and 10 percent only for large scale
wholesalers. Major egg supply areas in the state
include Ede, Osogbo, Ile-ife, Ilesa, Ikire,
Ipetumodu and Edunabon. Three methods of
Producer-Assemblers/Packers
Large Wholesaler(>500)
Medium Wholesaler(300 - 500)
Small Wholesaler (<300)
Retailer
Fast food firms
Consumer
Fig 1: Egg wholesale marketing channels in Osun State
storage were adopted by wholesalers: storage at

room temperature (80 percent), refrigerator (13
percent), room + refrigerator (5 percent) and shell
oiling (2 percent) only. So, most marketers store at
room temperature in crates of paper board type (98
percent) against 02 percent that used plastic crates.
The concentration ratio of the two largest firms was
11 percent, four largest firms accounted for 20
percent and eight largest firm's had 32 percent. The
four-firm concentration ratio less than 33 percent
indicates that the market is of competitive type
meaning that there are many firms in the market and
that no one firm is large enough to influence the
market price. This result is supported by the value of
Gini coefficient of 0.27 less than 0.4; falling within
the relative competition area on a Lorenz graph;
same for the HHI value of 0.02 that falls below the
value of 0.1. These three measures of the egg

wholesale market structure indicate that poultry egg
wholesale industry is of competitive type.
The channels of egg marketing in the study area are
depicted in the Figure 1. The channels are formed
by institutions like producers assemblers/packers,
wholesalers, retailers, food processors and
consumers. All marketers got their egg supplies
from egg farms. Large wholesalers supply the
medium, small size wholesale firms and retailers.
Medium size firms also supply small size wholesale
firms and retailers. All wholesalers sell to retailers
and food processors who then sell to consumers.
Retailers may also sell to food processors in smaller
quantities. According to Kohls and Uhl (1980) the
question is how increased economies of scale and
continuing integration and reduction in number of
6
Table 1: Analysis of egg wholesale market structure

Variables
Frequency
Percentage
Experience (years)
1-10
54
60
11-20
27
30
21-30
09
10
Type of Ownership
Sole proprietorship
88
98
Partnership
02
02
Level of Education
None
02
02
Primary
34
38
Secondary
36
40
Tertiary
18
20
Membership of Association
Yes
90
100
No
0
00
Records Keeping
Yes
37
41
No
53
59
Type of labour Used
Family labour
34
38
Hired labour
54
60
Own labour
02
02
Egg storage system used
80
72
Room temperature
13
12
Refrigerator
05
04
Room + Refrigerator
02
02
Shell oiling
Type of crate used
98
88
Paper Board crates
02
02
Plastic crates
Firm size Distribution
Small(up to 300 crates per month) 54
60
Medium (301 500 crates)
27
30
Large (above 500 crates)
09
10
Concentration Ratio (%)
CR2
11
CR4
20
CR8
32
0.27
Gini Coefficient
0.02
HHI
Source: Survey data
Mean
10
360
Table 2: Analysis of egg wholesale market conduct and performance

Variabl es
Frequency
Percentage
Mean
Determination of buying price
Previous buying price
65
72
Prevailing Retail Price
45
50
Distance of supply market
90
100
Supply level
70
78
Determination of selling price
Cost of procurement
Price fixed by Association
Profit goal
Purchase Price (N) Distribution
N 450 500
N 501 - 650
Selling Price (N) Distribution
N 500 - 600
N 601 - 650
Distribution of Profit per crate
N 40 -100
N 101 - 150
N 151 - 240
Percentage Mark up
Distribution
0 20
21 35
Operational Efficiency (OE)
Distribution
80 -90
91-100
Source: Survey data
09
18
63
10
20
70
59
31
65
35
505
42
48
46
54
600
42
45
03
46
50
04
95
85
05
94
06
19
54
36
60
40
88
Table 3: Determinants of egg wholesaling performance

Variables
Coefficient
Standard error
9.36
Constant
50.812
3.33*10-5
Business size (crates) 8.07*10-5
Experience (years)
0.957
0.349
Education (years)
0.931
0.691
F =4.46*** Adj. R2 =0.35
Source: Survey data
Table 4: Problems afflicting egg wholesaling
Problem
Frequency
Lack of finance
75
Egg spoilage during
65
transportation
t-value
5.42***
2.42**
2.74**
1.34NS
Percentage
83
72
poultry marketing firms affect competition in

poultry egg industry?
Conduct of Egg wholesaling
Tr a d e r s c l a i m e d t h a t f r o m A u g u s t t o
December/January, scarcity of eggs occurs resulting
into relatively high prices and hoarding of the
commodity occurs. From February to June there are
surpluses of the product resulting into glut and
depressed price in the market.
Table 2 shows that the egg buying price was
determined by previous period purchasing price (72
percent), the ongoing retail price (50 percent),
distance of the production area (100 percent), the
market supply level (78 percent) The wholesale
selling price is determined by the cost of
procurement (100 percent), the expected profit (70
percent) and price fixation by the association (20
percent). The egg crate purchase price ranges from
N450-500 for 65 percent of wholesalers and between
N 500650 for 35 percent of wholesalers with a
mean of N 505 per crate. This variability in purchase
price in addition to location and discount practices
also reflect variability in egg quality and size. The
selling price is relatively stable and varies between N
500 and N 600 for 46 percent of marketers, N 600650 for 54 percent. The mean selling price was N 600
per crate.
Transportation was often carried out by the traders
using commercial or personal transport from poultry
farms. Different factors accounted for the price at
which wholesalers buy specific quantities of crates
ranging from the farm level price to wholesale
determined market price. Discounts are often given
by traders on large quantities of eggs bought.
Performance of Egg Wholesaling
The profit per crate varied from N40 -100 for 46
percent of wholesalers, between N 100 -150 per crate
for 50 percent of wholesalers and between N 150 and
240 for 4 percent of wholesalers. Egg wholesaling is
therefore relatively profitable despite risk due to
cracks and quality loss. The mean profit per crate
was N 95. The percentage mark up which is the
percentage profit on selling price varies between 0
20 percent for 94 percent of marketers, between
2035 percent for 06 percent of wholesalers, and the
average of 19 percent denotes the relative
performance level of egg wholesaling in the areas.
The operational efficiency (OE) distribution shows
that 60 percent of wholesalers performed between
80-90 index while 40 percent performed above 88
the mean performance index. Therefore egg
wholesalers could be said to be operationally
efficient.
9
Determinants of egg wholesaler's

operational efficiency
Business size, length of experience in business and
years of education of the wholesaler were
hypothesized to determine egg wholesaler's
performance. The regression results of the
determinants of egg wholesaling operational
efficiency are reported in table 3. The significant F
statistic (F=4.465***) showed that the regression
2
was significant and the adjusted R =0.35 indicates
that 35 percent of the variability in operational
efficiency index was explained by the selected
explanatory variables. Of the selected variables
business size and years of experience positively
influence wholesaler's performance with
-5
coefficients of 0.0000*10 and 0.957 respectively,
while years of education did not, with a non
significant coefficient of 0.931.
Problems encountered in poultry egg wholesaling
Wholesalers enumerated the following problems as
constraints to egg marketing: Lack of finance (83
percent), egg spoilage during transportation (72
percent), irregular egg supply in short of the market
demand (67 percent) as reflected in table 4.
Conclusion and Recommendation
The egg wholesale industry in Ile-Ife is highly
competitive as attested by the measure of
concentration ratio, Gini coefficient and the
Herfindahl Index. No one firm controls the firm,
while exit like entry are free. Price varies according
to market condition and period of the season. The egg
wholesaling business is also profitable as attested by
the profit level. Egg wholesale firms operated at
lower cost and business size and experience
influence positively operational efficiency while
problems afflicting the industry include lack of
finance, poor transportation conditions and seasonal
supply deficit.
It is recommended an improvement in egg
production to make supply regular and match quality
with market demand. Loans could be made available
and geared towards experienced wholesalers. These
would increase wholesaler's business size and
stabilize profit year round. Marketing strategies of
marketing mix approach could be useful to
wholesalers so as to improve egg distribution as the
market structure was of competitive type which
shows opportunity of efficient pricing in the industry.
An improvement in transportation and storage
conditions would also limit losses to egg wholesale
industry.
References
ADEGEYEA. J & DITTOH J.S, 1985. Essentials of
Agricultural Economics. Impact Publishers.
Nigeria Ltd. Ibadan. Nigeria
ADEKANYE, T. O. 1988. Income and price
elasticities of demand for food: a case study for eggs
in Nigeria. pp. 175-181. In: T.O. Adekanye (ed.).
Readings in agricultural marketing. Longman
Nigeria Limited, Lagos, Nigeria.
ADEYOKUNNU T.O, 1973. Marketing Margin
for Rice in Egba Division Western State of Nigeria,
Bulleting of Rural Economics and Sociology, Vol.,
2: 243-253.
AKINOKUN O, 1974. The problems of the
improvement of poultry production in Nigeria. The
NigerianAgricultural Journal 11. 61-71.
AKINWUMI S.A, 1979. Economic analysis of
Nigeria poultry industry, unpublished
study, Department of Federal Livestock, Lagos
State. Nigeria, 87pp.
BAKER M .J, 1985. Marketing. ELBS, Macmillan
Education Limited. Great Britain.
BABATUNDE R & OYATOYE E, 2005. Food
Security and Marketing Problems in Nigeria: the
case of maize marketing in Kwara State. Paper
presented at Tropentag 2005, International
Conference on Research on Food Security, Natural
Resource Management and Rural Development,
October 11-13, University of Hohenheim, Stuttgart,
Germany. www.tropentag.de
CAVES ER, 1992. American Industry; Structure,
Conduct and Performance. Harvard
University, Prentice Hall. USA.
2007. Briefing Rooms. Food Marketing System in

the U. S. Glossary
http://www.ers.usda.gov/Briefing/FoodMarketing
System/Glossary.htm
FAO 2003. Egg Marketing: A guide for the
production and sales of egg. FAO
Agricultural services Bulletin 150, Rome.
FA O
2004. Statistical Database.
http://www.fao.rog
FEWS Net, 2008. Structure-Conduct-Performance
and Food security. Markets Guidance
No.2, USAID. USA. 18 pages.
http://www.fews.net/docs/special/FEWSNETMkt
Guide2.pdf
KOHLS RL & UHL JN, 1980. Marketing of
th
agricultural products. 5 edition, Macmillan
Publishers, New York.
MOUNTNEY GJ & PARKHURST CR, 1995.
Poultry Products Technology. Food Products Press,
Binghamton, N.Y.
OLUFOKUNBI B, 1977. An Analysis of Structure
and Operational Efficiency in the Distribution of
fresh produce: A case study of the Hawaii produces,
Distribution System, Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis.
OLUYEMI JA & ROBERTS FA, 2000. Poultry
production in warm wet climates. Revised edition.
Spectrum Books Limited, Ibadan, Nigeria.
PEARCE DW 1986. MacMillan Dictionary of
Modern Economics. Third Edition. MacMillan
Press Ltd.
WIKIPEDIA 2010. Herfindahl Index.
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herfindahl_index
COUTTS JA & WILSON GC, 2006. Optimum Egg

Quality:APracticalApproach
http://www.thepoultrysite.com
ECONOMIC RESEARCH SERVICE/USDA,
10
Nigerian Poultry Science Journal 6: 11-16

Replacement value of millet for maize in practical diet fed to Japanese quail
chicks
*
IJAIYA, A.T., AREMU, A., ALABI,J.O., JIYA, E.Z., MALIK, A.A., CHAKWEN, S.J. and
ONYEMEREKWE, C.D.A.
Department of Animal Production, Federal University of Technology,
P.M.B. 65, Minna, Niger State, Nigeria.
*Corresponding Author: +234 8033733709; atijaiya@yahoo.com
Abstract
The effects of inclusion of 0, 25, 50. 75 and 100% millet in replacement of maize in the diets of quail chicks
on growth and nutrient utilization were studied in a five-week feeding trial. One hundred and eighty (180)
one week old (unsexed) Japanese quail chicks having a mean initial weight of 27.61g 0.14 were used in a
completely randomized design. Daily feed intake, daily weight gain, feed conversion ratio and digestibility
of nutrients were statistically similar across the treatment groups (P>0.05). Dietary inclusion of millet
reduced the cost of producing 1kg of feed. Therefore, millet can be used to replace maize at 100% inclusion
level in the diets of quail chicks without any deleterious effect.
Key words: millet/ maize/ performance/ utilization and Japanese quails.
Introduction
Quail farming has become an important poultry
business in Nigeria. Unlike in the past when all
emphasis has been on domestic fowl production.
Japanese quails have been reared for both egg and
meat production in Nigeria, mainly by small and
medium scale breeders. Quail has both nutritive and
economic benefits since it is fast growing and
resistant to many diseases (Oluyemi and Roberts,
2000; Abatcha et al., 2009). The quail is a low
volume and weight farm animal with unique
advantages over other species of poultry which
include fast growth, attaining market weight of 150
180g between 5 6 weeks of age, early attainment
of sexual maturity, ability to come to lay as early as
5- 6 weeks of age and having a short generation
interval, making it possible to have many
generations in a year (Robbins, 1981; Anon, 1991)
and a high rate of egg production between 180 250
per year (Shwartz and Allen,1981; Garwood and
Diehl , 1987). In addition, quails require less floor,
space about 8- 10 adult quails being reared in a space
meant for one adult chicken (Haruna et al., 1997),

less feed requirement,whereby an adult quail
requires only 20- 25g feed per day producing quail
meat and egg are of high quality protein, high
biological value, low body fat and cholesterol level,
making it a choice product for hypertension - prone
individuals (Haruna et al., 1987; Olubamiwa et
al.,1999).
Livestock feeds have become very expensive
resulting in decrease in livestock production. There
is increasing competition between man and
livestock for available feedstuffs for food, feed and
industrial raw materials .Bamgbose et al., (2004)
reported that maize accounts for about 45-50% of
poultry feed being the most commonly used cereal
by feed miller as source of energy. Therefore, any
effort to substitute maize in poultry feed to reduce
cost, competition as well as enormous pressure on
the usage of maize will be a worthy one. The
authors successfully replaced 40 % maize with
maize offal / cashew nut meal based diet and
11
recorded no deleterious effect on carcass yield and

nutrient digestibility of broiler. Olubamiwa et al.,
(1999) and Edache et al., (2005) successfully
replaced 14% maize with cocoa husk meal and 42%
maize with guinea corn respectively with no
depressive effect on the growth of quail chicks.
Millet, maize and sorghum are carbonaceous
concentrates refered to as cereals. Millet has a crude
protein value varying from 9.7 12.87%, ether
extract 2 -5%, 2 9% crude fibre and metablizable
energy of 2984 Kcal/Kg. It has some indigestible
fibre due to presence of hulls which are difficult to
remove (Aduku, 2004). Sharma et al., (1999) fed
isonitrogenous and isocaloric diets containing
maize, millet and sorghum to laying hens and
obtained comparable results. Aduku (2004) also
reported that millet was good substitute for either
sorghum or maize in the diets of animals. There
seems to be paucity of information on the use of
millet as source of energy in poultry ration.
Therefore, this study was designed to investigate the
effect of replacing maize with millet in quail chick
diets.
Materials and methods
A total of one hundred and eighty (180) one week
old (unsexed) Japanese quail (Coturnix coturnix
japonica) chicks hatched at National Veterinary
Research Institute, Vom poultry farm were selected
on the basis of fitness, uniformity and body weight.
They were randomly allotted to five dietary
treatment groups formulated to contain graded
levels of millet (0, 25, 50, 75 and 100%) in
replacement of maize and designated A,B,C,D and E
respectively (Table 1). All the diets were formulated
to be isonitrogenous containing 22% crude protein
and energy ranging between 2606.46 and
2856.64Kcal/kg (Table 1).
Each treatment group was further sub-divided into

three (3) replicates of 12 birds each. All routine
management practices and vaccinations were duly
followed. Feed and water were provided ad libitum.
All experimental diets were analysed for proximate
chemical composition (AOAC, 2000). The birds
were weighed at the beginning of the trial and
weekly thereafter. The mean weekly body weight
and feed intake of birds were recorded throughout
the five (5) weeks experimental period. Feed
conversion ratio was calculated from the mean body
weights and feed intake.
Metabolic trial was carried out during the last 5 days
of the experiment. Four birds were selected from
each of the replicates and housed in cages well
ventilated and maintaining the space requirement of
75cm2 per bird as recommended by NVRI, (1996).
Total droppings voided from each of the replicates
were weighed and recorded. Wet droppings were
oven dried at 65oC for 36 hours and dry matter
content determined. Droppings from the same
replicates were thoroughly pooled and ground.
Proximate composition of the feed and droppings
were determined using standard methods of AOAC
(2000). Feed cost/kg was calculated using the
prevailing market price of feed ingredients around
Jos metropolis.
All data collected from the trial were subjected to
one-way analysis of variance and Duncan Multiple
Range test was used to separate the means using a
computer package software statgraphics 2.0 (1987).
Results and discussion
The chemical composition of maize and millet is
shown in Table 1 while the nutrient composition of
the experimental diets is presented in Table 2. It was
observed that millet has higher values than maize
Table 1. Proximate composition of maize and millet

on dry matter basis.
Nutrients (%)
Maize
Millet
Dry matter
Crude protein
Crude fibre
Ether extract
Ash
Nitrogen free extract
89.01
9.20
2.70
4.60
2.15
70.36
91.04
11.03
8.65
4.63
3.20
63.53
12
Table 2. Composition of the experimental diets feed to the quail

Ingredients (%)
Maize
Millet
Groundnut cake
Wheat offal
Rice bran
Fish meal
Bone meal
Limestone
*Premix
Methionine
Lysine
Salt
Total
Calculated analysis:
Crude protein (%)
ME (Kcal/kg)
Ether extract (%)
Crude fibre (%)
Calcium (%)
Phosphorus (%)
Determined analysis:
Dry matter (%)
Crude protein (%)
Crude fibre (%)
Ether extract (%)
Ash (%)
Nitrogen free extract (%)
A (00)
Replacement levels of millet (%)

B (25)
C (50)
D(75)
E (100)
51.31
0.00
28.99
10.00
3.00
2.00
2.50
1.50
0.25
0.10
0.10
0.25
100.00
39.02
13.01
28.27
10.00
3.00
2.00
2.50
1.50
0.25
0.10
0.10
0.25
100.00
26.39
26.29
27.52
10.00
3.00
2.00
2.50
1.50
0.25
0.10
0.10
0.25
100.00
13.38
40.15
26.77
10.00
3.00
2.00
2.50
1.50
0.25
0.10
0.10
0.25
100.00
0.00
54.23
25.98
10.00
3.00
2.00
2.50
1.50
0.25
0.10
0.10
0.25
100.00
21.04
2856.64
4.61
3.73
1.64
0.58
21.03
2749.34
4.60
4.48
1.64
0.58
21.04
2638.60
4.59
5.27
1.64
0.58
21.04
2624.04
4.58
6.04
1.64
0.59
89.80
22.05
7.67
16.50
1.50
55.28
90.30
23.45
5.33
15.00
2.50
53.72
87.80
24.50
4.67
16.00
2.50
52.33
90.20
22.75
5.33
15.00
2.00
54.92
21.02
2606.46
4.55
6.90
1.64
0.59
85.80
21.70
3.33
14.00
3.50
57.47
*Premix to provide the following per kg of feed: Vit. A, 12,000 i.u ; Vit.B 1 1,200 i.u ; Vit. K, 1.8mg;
Vit.B 2, 3.6mg; Biotin, 0.36mg; Vit.B 12, 0.01mg; Choline choride, 120mg; Chloteracycline, 48mg;
Iron, 48mg; Zinc, 96mg: Copper, 60mg; Iodine, 1.8mg; cobalt, 0.4mg.
13
Table 3: Performance and nutr ient utilization of quail chicks fed
diets containing maize and
millet
Ingredients (%)

A
(00)
(25)
(50)
(75)
(100)
SEM
Initial weight (g/bird)
27.78 27.78
27.77
27.59
27.23
0.14
NS
Final weight (g/bird)
141.0 147.22
150.00
142.22
140.00
1.91
NS
Daily weight gain (g/bird)
3.23
3.41
3.49
3.26
3.23
0.24
NS
Daily feed intake (g\/bird)
3.69
3.48
3.26
3.34
3.42
0.29
NS
Feed conversion ratio
1.34
1.26
1.22
1.67
1.37
0.14
NS
(FCR)
NS = Non significant (P>0.05)
Table 4. Nutrient utilization of quail chicks fed diets containing maize and millets
Nutrient digestibility

A
(00)
(25)
(50)
(75)
(100)
99.54
99.45
98.02
99.54
98.61
99.81
99.41
99.10
97.62
99.31
96.86
99.65
99.54
99.67
97.86
99.48
97.93
99.67
0.04
0.08
0.19
0.05
0.29
0.03
Dry matter (%)

99.57
Crude protein (%)
99.42
Crude fibre (%)
97.92
Ether extract (%)
99.62
Ash (%)
97.90
99.77
(%)
SEM
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
Table 5: Economics of feed conversion of quail chicks fed diet containing maize and millet.
Ingredients (%)
Cost of feed/Kg (N)

Cost of feed/g (N)
Average daily feed
intake/bird (g)
Cost of daily feed
feed intake/bird (N)
Daily weight gain (g)
Cost of feed intake/ daily
weight gain (N)

C
D
E
(50)
(75) (100)
A
(00)
B
(25)
SEM
99.68
0.997
98.93
0.989
98.15
0.982
97.33
0.973
96.49
0.965
3.69
3.48
3.26
3.34
3.42
0.29
NS
3.68
2.23
3.44
3.41
3.20
3.49
3.25
3.26
3.30
3.23
0.24
NS
1.14
1.01
0.92
1.00
1.02

14
for all the nutrients except nitrogen free extract. A

linear relationship was observed between the levels
of inclusion of millet and metabolizable energy,
ether extract and crude fibre fractions of the
calculated nutrient compositions while crude
protein and ash values did not follow any well
defined trend with increased levels of millet. The
metabolizable energy and ether extract contents of
the diets decreased as a result of incremental
substitution of maize with millet which confirmed
that maize has higher energy concentrate than
millet, the crude fibre content of the diets increased
as the level of inclusion of millet increased which
showed that millet is more fibrous than maize. This
agrees with the observation of Aduku (2004) that
millet has a crude fibre content of 8% while maize
has 2%. The linear increase in dietary crude fire as
millet level increased was a potential disadvantage
because high intake of fibre has been reported to
have a proportional decline in the feed utilization
(Longe and Ogedegbe, 1989).
Data on the performance of quails fed graded levels
of millet at the in replacement of maize are shown in
Table 3. There were no significant differences
(P>0.05) in the daily feed intake, daily weight gain
and feed conversion ratio. However, birds fed diet C
(50% maize: 50% millet) had the highest (P>0.05)
daily weight gain (3.49g/bird) and the best (P>0.05)
feed conversion ratio (1.22). The data on the nutrient
utilization of quails fed graded levels of millet in
replacement of maize are shown in Table 4. The
digestibility of dry matter, crude protein, crude fibre,
ether extract, ash and nitrogen free extract among
the dietary treatment groups were similar (P>0.05).
The result obtained in this study agrees with earlier
findings that other cereals such as sorghum and
millet could be a good substitute for maize in the
diets of animals. Sharma et al., (1999) substituted
maize with sorghum and millet in the diets of laying
hens and obtained comparable results. Edache et al.,
(2005) replaced 42% of maize with guinea corn in
the diets of quail chicks with no depressive effect on
the growth performance.
The economics of feed conversion of the quail
chicks is presented in Table 5. The cost of producing
1kg of feed decreased as the percentage dietary
inclusion of millet increased. Diet A (100% maize:
0% millet) was the poorest in the economy of
production by gaining 1g body weight with N 1.14
while diet C (50%maize: 50% millet) was the best as
N 0.92 was expended to produce the same quantity
of body weight among the treatment groups. The
decrease in the feed cost per meat produced as the

level of millet inclusion increased suggests that the
feed ingredient (millet) is economically viable
alternative for maize in the diets of quail chicks.
Conclusion
The over all results of this study showed that millet
could be used as a replacement for maize at 100%
level in the diets of quail chicks without any
deleterious effect on growth performance and
nutrients utilization.
Reference
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Utilization of Fermented Pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan) meal in diets for broiler
chicken.
*A.V. JEGEDE, A.O. OSO, A.M. BAMGBOSE AND A.O. ABIOYE
Department of Animal Nutrition, University of Agriculture, PMB 2240, Abeokuta, Nigeria.
*correspondence: vinbjegede@yahoo.com
Abstract
One hundred and twenty (120) unsexed broilers of Anak strain were used to evaluate the effect of partial
replacement of soyabean meal with fermented pigeon pea meal (FPPM).The birds were randomly allotted to
four treatment groups of 30 birds and three replicate of 10 birds each. FPPM was used to replace soyabean
meal at 0%, 10%, 20% and 30% for diets 1, 2, 3, and 4 respectively. The birds were fed ad libitum for a period
of 8weeks while performance characteristics, nutrient utilization, carcass characteristics, serum
biochemistry and economics of production were measured. The result showed that the final live weight,
average weight gain average feed intake of the birds fed diets 1, 2 and 3 were similar (P>0.05) , while those
on diet 4 recorded the least value. The crude protein and fibre retention were significantly (P<0.05)
influenced by the dietary treatment. Birds on diet 1 had highest protein retention (68.24%), while those on
diet 4 recorded the least value. Ether extract digestibility, ash digestibility, and energy retention were not
significantly (P>0.05) influenced by the dietary treatment. The serum total protein and serum globulin levels
were significantly (P<0.05) affected by dietary inclusion of varying levels of FPPM. The total protein and
globulin increased with increased inclusion level of FPPM from 33.0g/l and 10.67g/l in control diet to
40.67g/l and 17.17g/l in diet 4 respectively. The carcass and organ weights were significantly (P<0.05)
influenced. Broilers placed on control diet and 10% FPPM based diet recorded similar dressed weight. Birds
on diet 1, 2 and 3 had a higher carcass and organ weights. The cost per kg weight gain was lowest at 20% and
30% FPPM inclusion. The study revealed that FPPM can replace up to 20% of soyabean in the diets of
broilers without any deleterious effect.
Keywords: Pigeon pea, broilers, fermentation
Introduction
Poultry keeping provide a method by which rapid
transformation in animal protein consumption can
be achieved in the humid tropics (Oluyemi and
Roberts, 2000). Hence, serious attention should be
paid to the sector for continuous supply of poultry
products at reasonable prices to the rapidly
increasing human population.
Feed is one of the major inputs of any viable poultry
enterprise as feeds alone account for about 75% of
the total cost of production (Kekeocha, 1984). The
ability to judiciously manipulate feed ingredients to
maximize productivity is therefore central to the
maintenance of a stable poultry production
enterprise. The high cost of feed ingredients has
contributed to the low level of production by
livestock farmers. Therefore, there is a need to look
for cheaper alternative feed stuff, which has

comparable nutritive value. Plant protein sources in
poultry feed contributes about 25-30% of the diet.
Though they are of high nutritive value, their
increasing cost has led to the high cost of poultry
products.
Pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan) a shrub belonging to
the family Fabaceae and sub-family Papilinoaceae
is grown in the tropics for its seeds (Morrison,
1984). The seeds hold a lot of promise as feed
ingredient for poultry (Udedibie and Igwe, 1998;
Etuk et al., 2003). The protein composition of
pigeon pea varies and it ranged from 17.90-30.0%
(Geervani, 1981; Salankhe et al., 1985).
The use of pigeon pea in poultry diet has been very
low. This might be due to the presence of trypsin
inhibitor and tannin content as reported by
17
Ologhobo (1992). However various processing

methods like roasting, acid treatments and
autoclaving have been employed to remove the
antinutritional factors. Autoclaved pigeon meal has
been reported to improve the performance of rabbits
( Ologhobo,1992). However there is a dearth of
information on the utilization of pigeon pea using
fermentation method of detoxification. This study
was therefore conducted to study the effect of
utilization of fermented pigeon pea in broiler
chicken diets.
Processing of test ingredients
The pigeon pea used in this study was purchased
from a local market in Abeokuta, Ogun State,
Nigeria. The seeds were soaked in water at a ratio of
1:4 ( kg of seeds: volume of water) under an air tight
environment for 5 days. The water was drained off at
the expiration of the fermentation process, seeds
washed several time with clean water to remove the
fermenting odour and sun dried for 5 days to a
moisture content of 10-12 gkg-1. The dried seeds

was later hammer milled, and incorporated into the
experimental diets for broilers.
Experimental birds and management
One hundred and twenty unsexed day old Anak
broilers obtained from a reputable hatchery were
used for the study. Feed and water were supplied ad
libitum. The birds were brooded and reared in a deep
litter house with wood shavings as litter.
Dietary treatments
Four experimental diets were compounded with
fermented pigeon pea meal (FPPM) replacing 0%,
10%, 20% and 30% of soya bean meal in a straight
broiler diet (Table 1). The broilers were randomly
allotted into 4 dietary treatments consisting of 30
birds per treatment and were replicated three times
with 10 birds per replicate.
Chemical analysis
Feed samples, samples of test ingredients and feacal
o
droppings samples were dried at 65 C for 48hours
and milled (1mm sieve) before analysis and all
analysis were performed on dried samples.
Table 1: Gross composition of experimental diets (gkg -1) and proximate composition of fermented
pigeon pea meal.
Inclusion level of pigeon pea
Ingredients (gkg-1)
0%
10%
20%
30%
FPPM
Maize
450.00 450.00 450.00 450.00 Soybean meal
300.00 270.00 240.00 210.00 Groundnut cake
5.00
20.00
40.00
80.00
FPPM
0.00
10.00
20.00
30.00
Fish meal
30.00
30.00
30.00
30.00
Wheat offal
176.00 161.00 121.00 101.00 Bone meal
20.00
20.00
20.00
20.00
Oyster shell
10.00
10.00
10.00
10.00
DL-methionine
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
L-Lysine
1.50
1.50
1.50
1.50
Broiler premix
2.50
2.50
2.50
2.50
Salt
2.50
2.50
2.50
2.50
Total
1000.00 1000.00 1000.00 1000.00 Determined Analysis
Metabolizable energy (kcal/kg) 2801.00 2784.72 2718.71 2698.70 Crude protein
226.00 225.90 223.10 219.70 211.00
Crude fibre
39.50
37.50
37.30
37.00
87.10
Ether extract
36.50
35.90
35.50
35.20
38.00
Dry matter
845.00
Ash content
42.00
622.00
Ca
1.14
P
2.20
Gross Energy (Kcal/kg)
2260.00
FPPM- Fermented pigeon pea meal
18
Table 2: Performance and economic benefits of broiler fed fermented pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan)
based diets
Parameters
0%
10%
20%
30%
SEM
Initial weight (g)
42.00
42.50
42.57
42.86
Final weight (g)
2300.00a 2270.00a 2250.57a 2010.00b 45.76
Weight gain (g)
2258.00a 2227.50a 2208.47a 1967.14b 29.96
Total feed intake/bird(g) 5012.56a 5029.92a 4966.00ab 4854.64b 39.96
Feed: gain
2.22b
2.25b
2.25b
2.46a
0.53
Protein intake/bird
1132.83 a 1136.25 a 1107.92 a 1066.56b 8.16
1.96a
1.99a
1.84b
0.16
Protein efficiency ratio
1.99a
Mortality
0.00b
0.00b
0.00b
3.16a
0.31
Cost/kg feed N
38.87a
36.48b
33.71c
30.36d
0.27
a
b
c
d
183.46
167.42
147.39
4.23
Cost/total feed intake N 195.36
Cost/kg weight gain N
82.08a
75.85b
74.64b
3.27
86.51a
d
c
b
a
2.11
*Comparative gain
0.00
4.43
10.66
11.87
abcd
Means on the same row with different superscript are significantly(P<0.05) different .
*Computed as the difference between cost/kg weight gain of birds fed control diet and experimental diets
Proximate compositions of the samples were

determined according to the methods of AOAC
(2000). Gross energy was determined using an
adiabatic bomb calorimeter.
replicate was randomly selected, slaughtered and

defeathered after scalding in warm water according
to the methods of Oluyemi and Roberts, (2000). The
cut parts and relative organ weight were determined
and were expressed as percentage of the live weight.
Nutrient utilization
At the end of the study, a bird per replicate was
selected and arranged in clean, separate and
disinfected metabolic cages. Three days of
acclimatization period prior to the commencement
of the trail was allowed.Aknown weight of feed was
given to each treatment groups daily while the
excreta collection was done daily for a period of five
days according to the procedure outlined by
Onifade et al. (1999). The daily excreta samples
voided for each replicate were dried and samples per
replicate used to determine the proximate
compositions according to the method of
Association of Official Analytical Chemist (AOAC,
2000).
Statistical analysis
All data were subjected to one way Analysis of
Variance as outlined by Daniel (1995) in a
completely randomized design. Duncan's Multiple
Range Test was used to separate significant
differences among means at 5% level of
significance (Duncan,1955).
Results and Discussion
Proximate composition of the fermented pigeon
pea meal (FPPM)
The proximate composition of the fermented pigeon
pea meal is shown in Table 1. The result shows that
it contained 211.00 gkg-1 crude protein, 87.10 gkg-1
crude fibre, 38 gkg-1 ether extract, 42.00 gkg-1 Ash,
622.0 gkg-1 NFE and 845 gkg-1 dry matter. The gross
energy value was 2260 kcal/ kg. The level of the
protein content (211.00 gkg-1) confirmed that the
feedstuff is a good source of dietary protein in
poultry ration. The protein content obtained in this
study agreed with the findings of Etuk et al. (2003)
and Nwachukwu et al. (1996) who reported a crude
protein value of 211.3 gkg-1 and 210 gkg-1 for cooked
and toasted pigeon pea, respectively. However, the
crude protein obtained is slightly lower than the
value of 225.0 gkg-1 reported for raw pigeon pea
(Salankhe et al., 1985). This is due to the fact that
processing either by cooking or fermentation may
have reduced the protein content as a result of
Poultry Science
Journal
solubilization of someNigerian
nitrogenous
compound
in
Data collection
Feed intake and body weight of birds were
measured weekly. Records of mortality were kept as
it occurred. At the 56th day of the experiment, blood
samples (2.5ml) were collected from a bird in each
of the replicate.
The blood samples were analysed for serum total
protein, albumin, globulin, uric acid, serum
glutamate oxaloactate transanimase (SGOT) and
serum glutamate pyruvate transanimase (SGPT)
levels. The serum biochemical indices were carried
out using the routine standard clinical chemistry
procedures (Olorede et al., 1996). A bird per
19
Table 3: Nutrient digestibility and serum metabolites of broilers fed fermented pigeon pea
(Cajanus cajan) based diets
Parameters
0%
10%
20%
30%
SEM
Crude protein retention(%)
68.24a 65.34b 65.14b 63.32c 3.31
Crude fibre digestibility(%)
53.14b 54.32b 54.77b 58.22a 2.84
Ether extract digestibility(%) 88.37 88.00 87.90 87.81 1.71
Ash retention(%)
43.92 43.70 44.01 43.83 1.3
Total protein(g/dl)
33.00c 35.00b 35.70b 40.67a 1.44
Albumin(g/dl)
22.33 23.00 22.50 23.50 0.71
Globulin(g/dl)
10.67d 12.00c 13.20b 17.17a 4.24
Uric acid(mg/dl)
6.00
6.15
6.26
6.00
0.71
SGOT(mg/dl)
19.01 19.21 19.24 18.97 1.81
SGPT (mg/dl)
10.11 10.21 9.97
10.02 1.21
abcd
SGOT- Serum glutamate oxalotransaminase

SGPT- Serum glutamate pyruvate transaminase
Table 4: Carcass and offal characteristics (in percentage of live weight) of broilers fed fermented
(Cajanus cajan) pigeon pea based diets.
Parameter
0%
10%
20%
30%
SEM
Live weight (g)
2250.00 2200.00 2100.00 1800.00 55.91
Dressing percentage (%) 77.00a
76.00a
74.10b
70.00c
0.91
10.80ab 12.05a
10.01b
0.19
Drumstick(%)
11.11 a
a
a
a
ab
Thigh(%)
11.52
12.02
12.40
11.67
0.21
18.04b
16.39c
1.85
Breast meat(%)
18.67ab 19.36a
Back(%)
10.24a
10.87a
10.85a
9.11 b
0.32
Neck(%)
4.99
5.01
5.21
5.15
0.11
Wing(%)
6.07
6.14
6.02
6.19
0.10
Offals (%)
Liver
1.41
1.46
1.72
1.95
0.10
Kidney
0.57
0.54
0.48
0.48
0.08
Heart
0.36
0.33
0.29
0.28
0.03
Lung
0.42
0.41
0.43
0.40
0.01
Gizzard
2.00
2.10
2.12
2.00
0.04
abcd
water. Other observed variation in the composition

of pigeon pea compared to related previous work
could be due to differences in the source, mode of
harvest, processing, storage and variety of the seed.
The gross energy value of FPPM obtained in the
study is slightly lower than the value reported for
SBM (Aduku, 1993). This implied that soybean
meal when incorporated will supply more energy
into the resultant diet than FPPM. However, the ash
content obtained is slightly higher than values
obtained for soya bean meal.
Growth performance and economic benefits of
broilers fed FPPM based diet
The growth performance and economic benefits of
broilers fed experimental diet is shown in Table 2.
The final live weight and total weight gain of

broilers fed 10% FPPM and 20% FPPM based diet
compared favorably (p>0.05) with those fed control
diet. However, birds fed 30% FPPM based diet
recorded the least final live weight and weight gain,
which differs significantly (P<0.05) from other
dietary treatments. Total feed intake per bird
reduced significantly (P<0.05) with increase in
FPPM inclusion level. The highest feed intake was
recorded for birds fed control and 10% FPPM.
The comparable final live weight and total weight
gain of broilers fed 10% and 20% FPPM with
control attest to the fact that FPPM compares
favourably with SBM in supporting broiler growth.
However, beyond 20% FPPM inclusion level, final
20
live weight and gain reduced significantly (P<0.05)

from 2250.57 g and 2208.47 g to 2010.00 g and
1967.14 g respectively. It was observed that the
feed intake, protein intake and weight gain of birds
followed a similar trend. Gibson et al. (1989)
reported that body weight gain in poultry decreased
with reduction in dietary protein. The significant
reduction in weight gain and feed intake by broiler
fed 30% FPPM agreed with the report of Amaefule
and Onwudike (2000) who attributed the reduction
in feed intake and resultant weight gain to the
accumulated tannin and bitter taste of pigeon pea
seed coat at higher levels of pigeon pea inclusion.
The diets became less palatable as the level of
FPPM inclusion increased resulting in lower feed
intake, lower protein intake and reduced weight
gain. Amaefule and Obioha (2001) reported that
there is a decline in crude protein retention by
poultry as the level of pigeon pea meal increased.
Feed to gain ratio recorded in 0%, 10% and 20%
FPPM inclusion were similar and significantly
(p<0.05) lower than the values reported for 30%
FPPM inclusion while the protein efficiency ratio
recorded for 0%, 10% and 20% FPPM were also
similar and higher (p<0.05) than values obtained
for 30%FPPM. This indicates that the utilization of
feed at 0%, 10% and 20% FPPM were similar.
However, beyond 20% FPPM, there was a reduced
utilization of feed. Mortality value of 3.16%
reported for broiler placed on 30% FPPM is a
pointer to the poor nutritional plane of the diet at
30% FPPM inclusion.
The cost per kg of feed compounded reduced
significantly with increasing level of FPPM (Table
1) due to the lower cost of pigeon pea when
compared with soya bean,. The cost of feed
consumed also reduced (p<0.05) with increased in
FPPM inclusion level. However, Phillip (1984)
already reported that reducing feed cost was not
only to obtain cheaper feed but that it was also
dependent on the production result obtained with
this cheaper feed. The feed cost per unit weight gain
obtained in 20% and 30% FPPM were similar but
significantly (P<0.05) lower than the values
obtained for 0% and 20% FPPM. This implied that
it was cheapest producing a kg of broiler meat with
20% FPPM. The comparative gain reduced
(P<0.05) with increase in FPPM inclusion. Birds on
30% FPPM recorded the highest gain with the
lowest recorded in birds fed control diet. However,
in comparison with other growth parameters it was
cheapest producing a kg of broiler meat with 20%
FPPM.
Nutrient digestibility and serum metabolites
21
The nutrient digestibility and serum metabolites of

broilers fed FPPM based diet is shown in Table 3.
Crude protein retention recorded in control diets
was significantly (P<0.05) higher than the other
dietary treatments. Although values recorded for
protein retention in birds fed 10% and 20% pigeon
pea inclusion level were similar. The decline in
crude protein retention by the birds as the level of
FPPM increases in the diets agreed with the report of
Amaefule and Obioha (2001). The crude fibre
digestibility recorded in birds fed 0%, 10% and
20% pigeon pea inclusion were similar but
significantly (p<0.05) lower than values recorded
for those fed 40% inclusion level. This implied that
broilers placed on 10% and 20% digest the dietary
fibre as well as broilers placed on control diet. The
high crude fibre digestibility recorded at higher
levels of FPPM inclusion may have been enhanced
by fermentation. Ether extract digestibility and ash
retention were not affected by the dietary treatment.
The serum total protein and serum globulin levels
were significantly (P<0.05) affected by dietary
inclusion of varying levels of FPPM. However,
serum albumin, uric acid, serum glutamate oxalo
transaminase (SGOT) and serum glutamate
pyruvate transaminase (SGPT) levels were not
affected by dietary inclusion of FPPM. This implied
that dietary inclusion of FPPM in broiler ration did
not affect the activities of these enzymes.
Ekpeyoung and Biobaku (1986) reported that the
values of SGOT and SGPT are normally low in
blood. Eggum (1989) reported that activities of
several enzymes decrease in animal suffering from
protein inadequacy. A drop in serum albumin of
blood was observed only after prolonged periods of
protein inadequacy (Eggum, 1989). The total
protein and globulin increased with increased
inclusion level of FPPM from 33.0g/l and 10.67g/l
in control diet to 40.67g/l and 17.17g/l in 40%
respectively. Total serum proteins have been found
to be sensitive to nutritive influences as animals fed
with poor dietary protein shows low serum protein
manifesting as hypoproteineanna (Kaneko, 1989).
Animals with high levels of serum protein show an
indication of dehydration and probably infection
while abnormally low values is an indication of liver
diseases, renal diseases and immunodeficiency
(Wayne and Cliff, 1987). The high level of total
protein obtained in 40% is an indication of
physiological stress and dehydration created on the
experimental broiler.
Carcass and visceral organ characteristics
The carcass and offal characteristics of broilers fed
FPPM based diets are shown in Table 4. The
dressing percentages were within the range of

69.8% to 83.9% reported for broilers by Longe
(1986) and Bolu and Balogun (2003). The dressing
percentage reduced (P<0.05) as the inclusion level
of FPPM increased from control diet (77.00%) to
30% FPPM based diet (70.00%) based diet. Broilers
placed on control diet and 10% FPPM based diet
recorded similar dressed weight. However, breast
meat yield and back weight of for broilers on control
and 20% FPPM based diets were similar. The breast
meat yield, drumstick and thigh are the most
economically important portion of the carcass
composition and provide the greatest portion of
edible meat in broilers (Smith and Teeter, 1987;
Fanimo et al., 1996). The reduction in breast meat
yield as FPPM inclusion level increased is a pointer
to reduced efficiency of feed utilization with
increase in inclusion level of FPPM. Sell et al.
(1989) reported that reduction in dietary protein was
associated with reduction in breast meat yield. Sell
(1993) also discovered that feeding a reduced
dietary protein series resulted in decreased breast
meat yield despite the supplementation of such diets
with lysine and methionine. The reduced cut parts
obtained as FPPM inclusion increased was due to
the reduced final weight gain. The dietary treatment
showed no significant (p>0.05) effect on weight of
visceral organ.
In conclusion, the present study confirmed that
replacement of SBM with up to 20% FPPM in the
diets of broilers can be achieved without any
deleterious effect on the broiler chicken.
BOLU, S.A AND BALOGUN, O. O.2003. Effect

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Performance and Early Lay Characteristics of Growing Pullets Fed Graded

Levels of Rumen Filtrate fermented Corn cobs
O.A. ADEYEMI, J.A. AGUNBIADE AND A.O. OYEFESO
Department of Animal Production, Olabisi Onabanjo University Yewa Campus, PMB 0012, Ayetoro,
Ogun State.
Abstract
A study was designed to evaluate the inclusion of rumen filtrate fermented corn-cobs (RFFCC) at the
expense of maize in growing pullet diet. Corn-cob was fermented for twenty days using fresh bovine rumen
filtrate as the inoculum. The dried fermented product was substituted for maize in practical diets on a weight
for weight basis at 0, 12.5, 25, 37.5 and 50%. The resulting five diets were fed in mash and pellet form. One
hundred and twenty (8 weeks old) pullet of a commercial strain were selected from a larger flock and
distributed into 10 groups of 12 birds each after balancing for liveweight. The 10 groups were randomly
allocated to the five dietary treatments (mash and pellet form) for a feeding duration of 112 days using a 2 x 5
factorial design. Increasing the level of RFFCC at the expense of maize significantly (P<0.05) reduced feed
intake, body weight at first egg and at 10% production while age at first egg and at 10% production was
significant prolonged. Increasing concentration of RFFCC resulted in a reduction (P<0.05) in crude protein
and crude fibre retention. Level of RFFCC had no effect on egg shape index, yolk index, shell thickness and
shell weight (P>0.05) but significantly (P<0.05) deepens the yolk colour. Pelleting of diet resulted in a
st
st
significant increase in the body weight at 1 egg and 10% production, Weight of 1 egg on pelleted diet and
weight of egg at 10% production were 23.51 and 11.86% heavier than eggs produced by birds on the mash
feed (P<0.05).
Keywords: Performance, Pullets, Corn-cob, Rumen filtrate, Fermentation, Nutrient retention.
Introduction
Post harvest processing of corn (maize) results in the
generation of its cob which accounts for about 30 40% of the weight of the dehusked maize. Alokan
(1988) surmised that corn cob is perhaps the most
prominent cereal crop byproduct in Nigeria.
Several million tons of corn cob that had no
immediate use for human's accumulate on the farm
and processing units contributing to land and air
pollution as sizeable percentage are burnt to provide
space for other useful purposes and ashes used as
fertilizer in crop farming (Oladeinde 2000).
Although corn cob has been employed in ruminant
feeding as source of fibre (Umunna et al 1980;
Alokan 1988), its usefulness as component of
commercial non-ruminant animal feed is not popular
because of its high fibre, lignin and lignocellulose
contents which impair digestion and utilization.
Monogastric animals do not have the enzyme
complex for the digestion of fibre (McDonald et al
1998). Many researchers had recommended the use

of exogenous enzymes and enzymes cocktails
(Bedford and Morgan,1996; Chesson 1993; Classen
1996). In earlier works in this station (Adeyemi and
Familade,2003; Adeyemi et al .,2008), the
fermentation of corn for 20 days using rumen filtrate
resulted in an increase in the crude protein content
and a reduction in the crude fibre level. Feeding trial
involving laying hens (Adeyemi and Familade,
2003) resulted in depressed performance compared
to the control while trial with rabbits by Adeyemi et
al (2008) indicated that the rumen filtrate fermented
corn cob (RFFCC) can be tolerated up to 50%
replacement of maize.
Bovine rumen content is an abundant abattoir waste
in many parts of Nigeria. The utilization of cheap
and readily available materials like corn-cob and
rumen filtrate would go a long way to reversing the
spiraling feed costs and help in the control of
24
pollution and health hazards arising from improper

disposal of such wastes. The study was carried out to
investigate the effect of feeding rumen filtrate
fermented corn-cob at different levels on the
performance of pullet grower birds fed mash or
pellet diets.
Location of Study
The experiment reported herein was carried out in
the Poultry Research Unit of the Teaching and
Research Farm, College of Agricultural Sciences,
Olabisi Onabanjo University, Yewa Campus,
Ayetoro, Nigeria.
Preparation of Test Materials
Collection and Preparation of Rumen Filtrate
The collection and preparation of rumen filtrate is as
described by Adeyemi et al (2008). Briefly, aliquots
of rumen contents of freshly slaughtered and
eviscerated cattle were collected from Ayetoro
abattoir. The mass of rumen content was squeezed
and the liquid portion filtered through a sieve. The
rumen filtrate was collected in plastic kegs to the
laboratory for immediate use in the fresh state.
Corn-Cobs Preparation
Shelled cobs of corn (maize) were collected from
the Sawonjo Farm Settlement in Yewa North Local
Government Area of Ogun State, Nigeria. The cobs
were sun dried and crushed. The crushed corn-cobs
were seeped in the fresh rumen filtrate, drained of
excess fluid and packed into plastic drums which
were made airtight by covering with cellophane and
sealed to undergo 20- day fermentation. After 20
days, the drum was opened and the fermented corn
cobs sun dried for 3 days to achieve practical
dryness, milled through a 3.5mm mesh and bagged
ready for use as rumen filtrate fermented corn-cobs
(RFFCC).
Experimental Diets
The dietary treatments were formulated for the
grower stage (Table 1). Diet 1 (control) contained
40% yellow maize. Diet 2 was formulated by
replacing 12.5% of maize with RFFCC. In Diet 3, 4
and 5, RFFCC replaced 25.0, 37.5 and 50% maize
respectively. The replacement of maize with
RFFCC was on a quantitative (W/W) basis. All
other ingredients remained constant. Diets, 6,7,8,9
and 10 are in the form of pellets, though they are of
the same formulation as Diets 1,2,3,4 and 5
respectively which were fed as mash.
25
Management of Birds and Data Collection

One hundred and twenty (120), eight weeks olds
pullets of a commercial strain (Bovan Nera), were
selected from a larger flock that had been previously
floor brooded and raised on a standard commercial
grower diet. The birds were distributed into 10
groups of 12 birds each after balancing for live
weights. The 10 groups were then randomly
allocated to the ten dietary treatments such that each
experimental diet (Table, 1) was fed to 4 replicates
of 3 birds each. Each replicate was housed in cages
of 35 x 40 x 40 cm dimension in a pen that allowed
flow through ventilation.
All birds were subjected to standard management
and health practices. Feed and water were provided
ad libitum throughout the experimental duration.
Birds were fed with the experimental diet for 16
weeks.
The following data were collected during the
experiment:
1.
Growth Response
Feed intake:- Weekly feed left over were
weighed and subtracted from the quantity
supplied. The value obtained was divided by
the number of birds in the pen in order to get
feed consumption per bird.
Weight Gain:- Chicks were weighed at the
beginning of the trial and weekly thereafter.
The gain for each week was obtained by
difference. The value obtained was divided by
the number of birds to get gain per chick per
week and from this, the weight gain per day
was calculated.
Feed Conversion Ratio:- Calculated thus:
FCR = Average feed intake/Average body
weight gain
Mortality:- Death if any in each replicate was
recorded appropriately.
2. Egg related data
Total number of eggs per replicate was taken
th
for the period of weeks in lay. At 6 week in lay,
the eggs laid on Monday and Thursdays were
collected, weighed and broken out for internal
and external quality measurements.
Egg weight:- This was obtained using a
sensitive top loading Mettler balance that

measured to the nearest decimal point.
Shell weight:- This was obtained using a
sensitive top loading Mettler balance that

measured to the nearest decimal point.
Shell thickness:- This was obtained using a
micrometer screw gauge.
Yolk Colour:- This was obtained using a

Roche colour fan.
Egg Shape index:- This was calculated thus:
Egg width
Egg height.
These values were obtained using a venier
caliper.
Yolk index:- This was calculated thus:
Yolk Height
Yolk width.
The yolk height was obtained using a spherometer
while the yolk width was obtained using a venier
caliper.
Metabolic Studies
At the last week of the feeding trial, three replicate
cages whose birds weight were close to the mean
treatment weight were used for metabolic studies.
During the digestibility trial, data on daily feed
consumption were collected. The droppings were
collected daily on previously weighed aluminum
foil using the total collection method as described by
Cullison (1982). Such daily droppings from each
replicate were weighed fresh and oven dried at 70o C
for 72 hours, pooled together, ground and kept for
analysis and subsequent determination of apparent
retention of nutrients.
ChemicalAnalysis
Proximate analyses of the maize cobs, feed samples
and droppings were determined by the method of the
Association of Official Analytical Chemist (AOAC,
1995).
StatisticalAnalysis
Data collected were analyzed using an appropriate
design for a 2 (forms of feed) x 5 (levels of RFFCC)
factorial experiment. Significant means were
partitioned using the Duncan's Multiple Range Test
(Duncan's 1955).
The proximate composition (g/kg) of corn cob and
rumen filtrate fermented corn-cob (RFFCC) used as
test ingredients are presented in Table 2. The corncob used for this study had a crude protein content of
-1
39.80 gkg which is higher than the value of
-1
29.20gkg reported by Oke et al (2007). It is also at
-1
variance with the range of 24.0 - 33.50 gkg reported
by Fetuga et al (1975) and Longe and Tona (1988).

-1
The crude fibre value of 351.12gkg obtained for
corn-cob in this study is lower than the value of
-1
424.60gkg obtained by Adeyemi and Familade
-1
(2003), but consistent with a value of 350.00gkg
reported by Aduku (1995) and very close to the
-1
range of 350.0 - 380.00 gkg reported by Devendra
and McLeroy (1982). Adeyemi and Familade
(2003) explained that discrepancies in the
proximate composition of agricultural wastes and
by product may be a result of varietal differences
and post harvest management
Fermentation of the corn-cob resulted in an increase
in the crude protein content from 3.98 to 8.14%
while the crude fibre decreased from 35.11% to
28.34%. The positive effect of fermentation on
feedstuffs has been previously enunciated (Eka
1979; Adeyemi and Adeyemi 2000; Adeyemi and
Familade 2003; Oke et al 2007; Adeyemi et al
2007). Adeyemi and Adeyemi (2000) explained that
fermentation result in the conversion of fibre into
soluble carbohydrates and enhancement of feeding
value. Earlier reports (Hungate 1966; Sniffen 1987),
revealed that the microbes of the rumen are able to
syntheses -glucanases arabinoxylanases which are
needed for the breakdown of cellulose,
hemicelluloses and phenolic polymers. The diverse
population of bacteria and protozoa in the rumen
will thus produce all the enzymes necessary to
digest cellulose and hemicelluloses and hence plays
a vital role in the reduction of crude fibre.The
increase in the crude protein is thought to be
associated with the proliferation of microbial
bodies. Increase in protein synthesis as a result of
fermentation had been reported by some previous
workers (Noomhorm et al 1992; Garg and
Neelakantan 1982; Rajagopal 1977).
The main effects of dietary treatments (level of
RFFCC) and form of feed presentation (mash or
pellet) on performance and early lay characteristics
of pullets are presented in Table 3, while Table 4
show the interaction effects.
Level of RFFCC significantly (P<0.05) influenced
feed intake, age at first egg, age at 10% production
while the average weight gain, egg weights at first
and 10% production were not affected by the level
of rumen filtrate fermented corn cobs in the diet. All
indices measured except the age at first and 10% egg
protection were significantly affected by the form of
feed presentation. The effect of interaction between
RFFCC level and form of feed presentation was
significant for feed intake, weight gain and body
26
Table 1. Percentage composition of grower diets (%).

INGREDIENT
DIETS
1*
2
3
4
5
Maize
40.00
35.00
30.00
25.00
20.00
RFFCC
5.00
10.00
15.00
20.00
Soybean Meal
6.00
6.00
6.00
6.00
6.00
Groundnut Cake
10.00
10.00
10.00
10.00
10.00
Wheat Offal
28.00
28.00
28.00
28.00
28.00
Palm Kernel Cake
6.00
6.00
6.00
6.00
6.00
Bonemeal
3.00
3.00
3.00
3.00
3.00
Oyster Shell
6.50
6.50
6.50
6.50
6.50
Salt
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
**Vitamin Premix
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
Calculated analysis
TOTAL
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
Calculated Crude
16.94
16.91
16.87
16.83
16.81
Protein CP (%)
Calculated Ca (%)
3.46
3.46
3.46
3.46
3.45
Calculated P (%)
0.64
0.63
0.62
0.62
0.62
6
40.00
6.00
10.00
28.00
6.00
3.00
6.50
0.25
0.25
7
35.00
5.00
6.00
10.00
28.00
6.00
3.00
6.50
0.25
0.25
8
30.00
10.00
6.00
10.00
28.00
6.00
3.00
6.50
0.25
0.25
9
25.00
15.00
6.00
10.00
28.00
6.00
3.00
6.50
0.25
0.25
10
20.00
20.00
6.00
10.00
28.00
6.00
3.00
6.50
0.25
0.25
100.0
16.94
100.0
16.91
100.0
16.87
100.0
16.83
100.0
16.81
3.46
0.64
3.46
0.63
3.46
0.62
3.46
0.62
3.45
0.62
*Calculated to contain 10.38 MJ per kg of feed

**Grower Premix (Content / Kg.)
Vit A = 4, 000,000 i.u; Vit D 3 = 800, 000 i.u; Vit E = 10000mg,; Vit K 3 = 1200mg; Vit B1 = 1000mg; Vit B 2
= 1, 500m; Vit B 6 = 500mg; Niacin = 10, 000mg; Panthothnate = 4, 500mg; Biotin = 15mg; Vit B 12 = 10mg;
Folic Acid = 200mg; Chlorine Chloride = 120. 000;
Manganese = 60, 000mg; Iron = 15, 000mg; Zinc = 15, 000mg; Copper = 800mg; Iodine = 400mg; Cobalt =
80mg; Selenium = 40mg.
Table 2. Proximate composition of test ingredients (gkg-1)

Measurement
Corn-cob
RFFCC
Dry matter
901.80
900.30
Crude protein
39.80
81.40
Crude fiber
351.12
283.40
Ether extract
15.30
14.00
Ash
24.00
900.30
weight at first and 10% production. Age at 1st egg,

weight of first egg and age at 10% production were
however not affected (P>0.05). Increasing
concentration of RFFCC resulted in a progressive
signified decline in feed intake and prolonged the
duration of producing the first egg with increasing
concentration of RFFCC. Body weight at first and
10% egg production was also lower with increasing
concentration of RFFCC.
Pelleting of the diet improved the performance of
pullets to the extent that birds on the pelleted corncob based diet performed better than the bird on the
control diet fed in the mash form even at the highest
inclusion level of RFFCC. Generally the result
obtained showed that the average feed intakes and
the average weight gain were better on the pelleted
diet compared with the corresponding mash diets.
The improvement brought about by pelleting is in
27
agreement with the reports of Auckland and Fulton

(1972). Birds prefer feed in particulate form rather
than mash (Reddy et al., 1962). The preference
decreases the work of prehension, time spent
standing at the feeder and competition for food
(Savory, 1974). According to Moran (1989), the
mouth of the fowl is particularly well suited to
benefit from pellet as immobility of the beak creates
problems in apprehending finely divided feeds.
The effect of dietary level of RFFCC and form of
feed presentation on nutrient retention of pullet is
presented in Table 5
Crude protein, ether extract and crude fibre retention
were significantly affected by dietary level of
RFFCC (P< 0.05). Reduction was observed in crude
protein retention with increasing dietary
concentration of RFFCC. Bird on diet in which 50%
of the maize was replaced by RFFCC had the least
protein retention. A similar observation was made
for fibre digestibility. Crude protein, crude fibre and
ether extract retentions were significantly (P < 0.05)
positively affected by pelleting. Birds on pelleted
diets had significantly (P < 0.05) higher retention
values compared to the mash form. The
improvement in nutrient retention on pelleted diets
may not be unconnected with the fact that during
pelleting the combination of heat and intense
28
10.91
147.88a
1410.56ab
44.70
150.75a
1424.11 d
48.61
12.40
137.13b
1425.12b
44.56
142.63c
1436.31a
48.72
47.25
1405.44b
43.95
145.13b
1390.20b
139.38
11.21
77.81ab
77.10b
80.11 a
48.16
1332.68c
44.28
147.38ab
134051c
147.25a
11.32
78.05ab
37.5
48.30
1330.05c
44.49
150.5a
1315.65d
144.00a
11.73
76.70b
50.0
1300.11 b
45.51b
2.09NS
39.72b
147.47
2.58NS
0.89*
20.54*
1276.41b
25.21*
143.75
10.185b
0.56 NS
1.25*
85.58a
50.91a
1479.33a
49.06a
147.10
1476.41a
142.5
12.85a
70.33b
FORM OF FEED
Mash
Pellet
1.06*
SEM
1.05*
24.15*
1.19*
1.47NS
28.80*
1.51
0.28*
0.51*
SEM
SIG
SIG
NS
NS
SIG
NS
SIG
LxF
interaction
SIG
Form of
SEM
Feed
87.37a 68.25c
83.99ab 72.11 c 82.77c 70.63c 1.84
Feed intake 87.86a 72.35c 88.89ab 68.32c
(g/bird/day)
Weight gain 11.58 bc 13.23ab 9.33d
12.49abc 10.25cd 12.17abc 10.58cd 12.05bc 9.16d 14.31a 0.62
(g/bird/day)
ab
means in the same row for each parameter with different superscripts are significantly different (p <0.05)
Interaction effects of RFFCC levels and form of feed presentation in pullet performance
Level of RFFCC (%)
0
12.5
25.0
37.5
50.0
Mash
Pellet
Mash
Pellet
Mash
Pellet
Mash
Pellet
Mash Pellet
means in the same row for each parameter with different superscripts are significantly different (p <0.05
Table 4
ab
Feed intake
(g/bird/day)
Wt Gain
(g/bird/day)
Age at 1 st Egg
(days)
Body Wt. at
1st Egg (g)
Egg wt (g)
Age at 10%
production
(day)
Wt at 10%
Production (g)
Egg wt (g)
25.0
LEVEL OF RFFCC (%)

0
12.5
Table 3. Main effects of RFF CC level and form of feed presentation on performance and early lay
characteristics indices of pullets
Table 5 Main effects of RFFCC level and form of feed presentation on nutrient retention of pullets
LEVEL OF RFFCC (%)
0
12.5
25.0
37.5
50.0
FORM OF FEED
SEM Mash Pellet SEM
Lx
F
NS
Dry Matter
72.24 72.20
71.89 71.85
71.72 0.35 70.05 73.91 2.78
Digestibility
Crude Protein
69.11 a 63.90ab 60.75b 57.49c 51.96d 1.40 53.93b 67.35a 1.84* NS
Retention
65.60a 65.45a 63.12b 61.20bc 58.14c 1.56 59.44b 66.00a 1.67* NS
Ether Extract
Retention
Crude Fibre
49.15a 48.55a 42.60b 41.50c 38.19c 1.27 37.88b 50.11 a 2.02* NS
Retention
ab
means in the same row for each parameter with different superscripts are significantly different (P <0.05)
Table 6. Main effects of RFFCC level and form of feed presentation on egg quality measurement of pullets
LEVEL OF RFFCC (%)
0
12.5
25.0
0.768 0.781 0.750
0.279 0.283 0.276
4.50d 5.25c 5.75b
0.46
0.48
0.51
37.5
0.784
0.286
6.13b
0.46
50.0
0.765
0.283
6.38a
0.50
SEM
0.0025
0.0007
1.25
0.0015
FORM OF FEED
Mash Pellet SEM
0.778 0.761 0.035
0.283 0.281 0.03
5.6
5.6
0.11
0.47
0.50
0.044
LxF
NS
NS
NS
NS
Egg shape index

Yolk index
Yolk colour
Shell thickness
(mm)
Shell weight
5.94
5.80
5.86
5.48
5.91
0.002
5.76
6.01
0.48
NS
ab
means in the same row for each parameter with different superscripts are significantly different (p <0.05
mechanical shear force during pelleting tend to

rupture cell wall of ingredients (Vande and Schrijver
1988). Fine grinding prior to pelleting and the
rupturing of cell wall brought about by pelleting
may also be responsible for the improvement since
the nutrients are now better exposed to digestive
enzymes to act upon them (Adeyemi et al., 2008).
The observed improvement in nutrient retention
when pullet were fed pelleted as opposed to mash
diets is consistent with earlier reports of Carew and
Nesheim (1962) Hull et al (1968), Mitchell et al
(1972), Janssen et al (1979).
The effects of RFFCC level and form of feed
presentation on egg quality measurement of pullets
are presented in Table 6.
The egg shape index, yolk index, shell thickness and
shell weight were not affected by dietary treatment
and form of feed presentation (P>0.05). The yolk
colour was however enriched significantly(P>0.05)
with increasing concentration of RFFCC. The shell
thickness above 0.330mm was considered by
Stadelman and Cotterill (1979) to be okay for table
eggs. The results obtained in this study, showing
shell thickness ranging from 0.42 to 0.52mm is an
indication that corn-cob is similar to corn in
producing eggs with good shell thickness implying
29
that calcium metabolism was not affected.

The increase in the yolk colour score is associated
with a corresponding increase in levels of carotene.
It is believed that rumen filtrate is rich in carotenoids
since the bulk of the feed of the ruminant animal is
green forage. Golden colour yolk is preferred by
consumers in most parts of the world (Jiang et al,
1992). The rumen filtrate fermented corn-cob may
also serve as a pigmenting material in layers feed.
According to Adeyemi and Familade (2003), the
Roche yolk colour fan (RYCS) score of 4.5 is the
minimum score acceptable by consumers in the
pastry industry.
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ADEYEMI, O.A, R.A. SOBAYO, F.A. ALUKO
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effects of dietary nutrient concentration, crumbles
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MCDONALD P, R.A. EDWARDS, J.F.D

GREENHALGH AND C.A. MORGAN, 1998.
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Animal Nutrition 5th edition (3 ., reprint). Longman
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BEDFORD M.R AND A.J. MORGAN, 1996. The

use of enzymes in poultry diets. World Poultry
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the performance of meat birds. In: Recent advances
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NOOMHORM A.S., S. ILANGITILEKE AND

M.B. BAUTISTA, 1992. Factors in the protein
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AND J. MACGINNIS, 1962. Influence of pelleting
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SAVORY C.J, 1974. Growth and behaviour of

chicks fed on pellet or mash. British Poultry
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VANDE G.H AND R. SCHRIJVER, 1988.
Expansion and pelleting of starter, grower and
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UMUNNA N.W, M.R.R BAILTING AND T.R
31

A survey of helminth parasites in migratory water birds at sabon gida wetland

Jos South, Nigeria
1
IKPA.L.T, NNABUIFE.H.E, TANKO.J.T, GBISE.D.S, KAMANI J.

1
Bacterial Research Division, Parasitology Division,

National Veterinary Research Institute (NVRI), PMB 01 Vom Plateau State, Nigeria.
Correspondence: moolaav@yahoo.com
Abstract
A hundred and fifty faecal samples were collected from migratory water birds at the lake margin of Sabon
gida wetland and analyzed for gastrointestinal parasites by floatation and sedimentation methods. 53% of
all the samples examined were positive for helminths eggs. 45.7% (32/70) of Great cormorant
(Phalacrocorax carbo), 75% (6/8) of Goliath heron (Arde goliath), 81.3% (26/32) of Cattle egrets (Bubulus
ibis), and 40.0% (16/40) of Shoebill (Balaniceps rex) were positive for different parasitic helminths eggs. Of
the parasite eggs detected, Strongyle and Capillaria constitutes 30% (24/80) each, while Ascaridia spp
accounts for 23% (18/80) and Echinostoma 18% (14/80). There was no significant difference in prevalence
of the parasite eggs seen between the different migratory birds examined. However, Capillaria and
Echinostoma appeared to be more prevalent than the other parasites eggs seen. All migratory birds types
examined were positive for helminths eggs; however, all the Goliath heron examined were negative for
Echinostoma spp and Ascaridia spp eggs. It is concluded that water birds from the study area harbours
parasites and may serve as reservoirs, thus contaminating the environment which constitutes risk of
helminths infestation to domestic birds.
Keywords: Helminth parasites, migratory birds, wetlands, Nigeria
Introduction
Wetland provides a range of feeding grounds for
different species of migratory water birds. This
ecosystem falls between terrestrial (Land) and
aquatic (water) categories. They are often found in
similar surroundings as lakes and may occur around
lake margins. A wetland is land that is saturated
with water long enough to promote wetland or
aquatic processes as indicated by poorly drained
soils, hydrophytic vegetation and various kinds of
biological activities which are adapted to a wet
environment (Tornocai, 1988)
Migratory water birds are highly mobile and found
in a variety of locations and habitats, thereby
increasing the opportunity of exposure to a wide
range of helminths parasites. They rely on wetlands
for reproduction and shelter during different life
stages. The Great cormorant, Goliath heron, Cattle
egret, shoebill and many other birds use wetland as
resting places during their long migration.
Considerable research has increased the
32
test tube and placed on a test tube rack. The test tube
was then gently top up with the floatation fluid
leaving a convex meniscus. A cover slip was then
carefully placed and the suspension was allowed to
stand for 20 minutes. The supernatant was gently
poured off and the sediments were placed on clean
cover slips for microscopy. Processed specimens
were examined using Nikon microscope at X10 and
X40 (where necessary) objective lens. Identification
of parasites to genus or species level where possible
was done according to the parasite identification
keys (Anne, 2008; Senger, 1954; Soulsby, 1982)
Results
The results of faecal sample examination are
presented in Table 1and 2. A total of 150 faecal
samples of different migratory birds were examined,
out of which 53% were found positive for parasitic
infection. Eggs of Echinostoma and Capillaria
species were both observed in faecal samples to be
16% each, while that of Strongyle and Ascaridia
species were 9% and 12% respectively.
It has been reported that mix infection due to

Ascaridia spp and Strongyle is common among
migratory birds, which could be attributed to the
feeding behaviour of these migratory birds. This
was also observed in this study. As the birds
migrate, they intensify their feeding on invertebrate
host; crustaceans, molluscs, dung beetles,
earthworms as well as arthropods, therefore
increasing their chance of becoming infected with
parasite species requiring intermediate host.
Discussion
Helminth infection in wild birds is common, but
losses due to this parasitism are very rare.
Considerable studies on helminths infestation in
wild birds has been conducted by Patel et al, (2000)
in different parts of the world.
In this study, Echinostoma and Capillaria recorded
a higher prevalence, while Ascaridia species and
strongyle had lower occurrences. The sizes of eggs
of these helminth parasites seen in the present study
ranges from 65-80 x 35-48 m for Echinostoma
revolutum, 44-60 x 22-24 m for Capillaria spp,
64-78 x 32-24 m for Ascaridia and 64-70 x 30-40
m for strongyle. Such findings were also recorded
by several other workers (Khan, 1979; Tripathi,
1971; Soulsby, 1982).
Echinostoma was the only trematode egg observed

in this study. This parasite requires a mollusc as an
ich may explain the presence of the eggs of
Echinostoma spp in the birds sampled. The
common nematode eggs identified included
Capillaria, Ascaridia and Strongyle. These
nematode parasites could either have a direct or an
indirect life cycle, hence their high prevalence.
Table 1. Prevalence of parasitic infection in migratory water birds at Sabon gida

S/No
1.
2.
3.
4.
Type of parasite (egg)

Echinostoma spp
Capillaria spp
Ascaridia spp
Strongyle spp
Perce ntage positive (%)

16
16
12
9
Specie of birds
Great cormorant, Goliath

Heron, Cattle egret, Shoebill
(Phalacrocorax carbo, Arde
goliath, Bubulus ibis, Balaniceps rex)
150 wild birds were examined.

Table 2: Distribution of parasite eggs in different migratory birds
Parasite/ Type of bird G.C (70)
G.H (8)
Sb (32)
CE (40)
___________________________________________________________________________________
Echinostoma
12
0
8
4
Capillaria
5
4
7
8
Ascaridia
6
0
10
2
Strongyle
9
2
1
2
Total Positive
32
6
26
16
___________________________________________________________________________________
*G.C= Great cormorant
*G.H= Goliath heron
*Sb= Shoebill
*C.E= Cattle egret
*(n) = Number of faecal samples examined in each specie of migratory bird.
33
Fig 1: distribution of positive samples from different species examined.

intermediate host to complete its life cycle.
Investigation made at the sampling site shows the
presence of mollusc shell, which may explain the
presence of the eggs of Echinostoma spp in the birds
sampled. The common nematode eggs identified
included Capillaria, Ascaridia and Strongyle.
These nematode parasites could either have a direct
or an indirect life cycle, hence their high prevalence.
Echinostomatidae constitute an important group of
food borne trematodes of public health importance
chiefly in South East Asia and Far East, where sea
food is a delicacy . Various type of food animals
including fresh water fish, fresh water snails,
brackish water snails (gastropods and bivalves) and
amphibians are the sources of human infection
(Jang-Yil ,2009).
However clinical importance of Echinostoma as
well as its role in transmitting infection between
migratory birds and humans is poorly understood.
Conclusion
The confirmation of Echinostoma, Capillaria,
Ascaridia and strongyle eggs in the droppings of
migratory birds is the first report of this trematode in
migratory birds (Phalacrocorax carbo, Arde
goliath, Balaniceps rex and Bubulus ibis) in Sabongida wetland of Jos-South, Plateau State. The role of
migratory birds in the epidemiology of
helminthosis in the study area is hereby confirmed.
Epidemiological surveys for a better understanding
of the geographical distribution and the endemicity
34
Department of Zoology, University of Oklahoma,

Norman. Journal of
Wildlife Management.
Http://www.jstor.org/stable/3798553.
JANG-YIL CHAI. 2009. Echinostoma in humans.
Department of Parasitology and Tropical
Medicine,Seoul National University College of
Medicine and Institute of Endemic Diseases,Seoul
National University Medical Research Centre
Korea pp 110-729.
KHAN,A.M. 1979. Incidence of different
parasites in wild life of Nehru Zoological Park,
Hyderabad. In: Proceedings of Summer Institute
of Pathology of Wildlife (ICAR-UAS), Veterinary
College Bangalore held on 16-29 May, 1979.
PATEL P.V, PATEL A.I.,SAHU R.K.,RAJU VYAS
.2000. Prevalence of gastrointestinal parasites in
captive birds of Gujarat zoos. Zoos' Print Journal
15(7):295-296.
PATRICIO T,JORGE O,ROBERTO S. 2005.
Nematode parasites of the digestive tract in
neotropic cormorant chicks ( Phalacrocorax
brasilianus) from the River Cruces Ramsar site in
Southern Chile. Journal of Parasitology research.
Vol 97, No2.September 2005.
SENGER C.M. 1954 . Notes on growth,
development and survival of two echinostome
trematodes. Experimental Parasitology 3, pp 491496.

SOULSBY E.J.L 1982. Helminths, Arthropods and
th
Protozoa of domesticated animals. E.L.B.S. 7
edition. The English Language Book Society,
Balliere Tindall, London.
35
TRIPATHI S.B.,ACHARYA L.N, RAO A.T,

PATNAIK K.C AND MISRA S.K.1971. Survey of
intestinal parasitic infection in animals and birds.
Indian J.Anim. Hlth. 10:107-110.
TORNOCAI C. 1988. Wetland habitat distribution
and characteristics. Global change, Canadian
wetland study. Workshop Report and Research Plan.
Canadian Institute for Research in Amphospheric
chemistry (CIRAC), Toronto pp 21-25.

Utilization of instant noodle wastes in diets of cockerel chicken

1
A.O. LALA, A.O. OSO, A.M. BAMGBOSE, D. ERUVBETINE AND MARTHA BEMJI
1
Animal Nutrition Department,University of Agriculture, PMB 2240, Abeokuta, Nigeria.
2
Animal Breeding and Genetics Department, University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Nigeria.
Abstract
One hundred and forty four (144) day old cockerels of White Yaffa strain were used to determine the
utilization of instant noddle waste (INW) in a cockerel ration. Four dietary treatments with INW replacing
maize at 0%, 10%, 20% and 30% inclusion levels were formulated for the starter phase (0-8 weeks) and
finisher phase (8-16weeks) of the cockerels. A total of thirty six (36) birds were assigned to each dietary
group with three replicates of 12 birds each. Data were collected on growth response, nutrient digestibility,
carcass quality and sensory quality of the meat. The feed intake, body weight gain and feed conversion ratio
(FCR) were not significantly affected (P > 0.05) by dietary treatment in all phases of the study. At the starter
phase, chicks fed control diet and diet containing 15% INW showed similar ether extract digestibility but
differed significantly (P<0.05) from other treatments. Haematological and serum parameters were not (P >
0.05) significantly affected by the dietary treatments at the starter phase but showed significant effect at the
finisher phase. Packed cell volume of the finishing cockerels increased (P< 0.05) significantly with increase
in the level of INW in the diet. There were no (P > 0.05) significant effect of dietary treatments on all the cut
parts and organ weights. Juiciness and overall acceptability though significantly affected (P<0.05) by the
dietary treatment, did not followed a particular trend. Inclusion of up to 45% INW in starter and finisher
cockerels supported optimum growth without a negative effect on nutrient digestibility, haematological and
serum chemistry, carcass yield and taste of the meat
Introduction
Poultry industry occupies a unique position in the
livestock sector due to the fact that it has a quicker
reproductive ability than other livestock species.
They are highly prolific and good converters of feed
(Obioha, 1992). Babatunde (1980) opined that the
best solution to meat scarcity is to increase poultry
production.
Maize which is the major conventional source of
energy accounted for about 50 55% in a balanced
poultry ration. Maize is keenly competed for in
terms of consumption by humans, livestock and
brewery industries hence this has pushed its market
price to an alarming height that has directly affected
the cost of poultry production. Poultry nutritionists
have tried to harness and improve the utilization of
Agro industrial by products and wastes that are not
directly used by man and are usually less expensive
for the feeding of livestock.
36
Instant noodle waste (INW) which is derived from

the processing of noodles is a wheat product with a
lot of residues and is one of such agro-industrial by
products that needs to be tested for its potential
usage as poultry feed ingredient. Instant noodle
waste is a suitable energy source because of its high
metabolizable energy content. It is also
advantageous in feeding chickens because it is not
in direct competition with human as food and it
needs no further processing before its inclusion in
the diet. It has a stable and affordable price when
compared with maize. Hence, this study seeks to
assess the utilization of instant noddle wastes in
diets of cockerel chicken.
Experimental description.
One hundred and forty four (144) day old cockerels
of White Yaffa strain were used for the experiment.
Instant noodle wastes (INW) purchase from a

feedmill was sun dried for 3days, bagged in jute
sacs and stored under normal ambient condition
0
(37.0 C) for a week after which it was incorporated
into the experimental diet. Four experimental diets
with INW replacing maize at 0%, 10%, 20% and
30% inclusion levels were formulated for the starter
phase (0-8 weeks) and finisher phase (8-16weeks).
A total of thirty six (36) birds were assigned to each
dietary group with three replicates of 12 birds each.
The experiment lasted for 16 weeks. The
experimental diets for the starter and finisher phase
are shown in Table 2 and 3 respectively.
Feed and water were supplied ad libitum under
adequately ventilated and sanitized deep litter
housing system. The birds were placed on the
dietary treatment from day old while brooding was
done for a period of 3 weeks. Routine vaccination
and necessary medication were administered as at
when due to the birds. Body weight and feed
consumption were recorded for each replicate at
weekly intervals while average feed intake, body
weight gain, feed conversion ratio and protein
efficiency ratio were calculated for each replicate
group.
Chemical analysis
The experimental diets and test ingredients and
feacal samples were analyzed for their proximate
composition using the method of AOAC (1995).
Calcium and phosphorus content were determined
using flame photometer.
Determination of nutrient digestibility
At the end of the starter and finisher phases of the
experiments, two birds per replicate were randomly
selected from each dietary group and transferred
into metabolic cages with separate feeders for a 3
days acclimatization period prior to a 5 days
metabolic trial. Specified quantity of feed was
given and faeces voided was collected and dried to
constant weight and later analyzed for proximate
composition using the AOAC (1995) method. The
digestibility coefficients were computed.
Haematological and serum analyses
At the end of each growth phase, blood samples
from one bird per replicate was collected for
haematological analysis from the wing vein with a 5
ml sterile syringe. About 2 ml of blood was
collected into a bottle containing Ethylene diamine
tetra acetic acid (EDTA) for plasma analysis while
another set of blood per bird was collected in a
bottle without EDTAfor serum analysis.
Carcass evaluation
At the expiration of the experiment (16 weeks), one

bird per replicate was slaughtered for carcass
evaluation. Prior to slaughtering, the randomly
picked bird was starved overnight, slaughtered by
cervical dislocation, plucked and eviscerated to
determine the plucked and dressed weight. The
weights of the cut parts and organs were determined
using a sensitive scale. Weights of the cut parts were
expressed as a percentage of the liveweight.
Sensory evaluation
The thigh of each bird per replicate was deboned
after carcass evaluation and cut into 30 small pieces
and boiled without seasoning and salt. Thirty
panellist from difference background and positions
were used in evaluating the organoleptic properties
of the meat by indicating their degree of preference
on a nine point Hedonic scale for taste, juiciness,
tenderness, colour, flavour and appearance.
were used in evaluating the organoleptic properties
of the meat by indicating their degree of preference
on a nine point Hedonic scale for taste, juiciness,
tenderness, colour, flavour and appearance.
All data obtained were subjected to one-way
analysis of variance (ANOVA) (Steel and Torrie,
1980) while significant differences in means were
separated using Duncan Multiple Range Test
(Duncan, 1955).
Proximate constituent of INW in comparison to
maize is shown in Table 1. The experimental diets at
the starter and finisher phases are shown in Table 2
and 3 respectively. The analyses were on dry matter
(DM) basis. The values obtained for INW were
means of four determinations.
The feed intake, body weight gain and FCR were not
(P > 0.05) significantly affected by dietary
treatments in all phases of the study. The growth
response of starting and growing cockerels fed
instant noodle wastes based diets is shown in Table
4. All the parameters measured at the starter phase
with the exception of PER were not (P > 0.05)
significantly affected by the inclusion of instant
noodle wastes. Higher PER value was recorded for
starter cockerels fed 15% INW based diet with lower
values reported in those placed on control diet. This
implied that at this inclusion level, cockerel starter
efficiently utilized the protein contained in INW and
converted it to higher weight gain. Beyond 15%
inclusion level, the PER value reduced (P<0.05).
This reduction in PER as INW inclusion increased
37
could be due to accumulated non starch

polyssacharide (NSP) contained in the wheat kernel
used in INW preparation. This confirmed reports of
Cui et al. (1989) who reported that body weight and
gain of broilers decreased with NSP inclusion in
wheat based diets. It also confirmed the report of
Annison (1993) that NSP reduced the growth
performance of poultry birds fed wheat based diet.
The similarity in feed intake, body weight gain and
feed conversion ratio of birds fed INW based diets
with those fed control diet confirmed earlier studies
that inclusion of agro industrial by-products showed
a great potential for cockerel nutrition without
affecting performance (Ogbonna and Adebowale,
1993; Longe 1986;Dafwang and Shwarmen 1996;
Fanimo et al.,1999; ). Growth response was not
significantly (P > 0.05) affected by dietary treatment
at the finisher phase of the study confirming the
suitability of agro industrial by products in cockerel
nutrition (Babatunde, 1980). Feed intake at the
finisher phase ranged from 5517.28 in birds placed
on 45% INW diet to 5690.84 in the control diet.
Table 5 revealed the nutrient digestibility of
cockerels fed INW based diet. Dry matter
digestibility (%), nitrogen retention (%), crude fibre
digestibility (%) and ash retention (%) were not
significantly (P>0.05) affected at the starter and
finisher phases of the study. Ether extract
digestibility increased (P<0.05) in both phases of the
study with increased inclusion of INW. Ether extract
digestibility (%) of starting cockerels placed on the
control diet and 15% INW based diet were similar
and significantly (P<0.05) different from those on
30% and 45% INW based diets. The increased
digestibility of fat recorded as inclusion level of INW
increased could be due to the increased ether extract
content of the resultant diet.
At the starter phase, the packed cell volume(PCV),
red blood cell (RBC), white blood cell (WBC),
haemoglobin (Hb), total serum protein (TSP), serum
uric acid (SUA) and serum creatinine (SC) were not
significantly (P>0.05) affected by the dietary
treatment. However, at the finisher phase, PCV,
RBC, WBC, Hb, TSP and SA were significantly
(P<0.05) affected by the dietary treatment. PCV of
the finishing cockerels increased significantly
38
(P<0.05) with increase in the level of INW in the

diet. Although the PCV values obtained in this
study felled within the normal range, higher values
of PCV obtained in finisher cockerels fed higher
inclusion of INW is indicative of a good nutritional
status. Abnormal lower values of PCV have been
linked with a poor nutritional status and anaemia as
Keir et al. (1982) reported low PCV values ( below
recommended) in livestock animals suffering from
iron deficiency and nutritional anaemia. RBC
values in this study increased at the finisher phase
with increase in INW inclusion. The increased
RBC values as INW inclusion increased could be
due to accumulated NSP in the body which
triggered an increased RBC in response to the
effect of the NSP. Wheat products have been
implicated to contain NSP which affect the growth
response and nutrient digestibility in poultry birds.
Total serum protein values obtained in this study
did not follow a particular trend. However,
haemoglobin concentration was found to be highest
in finishing cockerels placed on 45%INW based
diets. Pellet and Young (1980) reported a positive
correlation between haemoglobin values and
protein quality and level of the diet. This implied a
good nutritional status of the diet even at higher
levels of INW inclusion.
good nutritional status of the diet even at higher
levels of INW inclusion.
The result of carcass evaluation is presented in
Table 7. The result indicated that only the gastrointestinal tract weights were significantly (P<0.05)
influenced by dietary treatment, but there was no
consistent pattern. There were no significant (P >
0.05) effect of dietary treatments on all the cut parts
and organ weight. The sensory rating of cockerels
fed instant noodle wastes diets are shown in Table
8. The tenderness, juiciness and overall
acceptability recorded a significant (P<0.05) effect
on the dietary treatment imposed. The highest score
for tenderness (7.83), juiciness (8.33) and overall
acceptability (8.50) was recorded in birds fed
45%INW based diet. The tenderness of the meat
was similar in all the treatments with the exception
of those placed on 45% INW. Juiciness and overall
acceptability though significantly affected
(P<0.05) by the dietary treatment, did not follow a
particular trend.
Table 1 : P roximate composition of instant noodle waste(INW) and maize (DM

basis)
Parameters
*INW
Maize
Dry matter (%)
88.0
91.80
Crude fibre (%)
4.10
2.70
Crude protein (%)
7.20
8.90
Ether extract (%)
23.32
4.00
Ash (%)
0.9
1.30
NFE (%)
52.48
74.90
Metabolizable Energy (MJ/kg) 14.43

14.36
Calcium (%)
0.05
0.02
Phosphorus (%)
0.32
0.29
* average of four determinations
Aduku, (1993)
Calculated using Pauzenga (1989)
Table 2: Composition of cockerel starter diets

INGREDIENTS
Maize
Noodle waste
Fish meal (72% CP)
Soybean meal
Groundnut cake
Wheat offal
Bone meal
Oyster shell
Lysine
Methionine
Starter premix
Salt
Determined analysis (%)
Dry matter
Crude protein
Crude fibre
Ether extract
Ash
Calculated analysis
Calcium (%)
Phosphorus (%)
Metabolizable energy (MJ/kg)
Replacement level of instant noodle wastes (INW)

0%
15%
30%
45%
D I E T
S
1
2
3
4
45.00
30.00
15.00
0.00
0.00
15.00
30.00
45.00
2.50
2.50
2.50
2.50
10.00
10.00
10.00
10.00
12.00
12.00
12.00
12.00
25.50
25.50
25.50
25.50
2.60
2.60
2.60
2.60
1.60
1.60
1.60
1.60
0.20
0.20
0.20
0.20
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
85.00
20.45
4.32
14.00
9.50
77.50
20.01
4.60
15.00
9.50
74.50
19.84
4.76
15.00
10.00
78.00
19.39
4.95
17.50
11.00
1.69
0.92
11.54
1.69
0.92
11.59
1.70
0.93
11.63
1.70
0.93
11.65
39
Table 3 : Composition of cockerel finisher diets

INGREDIENTS
Maize
Noodle waste
Fish meal (72% CP)
Soybean meal
Groundnut cake
Wheat offal
Bone meal
Oyster shell
Lysine
Methionine
Finisher premix
Salt
Determined analysis (%)
Dry matter
Crude protein
Crude fibre
Ether extract
Ash
Calcium (%)
Phosphorus (%)
*Metabolizable energy (MJ/kg)
Replacement level of instant noodle wastes (INW)

0%
15%
30%
45%
1
2
3
4
45.00
30.0
15.00
0.00
0.00
15.00
30.00
45.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
10.00
10.00
10.00
10.00
6.00
6.00
6.00
6.00
32.00
32.00
32.00
32.00
2.60
2.60
2.60
2.60
1.60
1.60
1.60
1.60
0.20
0.20
0.20
0.20
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
96.50
18.10
4.42
16.00
6.50
1.67
0.96
11.25
93.00
17.61
4.65
17.00
7.00
1.67
0.96
11.26
91.50
17.52
4.91
18.00
7.00
1.68
0.97
11.28
93.00
17.26
5.03
25.50
5.00
1.68
0.97
11.29
*calculated
Table 4: Performance characteristics of cockerels fed INW based diet
INW inclusion levels
Parameters
0%
15%
30%
45%
0-8weeks
Average initial live weight (g/bird) 33.89
34.72
34.36
33.33
Average final weight (g/bird)
638.89
666.67
661.11 633.33
Average body weight gain (g/bird)
605.00
631.95
626.75 600.00
Average total feed intake (g/bird)
2362.47 2267.22
2372.53 2361.90
Daily protein intake (g/bird)
7.96
7.49
7.77
7.61
3.91
3.58
3.78
3.86
1.35c
1.51a
1.44b
1.43b
8-16weeks
Average initial live weight (g/bird) 638.89
666.67
661.11 633.33
Average final weight (g/bird)
1684.44 1736.11
1636.11 1616.67
Average body weight gain (g/bird)
1055.55 1069.44
975.00 983.33
Average total feed intake (g/bird)
5690.84 5656.67
5591.81 5517.28
Daily protein intake (g/bird)
18.32
17.94
17.46
16.96
5.42
5.36
5.77
5.62
1.03
1.06
0.99
1.04
abc
40
SEM
0.27
6.20
6.09
21.50
0.08
0.05
0.02
6.20
30.70
29.90
57.20
0.23
0.13
0.02
Means on the same row having different superscript are significantly (P < 0.05) different
Table 5: Nutrient digestibility of cockerels fed instant noodle wastes

INW inclusion levels
Parameters
0%
15%
30%
45%
Starter phase (0-8weeks)
Feed intake (g/bird)
315.38a 282.69c
281.10c 293.64b
Faecal output (g/bird)
85.86
88.45
99.23
98.25
Dry matter digestibility (%)
72.79
68.75
64.71
66.42
Protein retention (%)
71.85
73.11
73.33
71.20
Crude fibre digestibility (%)
67.70
62.28
59.89
60.80
Ash retention (%)
63.06
64.67
62.55
66.57
73.33b
81.20a
83.64a
Ether extract digestibility (%)
74.05b
Finisher phase (8-16weeks)
Feed intake (g/bird)
601.20
548.86
577.67 567.46
Faecal output (g/bird)
149.52
162.98
185.65 142.25
Dry matter digestibility (%)
74.98
70.44
68.08
74.90
Nitrogen retention (%)
78.42
79.84
69.35
66.99
Crude fibre digestibility (%)
63.26
62.26
57.44
58.65
Ash retention (%)
71.38
74.59
71.45
74.64
b
c
c
Ether extract digestibility (%)
83.61
76.80
76.06
90.30a
abc
SEM
4.56
3.22
1.31
1.44
1.65
1.57
1.65
12.1
9.87
1.58
2.29
1.48
1.49
1.96
Table 6: Serum and haematological parameters of cockerels fed INW based diet
Instant noodle wastes inclusion levels
Parameters
0%
15%
30%
45%
SEM
Starter phase (0-8weeks)
Packed cell volume (%)
24.00
22.67
25.33
25.67
0.43
Red blood cell (cell/mm)
2.80
2.77
2.83
2.97
0.04
White blood cell (cell/mm)
4223.33 4273.33
5833.33 5633.33
5.88
Haemoglobin (g/dl)
8.60
7.97
8.47
9.00
0.14
Total serum protein (mg/dl)
38.67
86.33
39.33
40.67
0.31
Serum uric ac id (mg/dl)
1.27
1.20
1.27
1.30
0.02
Finisher phase (8-16week)
Packed cell volume (%)
27.33b
25.67c
28.00b
32.00a
0.76
c
bc
b
a
3.00
3.10
3.57
0.08
Red blood cell (cell/mm.)
2.97
White blood cell (cell/mm)
6366.67b 6566.67a
6100.00c 5900.00d 82.00
8.87d
9.30b
10.83a
0.24
Haemoglobin (g/dl)
9.07c
b
bc
a
c
Total serum protein (mg/dl)
43.00
42.33
45.67
51.00
1.09
Serum uric acid (mg/dl)
3.13
3.10
3.33
3.80
0.09
Serum creatinine (mg/dl)
1.20
1.10
1.33
1.37
0.04
abc
41
Table 7: Carcass characteristics of cockerel chickens fed INW based diet

Parameters
0%
15%
30%
45%
Live weight (g/bird)
1717.00
1783.00 1633.00 1667.00
Dressing percentage (%)
81.00
79.80
80.55
81.20
Feathers (%)
13.98
15.35
14.72
15.52
Relative weight of cut up part expressed as % liveweight
Heart
3.33
3.30
3.21
3.37
Shanks
4.66
4.33
4.44
4.73
Neck
4.70
4.95
4.89
4.61
Thighs
9.53
10.23
10.17
10.00
Drumsticks
9.50
9.56
9.25
9.18
Wings
8.11
8.14
8.52
7.88
Breast
13.64
13.85
13.80
13.52
Back
12.95
12.85
13.30
13.05
Organ weight (expressed as % live weight)
Empty gizzard
2.30
2.42
2.67
2.34
Liver
1.28
1.68
1.75
1.48
Heart
0.42
0.44
0.31
0.51
Lungs
0.61
0.66
0.61
0.63
Kidney
0.24
0.23
0.22
0.27
abc
1.29
1.64
2.59
4.99
5.33
4.24
8.36
5.88
1.03
1.85
0.56
0.69
0.25
Table 8. Sensory evaluation of finishing cockerel fed INW based diet

Parameters
0%
15%
30%
45%
Taste
7.67
6.83
7.50
8.33
Appearance
7.50
7.50
8.50
8.33
Flavour
7.17
6.67
8.00
7.67
Texture
6.83
6.50
7.00
7.67
Tenderness
6.67b
6.33b
6.83b
7.83a
b
c
b
6.33
7.33
8.33a
Juiciness
7.00
6.33c
7.67b
8.50a
Overall acceptability
7.33b
abc
SEM
0.04
3.77
8.77
SEM
0.25
0.23
0.21
0.21
0.21
0.24
0.27
Means on the same row having different superscript are significantl y (P < 0.05) different
was similar in all the treatments with the exception

of those placed on 45% INW. Juiciness and overall
acceptability though significantly affected (P<0.05)
by the dietary treatment, did not follow a particular
trend.
Conclusion
It was therefore concluded that inclusion of up to
45% INW in starting and finishing cockerels would
support optimum growth without adverse effect on
nutrient digestibility, haematological and serum
chemistry, carcass yield and taste of the meat.
References
ADUKU, A. O. 1993. Tropical feedstuff Analysis
Table. Department of Animal Science. Faculty of
Agriculture. Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria,

Nigeria.
ANNISON, G. 1993. The role of wheat non-starch
polysaccharides in broiler nutrition. Australiian
Journal of Agricultural Research 44: 405-422.
AOAC 1995. Association of Official Analytical
Chemists, Official Method of Analysis 16th
Edition Washington DC.
BABATUNDE, G. M. 1980. The tottering
Nigerian Livestock Sector: its problems and
possibilities. Inaugural lecture, University of
Ibadan Nigeria.
CUI, W. W., WOOD, P. J., WEISZ, J. AND BEER,
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M. U. 1999. Non Starch Polysaccharide from pre

processed wheat bran: Carbohydrate analysis and
novel rheological properties. Cereal Chemistry 76:
126-133.
OBIOHA, F. C. 1992. A guide to Poultry Production

in the Tropics. 1st Ed. Acena Publisher, Lagos,
Nigeria. Pp 11-42.
DAFWANG, I. I. AND SHWARMEN, E. B. N.

1996. Utilization of rice offal in practical ration for
broiler chick. Nigerian Journal for
AnimalProduction. 23: 21-23.
OGBONNA, J. U. AND ADEBOWALE, E. A.

1993. Effects of sun-dried cassava peel meal as
replacement for maize and wheat offals on
performance and nutrient utilization of cockerels.
Nigerian Journal for Animal Production 20: 118121.
DUNCAN, D. B. 1955. Multiple Range and

Multiple F-testes Biometrics 11: 1-42.
FANIMO, A. O., ODUGUWA, O. O. IDOWU, O.
M. AND BAMGBOSE, A. M. 1999. Nutritive value
of ripe green plantain peels (Musa paradisica) for
broiler chicken. Tropical Journal of Animal Science.
1 (2): 85-93.
KEIR, G. R., LAR, M. K., HORINU, R. J. AND
RANOLA, I. E. 1982. Relationship between dietary
and biochemical measures of Nutritional status.
American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 35: 294308.
LONGE, O. 1986. Replacement value of biscuit
waste for maize in broiler diets. Nigerian Journal
for AnimalProduction. 13: 70-78.
ODUGUWA, O.O AND OGUNMODEDE B.K

1995. Comparative growth response of three
commercial vitamins and trace minerals premixes
for rearing broiler chicks at the starter and finisher
phases. Pertanika Journal Trop.Agric. 19(1):81-87.
PAUZENGA, U 1985. Feeding Parent Stock.
Journal Zootecnica International. 2: 22-24.
Pellet, P.Z and Young, N.P 1980. Nutritional
evaluation of protein feeds. United Nation
Universal World Hunger programme. Food and
Nutrition bulletin. Pp 154
STEEL, R. G. D. AND TORRIE, J. H. 1980.
Principle and Procedures of Statistics. A
Biometrical approach. Second edition, New York,
McGraw Hill 633 pp.
NWOKORO, S. O. 1991. Methionine and lysine

requirements of cockerels in lowland humid tropics
Ph. D. Thesis, Submitted to the Department of
Animal Science, University of Ibadan Nigeria.
43

Quality characteristics of Patties Prepared from Chicken Broiler, Duck and

Turkey Meats
FANIMO O. AMOS, EKUN O. SAKIRAT, SOGUNLE O. MARK AND JOLAADE ADEGBITE
Department of Animal production and Health, University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Nigeria
correspondences: aofanimo@yahoo.co.uk
Abstract
The aim of the study was to compare the quality of patties prepared from chicken broiler, duck and turkey
meats. The meat emulsions and patties were analyzed for proximate composition, thiobarbiturate acid
(TBA) value and microbial profile. In addition, the cooked patties were analyzed for sensory qualities such
as appearance, flavor, tenderness, juiciness, palatability and overall acceptability in a Completely
Randomized Design. Moisture was highest (P<0.05) in broiler emulsion and patties while turkey emulsion
and patties had highest (P<0.05) protein. Fat was highest (P<0.05) in duck emulsion and patties. TBA
generally increased from 0 to 7th day and subsequently decreased to the 21st day of storage. The total plate
count (TPC) increased with increased storage period. There were significant (P<0.05) differences in the
sensory qualities of the three patties. The results reveal no negative quality in duck and turkey patties
compared to broiler patties. Therefore, duck and turkey meat can be used for production of nutritionally
good and acceptable patties.
Key words: broiler, duck, patties, quality, turkey
Introduction
The prime agricultural purpose of poultry
production is to provide human food and this
extends to the quality of poultry meat and efficiency
of production. Recent reports (BIS, 1992a, b)
recorded a rise in demand for high quality poultry
meat products due to the increasing world
population and the increasing premium of qualities.
Poultry meat capture an increasing share of the
world's total consumption of meat today and likely
to increase even more in the future.
Broiler production has come to be efficient
enterprise in terms of quantity of feed needed to
produce a number of birds. Broilers and turkeys are
more dependent on for meat in the poultry industry
rather than others poultry stock. BIS (1969)
reported that the meat from other poultry birds is
regarded as being less valued because of their
tenderness, juiciness, taste, texture e.t.c.
Ducks are mainly reared for laying purposes (FAO,
2002) and its meat is less juicy, tougher and less
palatable due to the long laying periods before
consumption, Thus duck meat is less acceptable to
the consumers. Turkey is not usually reared by

poultry farmers because is more capital intensive.
However, demand for duck and turkey meat is low
due to increased availability of broilers (Singh and
Verna, 2000).
The development of comminuted meat products and
popularization of unconventional and less valued
meats like those from turkey and duck need to be
emphasized upon as their demand by fast food
industry is on the decline (BIS, 1992a, b). Amongst
the various popular value-added meat products,
patty is one which could find increasing popularity
in food service industry particularly at the fast foods
outlets to increase the production of ducks and
turkey.
Patties are defined as comminuted seasonal meats
chopped into flat, round or oval shaped cake of food.
They are made from edible part of the slaughtered
chicken or veterinarian inspected animal, fat,
seasoning, water e.t.c.
The present study was conducted to compare the
quality and acceptability of chicken broiler, turkey
and duck patties
44

The experiment was carried out at the meat
processing laboratory of the Department of Animal
Production and Health, University of Agriculture,
Abeokuta.
Source of Meat
Nine poultry birds were used for the experiment i.e.
3 birds per treatment (3 broilers, 3 ducks and 3
turkeys). The birds were obtained from reputable
farms. The birds used have attained their maturity
age of between 8-10weeks for broilers, 10-16weeks
for ducks and 16-20 weeks for turkeys.
The birds were slaughtered and the dressing was
done in the meat processing laboratory. After
dressing, the carcasses were chilled overnight at
4+10C and then deboned manually as per the method
of Staff and Darrow (1983). Then the meat was kept
in a freezer at -180C for further use. The meat meant
for patties was thoroughly screened for the purpose
of removing fat and tendons.
Preparation of Meat Emulsion
The deboned meat was put in room temperature for
about one hour, after adequate thawing; the meat
was weighed, cut into small chunks and placed in
meat mincer. The minced meat was then chopped in
a bowl chopper. The mincer and chopper were
sterilized using warm water (820C) for 2 minutes
before use. The recipe for patties were meat 71%, fat
5.5%, seasoning 8.6%, preservative 0.07%, curd
2%, sugar 1%, soy protein 5%, ice cube 5.5%, whole
egg 1.3% and baking powder 0.03%.
Preparation of Patties
The patties were prepared by moulding the chopped
meat into a specific diameter and thickness
weighing 100g each. The moulded patties were
cooked by dry heat cooking. They were first cooked
0
for 15 minutes at 210 C and then turned upside down
and cooked for 10 minutes at 2000C to attain an
internal temperature of 750C which was measured
by probe thermometer.
Proximate Composition
Moisture, fat, protein and ash contents of raw and
cooked chicken patties were determined according
to A.O.A.C (1995). Protein was determined using
ether extraction procedure in Soxhlet apparatus and
ash was determined using Muffle furnace.
45
ThiobarbituricAcid (TBA) Value

The TBA values of chicken patties were determined
using extraction method described by Witte et al.
(1970) with slight modification. The extraction
slurry was centrifuged at 3000g for 10 minutes
instead of filtration through Whatman number 42
rd
th
filter paper. Evaluations were done at 0 day, 3 , 7 ,
th
st
14 and 21 day of the refrigerated sample.
MicrobiologicalAnalysis
Total plate count (TPC) and Total Psychrophillic
count (TPSC) were obtained using pour plate
-5
-7
technique following serial dilution (10 to 10 ) on
standard plate count agar .1 ml of the serially
diluted samples was pipetted into sterile Petri dishes
and standard plate count agar was poured on the
sample, swirled for both to mix together.
o
The plates were allowed to set and incubated at 37 C
for 24hours to 48hours, after which the plates were
examined for growth. The number of colonies for
plates were counted and expressed as colony
forming unit per gram (cfu/g) of samples. These
rd
th
th
st
were studied at 0 day, 3 , 7 , 14 and 21 day of the
refrigerated samples.
Sensory Evaluation
Cooked chicken patties were served warm to 15
semi trained panelists to assess appearance,
juiciness, flavour, tenderness, palatability, overall
acceptability and off flavour using an 8 point
modified hedonic scoring scale (Williams and
Damron, 1998). Where
8 =extremely juicy/
intense/ tender, 7 =very juicy/ intense/ tender, 6 =
moderately slightly juicy/ intense/ tender, 5 =
slightly juicy/ intense/ tender, 4 = slightly dry/
bland/ tough, 3 = moderately dry/ bland/ tough, 2 =
very dry/ bland/ tough, and 1 = extremely dry/
bland/ tough. A 6-point scoring scale was used for
off flavour where 6 = none detected, 5
=threshold/barely detected, 4 =slight off-flavour, 3
= moderate off-flavour, 2 = strong off-flavour and 1
= extreme off-flavour. Water was served between
each sample for cleansing the palate.
StatisticalAnalysis
The data generated were subjected to one-way
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) at a significant
level (P<0.05) using SAS (1999). Significant means
were separated using Duncan's Multiple Range Test
(Duncan, 1955).

Proximate Composition of Emulsion and
Cooked Patties Prepared from Broiler, Duck and
Turkey Meats
Table 1 represents the quality characteristics of the
emulsion and cooked patties prepared from broiler,
duck and turkey meat. The moisture contents of the
three types of patties differed significantly (P<0.05)
both in the case of emulsion and cooked patties. The
moisture percentage of both the emulsion and
cooked patties prepared from broiler meat was
higher than that of duck and turkey. This agrees with
the report of Lawrie et al. (1998) who recorded
similar result and concluded that this may be due to
decreasing moisture content of muscle with
increasing age. The moisture content of cooked
patties prepared from broiler and turkey was higher
than duck due to similar compositional difference
between chicken and duck meat (Brahma et al.,
1985, Sharma, 1999). There was also reduction in
the moisture percentage of the cooked patties than
that of emulsion in all the three types of patties as
cooking was responsible for the loss of moisture
due to the coagulation of myofibillar and
sarcoplasmic protein of muscle fibre (Warris,
2000).
The protein content of the three patties varied

significantly (P<0.05) both in case of emulsion and
cooked patties. The protein percentage of turkey in
both cases was higher than that of duck and broiler
while the protein percentage of duck was higher
than that of broiler. This result was contrary to the
report of Subhasish et al. (2006), who reported an
non significant result among the patties of broiler,
spent hen and duck. However, the protein contents
of all the three patties were within permissible limit
of similar type of products as noted in Bureau of
Indian Standards (BIS, 1992a) which specified that
the minimum protein content of such product
should be 14%.
The fat content of the emulsion and cooked patties

prepared from duck meat was highest (P<0.05)
value followed by broiler and turkey. This may be
linked to the higher fat content of the duck and
broiler meat as described by Brahma et al. (1985)
and Sharma (1999). The fat content of all these
patties were also within the permissible limit of BIS
(1992b) which specifies that the maximum fat
content of such similar products should be 20%. It is
also evident that cooking increased the fat
percentage of all these three types of patties which
was in conformity with the report of Singh and
Verma (2000), Warris (2000) and Lingiah and
Reddy (2001) when they reported that cooking
causes dimunition of moisture content, thereby
percentage of fat is enhanced in the cooked product.
There were no significant differences in ash content
between broiler, turkey and duck patties in both the
emulsion and cooked patties.
Total Plate Count (TPC)

Table 2 shows the results of the total plate count in
emulsion and cooked patties. The TPC of the
emulsion did not vary significantly (P>0.05) among
the three types of patties but varied significantly
(P<0.05) among the three types of cooked patties.
The result shows that TPC in emulsion and cooked
patties up to 14day of storage were within the
permissible limit of BIS (1969 and 1992a,b) which
specified that maximum level of aerobic plate count
in similar type of uncooked and cooked meat
product should not be more than 6 log cfu/g and 4 log
cfu/g respectively. The TPC also increased
significantly (P<0.05) in all the patties with
increased storage period. The resultant decrease of
TPC in cooked patties was due to the effect of heat
on microbes (Herman et al., 1974, Mahapatra et al.,
1998). There was no growth for Total Psychrophilic
Count (TPSC) throughout the storage period.
46
Table 1: Proximate Composition of the Emulsion and C
ooked Patties prepared from
Broiler, Duck and Turkey Meats.

Parameters
Broiler
Duck
Turkey
SE
Emulsions
Moisture
58.28a
53.84b
53.86b
0.083
Crude Protein
22.38c
25.18b
27.39a
0.146
Fat
13.17b
14.65a
12.75c
0.075
Ash
6.17
6.33
6.00
0.197
Patties
Moisture
57.37a
54.20b
54.87b
0.067
c
b
a
Crude Protein
22.46
24.35
25.63
0.043
Fat
14.17b
15.62a
13.50c
0.094
Ash
6.00
5.83
6.00
0.179
Mean bearing different superscripts differ significantly (P< 0.05) among the three types of
patties emulsion
Values are means of three replicates.
Table 2: Microbiological Analysis of Emulsion and cooked patties (Total Plate Count) of
Broiler, Duck and Turkey at different storage periods
Parameter
Meat Source
Emulsion
0 day
3rd day
7th day
14th day
21st day
SE
TPC
(log cfu./g)
Turkey
5.00b
3.00c
3.01c
3.30c
4.00b
4.27a
2.19
Duck
5.40b
3.00e
3.00e
3.48d
4.19c
4.78a
2.76
2.42
Broiler
5.32
3.00
3.01
3.01
4.15
4.45
Mean bearing different superscripts differ significantly (P<0.05) among the three types of
patties.
Table 3: Thiobarbituric Acid Value (TBA) of Cooked Patties of Broiler, Duck and Turk ey
at different storage periods
Parameter
Meat Source
O day
3rd day
7th day
14th day
21st day
SE
TBA
Turkey
0.22d
0.34b
0.37a
0.23c
0.20e
0.02
(mg/kg)
Duck
0.42b
0.49a
0.35c
0.26d
0.13e
0.03
Broiler
0.30c
0.34b
0.35a
0.21d
0.20e
0.02
patties.
47
Table 4: Sensory Qualities of Patties prepared from Broiler, Duck and Turk ey at different
storage periods
Meat Source O day
3rd day
7th day 14th day 21st day SE
b
Turkey
5.57
5.00
4.71c
4.57d
3.29e
0.20
Duck
5.73a
5.58b
5.00c
4.98c
4.57d
0.11
a
b
c
d
e
Broiler
5.56
5.13
4.57
4.13
4.43
0.20
5.43b
5.29c
5.13d
3.72e
0.28
Flavour
Turkey
6.28a
a
b
c
d
e
5.29
5.15
3.86
3.43
0.18
Duck
5.70
a
b
c
d
e
Broiler
6.13
5.87
5.28
5.26
4.86
0.12
5.27b
4.57c
4.54d
4.29e
0.11
Tenderness
Turkey
5.30a
a
b
c
d
e
Duck
6.00
5.87
5.29
4.86
4.00
0.19
5.86b
5.71c
4.86d
4.71e
0.22
Broiler
7.01a
a
b
c
d
e
Appearance Turkey
6.70
6.29
6.00
5.98
4.71
0.18
a
b
c
d
e
5.72
5.69
5.56
5.29
0.05
Duck
5.87
Broiler
6.28a
6.27a
6.26b
6.14c
6.00d
0.29
a
b
c
d
e
6.00
5.86
5.71
5.43
0.10
Palatability
Turkey
6.57
5.57b
5.56c
5.43d
4.44e
0.12
Duck
5.71a
a
b
c
d
e
Broiler
6.43
6.13
5.85
5.43
5.29
0.11
6.26b
5.56c
5.43d
4.86e
0.15
Overall
Turkey
6.29a
a
b
c
d
e
5.99
5.44
5.42
5.00
0.10
Acceptability Duck
6.01
a
b
c
d
e
Broiler
5.86
5.71
5.57
5.43
5.29
0.53
Off-flavour
Turkey
4.86a
5.00b
4.57c
4.29d
4.00e
0.17
a
b
c
d
e
4.15
4.13
3.71
3.14
0.09
Duck
5.00
Broiler
4.14a
4.00b
3.84c
3.57d
2.29e
0.24
patties.
Parameter
Juiciness
ThiobarbituricAcid Value (TBA)

The result of the TBA value is presented in Table 3.
The three types of patties varied significantly in
terms of TBA value. The TBA value for turkey
increased significantly (P<0.05) from 0 day to the
th
st
7 day and was lowest at the 21 day. It increase
rd
significantly (P<0.05) for duck from 0 to 3 day and
th
decreased significantly (P<0.05) from the 7 day to
st
the 21 day. However, for broiler, the TBA
th
increased (P<0.05) from 0 - 7 day and
st
subsequently decreased (P<0.05) to the 21 day.
Generally, the patties prepared from duck meat was
higher (P<0.05) in TBA value than others. Such
higher value of TBA in duck patties was due to
higher percentage of fat in duck meat as compared
to broiler and turkey and this may be responsible for
more oxidation in the patties as observed by Reddy
and Rao (1997). The TBA values shows a
significantly (P<0.05) fluctuating trend throughout
the storage period and never exceeded values

expected to produce detectable off-flavour as TBA
value of 0.69 to 2.00mg/kg is indicative of rancidity
(Greene and Cumuze, 1982).
Sensory Qualities
The results of the sensory qualities of patties
prepared from broiler, turkey and duck is shown in
Table 4. There were no significant differences
among the three types of patties in sensory quality
indices like flavour, tenderness, palatability, overall
acceptability and off-flavour. The patties prepared
from duck scored a slightly higher value in respect to
the juiciness and this may be due to the age of the
duck as the moisture content will be higher with
finer fibre. The duck patties also scored lower value
which were not significantly different in respect to
flavour due to inherent characteristic ducky odour
48
that could not be masked by the spices and

condiment added to prepare the emulsion. However,
the tenderness values did not varied significantly but
less in turkey. This resulted from the age of the
turkey used, as they are older than other species. The
appearance of the duck patties was better due to its
darker colour. The overall acceptability differed
significantly among the three patties providing a
strong base for turkey and duck at 0 and third days
th
while broiler and turkey were more acceptable at 7
st
to 21 day. The off-flavour values were all below the
threshold value of 5 in all the three patties (William
and Damron, 1998).
Biometrics 11:1-42.
FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION.
The state of Food andAgriculture. 2002.
GREENE B.A AND CUMUZE T.H. 1982.
Relationship between TBA numbers and in
experienced panelist's assessment of oxidized
flavour in cooked beef. Journal of Food Science 47:
52-58. 1982.
HERMANN J, BUHR H, SCHNEIDER H.U AND
GAUL E. 1974. Method and device for the heat
treatment of food products. German Federal
Republic Patent Application 2410283 (c.f.FSTA 6:
7G 387).
th
In conclusion, patties irrespective of the type of

meat (chicken broiler, duck or turkey) can be stored
th
in refrigerator up to 14 day. It was clear that duck
meat has less value in retail market while turkey
meat that is expensive for consumers can be utilized
for preparing good nutritive value and well
acceptable patties thereby; ensuring better return to
both the producer and consumers.
References
th
A.O.A.C. 1995. Official Methods of Analysis, 16
ed., Pp 391-399, Association of Official Analytical
Chemists, Washington DC..
BRAHMA M.L, NARAYANA RAO P.L.N AND
NATH D.R. 1985. The Proximate Composition,
muscle fibre diameter and shear force value of duck
and hen meat. Cherion 14 (4): 200-204.
LAWRIE R.A. LAWRIE 1998. Meat Science. 6

Ed, Woodhead Publishing Limited, Oxford.
Chapter 4, Pp, 79-80.
LINGAIAH M AND REDDY P. 2001. Quality of

chicken meat patties containing skin and giblets.
Journal of Food Science and Technology 38 (4):
400-401.
MAHAPTRA C.M, ANAND S.K AND VERMA
S.S. 1998. Effect of cooking methods and time on
the quality of chicken nuggets. Indian Veterinary
Medical Journal 22:301-302.
REDDY PAND RAO S. 1997. Influence of Binders
and refrigerated Storage on certain quality
characteristics of chicken and duck meat patties.
Journal of Food Science and Technology 34: 446449.
SAS (Statistical Analysis System). 1999. Version 8,
SAS. Institute Inc. Carry N.C.USA.
BUREAU OF INDIAN STANDARDS (BIS). 1969.

Meat and meat products- chicken sausage
specification. IS 5402.
SHARMA B.D.1999. Meat and Meat Products

Technology. Jaypee Brothers, New Delhi, Indian.
BUREAU OF INDIAN STANDARDS (BIS).

1992a. Year book. Bureau of Indian Standards.
Manak Bhawan, Bahadur Shah Zafar Marg, New
Delhi.
SINGH R.P AND VERMA S.S. 2000.

Physiochemical and sensory quality of chicken
patties as influenced by extender and packaging
materials. Indian Journal of Poultry Science 35(1):
85-88.
BUREAU OF INDIAN STANDARDS (BIS).

1992b. Meat and Meat products-chicken sausages
specifications. IS 13400.
DUNCAN, D.B. 1955. Multiple Range and F-tests.
49
STAFF C.E AND DARROW M.I. 1983. Poultry

Science 32: 145, Cited by: Sahoo J. Influence of sex
on meaty cut up parts of desi duck carcasses.
Kashmir Indian Journal of Meat Science and
Technology 3(1): 87-91.
SUBHASISH B, APURBA C AND SANJIB S.

2006. Comparison among the qualities of patties
prepared form chicken broiler, spent hen and duck
meats. Journal of Poultry Science 43: 180-186.
WARRIS P.D. 2000. Meat Science, an introductory
text. CABI Publishing, Chapter 9, Pp 202.
WILLIAMS S.K AND DAMRON B.L. 1998.

Sensory and Objectives characteristics of broiler
fed rendered whole hen meal. Poultry Science 77:
329-333.
WITTE V.C, KRAUZE G.F AND BAILEY M.E.
1970. A new extracting method for determining 2Thiobarbituric Acid Values of Pork and Beef during
Storage. Journal of Food Science 35: 582-585.
50

Alternative feed ingredients to meet the present environmental challenges:

lessons from other parts of the world
P.A. IJI
School of Environmental and Rural Science,
University of New England, Armidale NSW 2351, Australia.
Email: piji@une.edu.au
Summary
This review presents the state of feed ingredient supply to the poultry industry in Africa and the rest of the world in the
face of changing environmental conditions. Alternatives to conventional ingredients cannot be widely exploited due
to limited volumes of production and presence of antinutritive factors. Practices in Africa and other parts of the world
that can improve the utilization of alternative ingredients are considered. It is recommended that the continent should
focus efforts on the production of ingredients in which it has environmental advantage.
Introduction
Feed represents between 60 and 70 % of the variable
costs of production in a typical poultry enterprise.
Nutritionists therefore strive to reduce this cost in order
to maximise profit. Feed costs can be reduced by
changes to feed composition, use of cheaper ingredients
or manipulation of the rearing environment or a
combination of these practices.
Although poultry feeds are far more complex than feeds
for ruminant animals and pigs, it is possible to raise
poultry on diets formulated from very few ingredients.
In nutritional studies, such diets, generally referred to as
semi-purified, are regularly formulated to test the value
of specific ingredients or a small number of feed
ingredients. Even with practical diets, it is easy to
speculate on the key ingredients that can be used in a diet,
and this only varies from one location to the other.
Ingredients could therefore be classified broadly, on the
basis of their role in the diet, into sources of energy,
protein, lipids; vitamins, or minerals. On the basis of this
classification, cereal grains are generally regarded as
energy sources; oilseeds and legume seeds are regarded
as protein sources and materials such as limestone and
oyster shells are mineral sources.
Maize is the most widely used cereal grain in poultry
feeding around the world and is regarded as possessing
better nutritional attributes than other cereal grains.
Another tropical cereal, sorghum, is also an excellent
energy source but its protein is not well digested. In the
temperate areas of the world, wheat is the leading cereal
grain and ranks number two worldwide. The second
most important temperate cereal grain is barley. Oilseed
cakes are the leading protein sources, and worldwide,
soybean is number one. Several animal and plant
sources are used to supply oil mainly to complement
energy, reduce dustiness and increase palatability. A few
examples of these are tallow, marine oil and vegetable
oils. These sources vary widely, particularly in the ratio
51
of saturated to unsaturated fatty acids. Together, these

ingredients are regarded as the main conventional
ingredients that are used for formulating poultry diets.
Nutritionists and producers do not wholly depend on
these conventional ingredients as they are guided by
principles of least-cost formulation and profit margins.
Frequently, they explore alternative feed ingredients,
which may not always be the best in terms of nutritive
value. Producers in Africa and other developing areas of
the world face these decisions. The situation has been
compounded by global environmental problems,
resulting in feed shortages both for animal and human
feeding. The aim of this review is to examine the
constraints to the use of conventional feed ingredients
and the potential of alternative ingredients in poultry
feeding.
Constraints to use of conventional feed ingredients
in poultry nutrition
The two major constraints to the use of conventional
ingredients are cost and availability. The pressure is
most profound in developing countries for reasons of
inadequate production and competition between
humans and animals for some of the feed sources. For
example, the overall outputs of maize and wheat by
Africa in 2009 were 56.7 and 22.1 million tonnes,
respectively. These represented 6.9 and 3.2 % of the
world volume of production. The output of other key
ingredients in Africa vis-a-vis the world is shown in
Table 1. It shows the continent's areas of strength, and
although many of the crops are human staples, further
increases in output in cassava, millet, groundnuts and
coco yams would translate into more animal feed.
Africa, notably used to be a leading producer of peanuts
(groundnuts) but the production of this has waned due to
reduction in exports. It could be said that the soybean
politics, more than the fear of aflatoxins, killed
groundnut farming, but major past producers like
Nigeria, Senegal and Gambia could definitely re-initiate
production for local consumption.
Table 1: Output of key crops in Africa (million tonnes) vis-a-vis the world, 2009.
Cassava
Chick peas
Cowpeas
Groundnuts
Maize
Millet
Sesame seed
Sorghum
Soybean
Sweet potatoes
Cocoyam
Wheat
Yams
Source: FAO (2010).
Africa
124.6
0.5
5.4
10.9
56.7
20.2
1.2
27.2
15.9
15.1
9.1
22.1
52.1
Currently, many countries depend on imports of grains

from North America and Brazil to support their local
poultry industries. Several factors continue to instigate
increases in prices of these ingredients in the world
market. The most recent of these factors is increasing use
of maize for production of ethanol, for the bio-fuel
industry. It is estimated that 30 % of the maize produced
is being re-directed into the production of ethanol in the
USA (van der Aar and Doppenberg, 2009). A useful byproduct of this for the animal industry is distillers' dried
grains with soluble (DDGS), which though three times
higher in protein and fat than maize, are less digestible
due to an increased fibre content and poorer protein
quality.
Alternative feed ingredients in poultry nutrition
There are hundreds of alternative feed ingredients
available to the animal industries. The volume and
availability of these vary from one location to the other.
Africa has a rich list of cereal grains, many of which are
more suitable for the changing environmental conditions.
Of the more prominent cereal grains, sorghum is more
World
241.0
9.8
5.7
35.5
817.1
32.0
3.5
62.1
222.3
107.6
11.7
681.9
54.1
% of World
51.7
4.9
95.5
30.6
6.9
63.1
33.2
43.7
7.2
14.0
78.2
3.2
96.3
drought tolerant than maize and pearl millet is even more

tolerant than the former two. An NRC (1996) panel has
documented the range of cereal grains that are grown in
Africa, including several types of sorghums and millets;
teff, acha, and many wild species that could be
domesticated and cultivated. Many of these species
have not been explored, as to their suitability for areas
that cannot support maize, sorghum and millet. This is
loss of opportunity. Although wheat is the premier
cereal crop in the temperate region, this did not prevent
crop breeding efforts that led to the development of
triticale, the result of crossbreeding between wheat and
rye. Triticale is more drought-tolerant and does better on
poorer soils than either of its parent crops. Most
importantly, triticale yields more per hectare than wheat.
These are some of the reasons that triticale is becoming
an alternative crop of the temperate regions. In tests
conducted at the University of New England, we have
found triticale to support better broiler productivity than
wheat and at levels comparable to maize (Widodo et al.,
2011). Generally, the relative rates of substitution of
other cereals for maize are shown in Table 2.
Table 2: Relative value (%) of other cereals compared to maize for poultry.
Grain
Crude protein
Metabolizable energy
Maize
100
100
Barley
124
74.5
Millet
118
86.5
Sorghum
114
96.7
Oats
122
70
Triticale
161
92.2
Rye
127
78.6
Wheat
132
94.8
Source: NRC (1994); Scanes et al. (2004).
52
Rate of substitution
100
50
65
100
50
30
25-30
100
Cereal crop yield around many areas close to the equator

are lower than in the open savanna. This is attributed to
the high humidity and reduced photo-reception close to
the coastal areas, but these areas are also the most
favourable for tuber and root crop production. Today,
Nigeria and Congo (DRC) are the leading producers of
cassava in the world (FAO, 2010). However, the third
largest producer, Thailand, has added more value to the
crop through further processing, resulting in the
production of not only chips but starch, pellets and
various by-products. These products are the driver of the
large Thai poultry industry. Many areas of Africa are
also suitable for the production of other root crops, tubers
and corms, including various yams, sweet potatoes and
cocoyams.
The low volume of production of the premier oilseeds
has been highlighted.
Most poultry producers
supplement or replace soybeans with a variety of
proteinous ingredients such as peanut, pigeon-peas,
cowpeas and several other minor alternatives. Animal
by-products that could supply protein and possibly
minerals and vitamins are also scarce in many African
countries. This is due more to lack of processing
facilities than availability of raw material. Around the
continent, millions of litres of blood and tonnes of bones

that could be processed into meals are lost from abattoirs
every year.
Productivity on alternative diets
Frequently, but not always, productivity on diets
containing alternative feed ingredients is poorer than on
the conventional diets. This disparity in performance
may still persist in the face of similarities in nutrient
composition. In a few cases, the causes of these
differences may never be known but there are few reasons
why alternative diets may be poorer in nutritive value.
When an appropriate feed formulation software has not
been employed, poultry diets are often formulated on
metsabolizable energy and protein contents. This
approach often creates amino acid imbalances and
antagonism between amino acids such as lysine and
arginine. Amino acid imbalances can also be caused by
the nature of protein quality of some ingredients. For
example, sorghum protein (kaffirins) is deficient in lysine
and its quality is not improved by supplementation with
the amino acid. Currently, it is speculated that the rest of
the sorghum protein is not easily digested by animal and
microbial enzymes because of strong disulphide bonds.
Table 3: Relative value of other protein supplements compared to soybean meal for poultry.
Grain
Soybean (48 %)
Blood meal
Corn gluten meal
Cotton seed meal
Fishmeal
Meat/bone meal
Peanut meal
Canola meal
Sunflower seed meal
Source: Scanes et al. (2004).
Relative feeding
value (%)
100
120
50-75
85
115
100
95
80
95-100
The poultry industry explores more alternatives for

soybean than it does for maize and wheat. This may be
due to higher relative costs of protein sources in general;
the limitation in soybean producing areas, and the
availability of alternative protein sources around the
world. Before soybean became the premier protein
source for the industry, there were several localised, and
some fairly universal protein sources. Groundnuts, for
example, were produced in large quantities in West
Africa, notably Nigeria, and on the Indian sub-continent.
These areas supplied to the rest of the world. Groundnut
meal lost its popularity due to easy contamination with
afflatoxins, which appears to be more common when the
seed is stored for too long at high humidity (Singhal and
Kaur, 2005; Galkate and Rokde, 2010). Poultry
productivity on peanut meal diets is, however, still
comparable to productivity on soybean meal, so that
Rate of
substitution
100
5-20
25
80
50-65
20-50
75-100
30
100
areas of production may still continue to use it in poultry

formulations. Other alternatives to soybean that are
available to producers in Africa are sesame, cottonseed,
sunflower and several minor, localised ingredients. In
terms of nutritive value, cottonseed meal, peanut meal,
canola meal and sunflower meal can replace 85, 95, 80
and 95-100 % of soybean meal, respectively (Scanes et
al., 2004) (Table 3). The inability of alternatives to
completely replace the traditional ingredients is
attributable to several factors, some of which will be
examined below.
Causes of low productivity on alternative diets
There is no perfect ingredient; some ingredients only
appear to be better than other ingredients. Maize, the
premier cereal grain, is deficient in the essential amino
53
acids, lysine, methionine and tryptophan, and like other

grains has some of its phosphorus in the form of phytateP. Maize has an appreciable content of non-starch
polysaccharides (NSP) although most of it is insoluble
and therefore less viscous. Unlike maize, unimproved
sorghum contains tannins, which impact an astringent
property on the meal, reducing feed intake (Kumar et al.,
2007; Nyamambi et al., 2007). Temperate cereals in
general contain high levels of soluble NSP, which
become viscous in the watery medium of the intestinal
tract to reduce nutrient digestibility. The NSP represent a
loss of energy since birds lack the enzymes to digest
them.
Sorghum is the closest to maize in terms of
mertabolizable energy but productivity on diets
containing sorghum do not always reflect this similarity.
Unimproved sorghum contains tannins, which not only
reduce feed consumption but bind proteins, including
enzymes involved in digestion. Low-tannin varieties
have been developed but these are also not as good as
maize. The low level of lysine in sorghum and its strong
disulphide bonds have been highlighted (Belton et al.,
2006). Pearl millet is the other cereal alternative to
maize that can be explored on a commercial scale in
Africa. There has been less research on millet for poultry
and it is difficult to conclude if it is poorer or equal to
maize in nutritive value. In a recent research, Garba et al.
(2010) reported no differences in nutritive value of
millet- and maize-based diets for laying hens when the
diets were equal in metabolizable energy.
The potential of cassava as an alternative to cereals was
recently reviewed by Chaynarong et al. (2010). A major
limitation to the use of cassava in poultry diet ingredient
in Africa is a strong dependence on it for human food.
Only the bitter types are produced in Thailand and other
parts of Asia and these are mostly used for animal
feeding, with some of it going into starch production.
Regardless of variety, cassava contains HCN, which is
toxic to humans and animals. The concentration varies
with variety, location, agronomic practice and part of the
plant. Predominantly fibrous by-products are obtained
from the cassava starch industry, which restricts their
level of inclusion in diets for poultry.
Although soybeans are not completely devoid of
antinutritive factors, alternatives to soya tend to have
many more negatives than the oilseed, which is why it
remains the premier protein source. Raw soybeans are
high in protease-inhibitors but these are easily
inactivated by heat treatment (Kocher et al., 2003).
When uncontaminated, peanut meal would support the
same level of production as soybean meal (Swain et al.,
2007) but such meals can only be found in areas of
production, without the need for long term storage and/or
transport.
Cottonseed, another alternative protein
source, tends to contain a lot of residual lint
(predominantly cellulose), which is difficult to digest by
54
poultry. Gossypol is another antinutritive factor found in

cottonseed, and this is toxic to poultry and other nonruminant animals. The initial reaction is a reduction in
feed consumption and in layers, production of olivecoloured egg yolks (Lordelo et al., 2008). Sunflower
seed is another protein source that can completely
replace soybean meal (SBM) in diets without reduction
in productivity but most sunflower meals (SFM) are high
in fibre due to contamination with the husk.
There are many other local alternatives to SBM,
depending on location. Examples of these are pigeonpeas, cowpeas, mucuna and locust bean. A key
disadvantage of such alternatives is the low volume of
production. For example, the total outputs of chickpeas,
cowpeas and sesame in Africa in 2009 were respectively
0.5, 5.4 and 1.2 m tonnes (FAO, 2010). In addition, each
of these alternatives has its unique antinutritive factor
that tends to be detrimental to optimum poultry
productivity.
Improving the nutritive value of alternative feed
ingredients
Much research has gone into the improvement of
alternative ingredients for poultry feeding, some of this
in Africa. The continent will also benefit from research
that has been done in other parts of the world. Some of
this research occurs at the agronomic level. For example,
low-tannin sorghum varieties have been bred and are the
varieties predominantly in use in Australia. The
consumption of diets containing these varieties is no
longer constrained as they are not astringent. As
highlighted, productivity on the improved sorghum
varieties remains lower than on maize-based diets. Since
the cause of this low performance has been identified,
focus has shifted to improving the digestibility of
kaffirins in sorghum. A few novel microbial enzymes
have been tested, with promising results. A combination
of phytase and Subtilisin (a predominantly protease
complex) has been identified as the most favourable for
use with sorghum in diets for poultry (Anon., 2010).
There is on-going development of more potent enzymes
to target the disulphide bonds in sorghum protein.
Hamaker and his group at the University of Purdue have
been at the forefront of research on pearl millet and
sorghum. Their approach towards improvement of
sorghum protein digestibility and overall nutritional
value has focused a lot more on breeding high-protein,
high lysine cultivars of sorghum (Elkin et al., 2002;
Tesso et al., 2006). Core nutritional researchers have
focused on improving the digestibility of sorghum
protein. In this regard, progress has been slow but a
recent report from Australia appears to suggest that a
commercial protease product has been found, which
when combined with phytase effectively improved the
nutritional value of diets based on sorghum (Anon.,
2010).
Genetic manipulation of many crops has been one of the

strong research methods aimed at enhancing disease and
pest resistance. Soybean and canola have undergone
large-scale manipulation too to increase oil yield or to
alter nutrient profiles and improve nutritional quality.
Canola is the result of redevelopment of rape by
Canadian researchers to reduce glucosinolate/erusic
acid contents and fibre, as well as increase oil content.
While these manipulations have been successful at
achieving their aims, there is still no universal
acceptance of genetically modified crop products. A lot
more would depend on nutritional manipulation of these
ingredients to improve their nutritive value for animals.
Thus, soybeans are routinely heat-treated to reduce the
protease-inhibitors in the seed. The fibre content of
canola and sunflower seedmeals still remains an issue,
and the favoured means of addressing the problem is
supplementation with microbial enzymes.
Other
research has targeted identification of the location of the
antinutritive factor(s) in these ingredients, and isolation
of same. Lupins are not produced in large quantities in
Africa but there has been research at reducing the NSP
content of the meal through dehulling. Such processing
does not always result in better performance, as was
found in a trial on pigs (Ferguson et al., 2003).
Cottonseed may also benefit from dehulling amd
delinting while whole sunflower seed is generally too
fibrous to be digested by poultry, so that some
dehusking would be required to improve its quality.
Feed milling can play a role in improvement of some
alternative feed ingredients. Generally ingredients can
be hammer-milled or roller-milled. The latter tends to
affect the grain less and ensures large feed particles than
the former. It is widely known that large or coarse feed
particles enhance the development of the gizzard
towards a more efficient utilization of nutrients than fine
particles (Rodgers et al., 2009; Favero et al., 2009).
This should be an option that can be employed with
some of the alternative feed ingredients.
The application of microbial enzyme technology is at
least 20 years old. It is one of the techniques that can be
used to resolve a variety of nutritional problems. There
is a wide range of microbial enzyme supplements that
have been developed to improve fibre digestion, with
p r o d u c t s t a rg e t i n g - g l u c a n s , x y l a n s a n d
oligosaccharides (Bedford, 2006; Shakouri et al., 2009;
Onyango and Adeola, 2009). Other products eliciting
phytase activity have been developed and the
antinutitive effects of tannins have been effectively
tackled through supplementation with products that
include protease (Iji et al., 2004). Cassava-based diets
have been supplemented with microbial enzymes and
response has generally been good. In an on-going study
at the University of New England, Australia, cassava
pulp, a highly fibrous product, has been included at up to
15 % in the diet for layers and broilers without reduction
in productivity (Chauynarong et al., 2010). A major

drawback to the use of cassava products in layer diets is
the paleness of egg yolks but this can easily be resolved
through inclusion of green leafy material such as
leucaena or gliricidia leafmeal (Iji and Okonkwo 1988).
Animal by-products are no longer much in use in the
dominant poultry producing areas of the world,
including Australia. This is due to concerns of zoonosis.
Meat and bone meal as well as blood and meat meal
would be excellent sources of proteins if they could be
processed in such a way to eliminate or reduce the
likelihood of disease contamination.
Conclusion
There is an abundance of feed ingredients in Africa that
can be used for poultry feeding. Although there is
competition between humans and animals in the use of
some of these ingredients, there is scope for increased
production of the traditional ingredients and increased
utilization of alternative ingredients that are not used for
human food. Some of the alternative ingredients are
limited by antinutritive factors but the feed industry is
constantly evolving, with production of suitable
supplements and processing techniques that can aid
increased utilization of these materials.
References
ANONYMOUS. 2010. Enzymes for sorghum!
Feedworks Workshop, Coolum, Australia, September
2010.
BEDFORD, M.R. 2006.
Effect of non-starch
polysaccharidases on avian gastrointestinal function.
In: Avian gut function in health and disease, CABI,
Walingford, UK, pp159-170.
BELTON, P.S., DELGADILLO, I., HALFORD, N.G.,
SHEWRY, P.R. 2006.
Kafirin structure and
functionality. Journal of Cereal Science 44, 272-286.
CHAUYNARONG, N., IJI, P.A. AND KANTO, U.
2010. Microbial enzyme supplementation of broiler
chicken diets containing cassava pulp. XIII European
Poultry Conference, Tours, France, p347.
ELKIN, R.G., ARTHUR, E., HAMAKER, B.R.,
AXTELL, J.D., DOUGLAS, M.W. AND PARSONS,
C.M. 2002. Nutritional value of a highly digestible
sorghum cultivar for meat-type chickens. Journal of
Agricultural and Food Chemistry 50, 4146-4150.
FAVERO, A.; MAIORKA, A.; DAHLKE, F.;
MEURER, R. F. P.; OLIVEIRA, R. S.; SENS, R. F.
2009. Influence of feed form and corn particle size on
the live performance and digestive tract development of
turkeys. Journal of Applied Poultry Research 18, 772779.
55
FERGUSON, N.S., GOUS, R.M. AND IJI, P.A. 2003.

Determining the source of antinutritive factor(s) in two
species of lupin (L. albus and L. angustifolius) fed to
growing pigs. Livestock Production Science 84, 83-91.
FOOD AND AGRICULTURAL ORGANIZATION
2010.
FA O S TAT, P r o d u c t i o n c r o p s .
http://faostat.fao.org/site/567/default.aspx#ancor.
GALKATE, U.V. AND ROKDE, S.N. 2010. Effect of
dietary aflatoxin on certain egg production and quality
parameters in white leghorn layers. Animal Nutrition
and Feed Technology 10, 121-126.
GARBA, S. UMAR FAROUK, M., JIBIR, M.,
LESCOAT, P. AND MUHAMMAD T.H. 2010.
Performance of laying hens fed millet based diets with
different energy levels.
XIII European Poultry
Conference, Tours, France, p.356.
IJI, P.A., KHUMALO, K., SLIPPERS, S. AND GOUS,
R.M. 2004. Intestinal function and body growth of
broiler chickens on maize-based diets supplemented
with mimosa tannins and a microbial enzyme. Journal
of the Science of Food & Agriculture 84, 1451-1458.
IJI, P.A., KHUMALO, K., SLIPPERS, S. AND GOUS,
R.M. 2004. Intestinal function and body growth of
broiler chickens on maize-based diets supplemented
with mimosa tannins and a microbial enzyme. Journal
of the Science of Food & Agriculture 84, 1451-1458.
KOCHER, A., CHOCT, M., ROSS, G., BROZ, J. AND
CHUNG, T.K. 2003. Effects of enzyme combinations
on apparent metabolizable energy of corn-soybean
meal-based diets in broilers. Journal of Applied Poultry
Research 12, 275-283
KUMAR, V., ELANGOVAN, A.V., MANDAL, A.B.,
TYAGI, P.K., BHANJA, S.K. AND DASH, B.B. 2007.
Effects of feeding raw or reconstituted high tannin red
sorghum on nutrient utilisation and certain welfare
parameters of broiler chickens. British Poultry Science
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LORDELO, M.M., SHAABAN, S.A., DALE, N.M.,
CALHOUN, M.C., VENDREL, P.F. AND DAVIS, A.J.
2008. Near infrared reflectance spectroscopy for the
determination of free gossypol in cottonseed meal.
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requirements of Poultry. NRC, Washington DC, USA.
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of Africa. Volume 1: Grains. National Academy of
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KOCK, N.D. 2007. Intestinal growth and function of
broiler chicks fed sorghum based diets differing in
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grains and microbial enzyme supplementation. Journal
of Animal Physiology and Animal Nutrition 93, 647658.
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vegetable protein sources on the performance and
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Short Communication
Local fowl and their egg quality in six local government areas of Imo State,
Nigeria.
*C.T. EZEOKEKE, I.C. OKOLI, C.S. DURUNNA, M.C. UCHEGBU, H.O. OBIKAONU AND V.M.
OKORO.
Department of Animal Science & Technology, Federal University of Technology, Owerri, Imo State
*Correspondence: chycorn@yahoo.com
Abstract
A study was carried out to determine gender involvement in rearing of local chicken, management practice
and population of local fowls from six randomly selected local government areas (LGAs) in Imo State.
Another laboratory test was carried out to assess egg quality of the fowls. The women (84.33%) were more
involved than men in the rearing of the fowl and management systems were semi intensive and extensive
types. In the 300 households visited the numbers of cocks, hens, growers and chicks were 394, 614, 478 and
546, respectively. The cocks weighed more than the hens. According to the respondents common diseases
encountered included newcastle , coccidiosis and chronic respiratory diseases, egg parameters such as yolk
index, haugh unit, shell thickness and weight varied significantly (P<0.05) among the LGAs. Conservation
to stem extinction and improvement of the fowl needs to be encouraged.
Keywords: Local fowl, egg quality, local government, rearing.
Introduction
The local domestic fowl is said to have descended
from the red jungle fowl and domesticated from
Asia in 2500 B.C. (Rose, 1997). Indigenous or
native poultry birds could be defined as breeds of
varieties of any species of poultry which have thus
developed characteristics peculiar to a geographical
location (Oluyemi, 1979).
The traditional chicken production is based on free
range system where the fowls mostly scavenge for
feed, picking on food scraps and insects around the
homesteads (Aganga et al., 2000; Moreki, 2000).
This system is described as low input-low output
system where birds are given limited amounts of
feed to supplement what they scavenge (McAinsh et
al., 2004). The local chickens and their eggs tend to
be smaller than those raised on intensive farms
(Awolola, 1986; Lambrou, 1993). Badubi et al.
(2006) in their survey reported that 64.30%
indigenous poultry farmers did not provide housing
for their chickens, while only 35.70% of the farmers
provided housing of some kind.
In Nigeria most of the household rearers of local
fowl are women and the fowl is hardy, resistant to
diseases and very broody (Nwakpu et al. 1999). The
hen by sitting on and covering them with her wings

many days after laying hatches its eggs. The birds
are well adapted to the harsh warm wet tropical
environment (Nwakpu et al., 1999). Cross breeding
with the imported breeds have been done in an
exchange program for improvement of the fowl by
government giving rise to offsprings with low
heritable traits that were lost in the subsequent
generations as a result of uncontrolled breeding.
There is paucity of data on local fowls' management
and production in South Eastern Nigeria. Also
population and identity of the farmers involved in
raising the fowl are lacking. To bridge the gap in
inadequate animal protein intake by human being
may be found in the use of local fowls and their eggs
as alternative. Hence the current efforts in the study
to create awareness, provide a working data towards
improvement and intensification of the fowl in
South Eastern Nigeria.
Materials And Methods
The study area covered randomly selected 300
households in thirty towns located in six local
government areas (LGAs) of Imo State. The local
governments were namely; Abor Mbaise, Ahiazu,
57
Owerri West, Ezinihite Mbaise, Obowo and Owerri

0
North. The area is located between longitude 7 E
0
0
and latitude 4 N. Temperatures were 32.1-29.1 C
0
(maximum) and 24.1-22.2 C (minimum) and
relative humidity 77-86% in May July, 2008
covering the period of the study (Source of data:
Department of Meteorological Service, Owerri,
Nigeria). To obtain the local poultry farmers'
personal information oral interviews were
conducted and distribution of questionnaire
employed.
Conventional criteria were used in identifying the
birds used in the study. The fowls were small in size
and the plumage lacked uniformity indicating
evidence of multiplicity of genes. Selection
involves loss or imposition of genes that tends
towards conferment of uniformity. The fowl
matures early (Hill, 1954) with body weight less
than the hybrid. The beaks and claws are thin, long
and curved while shanks are thin, short and slanted
modified for scavenging. Body weight is measured
with a manually operated scale. According to the
respondents the age of cocks and hens was 1-2
years, growers 2-7 months and chicks day old to 5

weeks. The study lasted for eight weeks.
Egg analysis was done by selecting randomly three
eggs per LGA per week for 8 weeks for assessment
of external and internal egg parameters. Micrometer
screw gauge and vernier calipers were used to
determine height and width of albumen, yolk and
shell thickness while electronic weighing balance
employed for egg and shell weights. Haugh unit
calculated by using the formula: HU = 100log
0.37
(H+7.5-1.7W ) according to Haugh (1937), where
HU represented Haugh unit, A represented albumen
height (mm) and W represented weight (g) of egg.
Card et al. (1979) scored AA for a Haugh unit of 72
and above to indicate freshness of an egg. The yolk
color was determined by using yolk color chart
supplied by Roche Germany. The colors were
graded 1-14 in increasing order of blend and
intensity of the yolk. Data analysis was done using
analysis of variance and separation of means done
by using least significant different method as
adopted by Njoku et al. (1998).
The results are presented in Tables 1-5 as shown

Table 1: Population and personal information of local chicken farmers in the LGAs
Occupation
Sex
Background
Farming(F) only F&Trading F&Cservant
LGAs Males Females Literates
03
18
03
Illiterates
14
20
01
1
01
50
50
00
05
00
03
2
02
48
48
02
05
35
10
3
00
50
49
01
09
30
11
4
19
31
37
13
5
16
34
36
14
11
26
13
6
10
40
31
19
474.02
12911.29 415.61
477.97 2537.97 2518.86 498.86
Note: C= Civil, 1=Abor Mbaise, 2= Ahiazu, 3= Owerri West, 4= E zinihite Mbaise, 5=
Obowo and 6= Owerri North.
Table 2: Population of the flock, structure, size and density of local fowl in the LGAs
LGAs
Cock
Hens
Growers
Chicks
Flock/household
1
45
149
124
86
16.50
2
64
159
119
109
13.13
3
42
103
78
78
9.83
4
82
55
59
101
10.31
5
73
68
46
72
9.26
6
88
80
52
100
10.80
39418.85 61445.28 47837.42
54614.20
692.62
Note: 1= Abor Mbaise, 2= Ahiazu, 3= Owerri West, 4 = Ezinihite Mbaise, 5= Obowo
and 6= Owerri North.
58
Table 3a: Management practice by respondents in Abor Mbaise LGA

1.Provision of shelter
Households
Yes
50
No
00
2. Medical treatment
Yes
00
No
50
3.Frequency of cleaning pen
Daily
50
Weekly
00
Monthly
00
>Monthly
00
4. Feeding system
Scavenging
50
Supplementation
00
5. Frequency of providing drinking water
Frequent
00
Not frequent
50
6. *Common diseases encountered
Fowl pox
10
Others
00
*Data obtained according to respondents information.
Table 3b: Management practice by respondents in Ahiazu LGA
1. Provision of shelter
Households
Yes
49
No
01
Yes
00
No
50
3. Frequency of cleaning pen
Daily
50
Weekly
00
Monthly
00
>Monthly
00
4. Feeding system
Scavenging
49
Supplementation
01
5. Frequency of providing
dinking water
Frequent
01
Not frequent
49
6.*Common diseases
encountered
Coccidiosis
02
Fowl pox
22
Others
00
59
Table 3c: Management practice in Owerri West LGA

Households
Yes
49
No
01
Yes
00
No
50
Daily
50
Weekly
00
Monthly
00
>Monthly
00
4. Feeding system
Scavenging
49
Supplementation
01
5. Frequency of providing
drinking water
Frequent
00
Not frequent
50
Fowl pox
50
*Data obtained from respondents comment
Table 3d: Management practice in Obowo LGA
Households
Yes
43
No
07
Yes
00
No
46
Daily
06
Weekly
44
Monthly
00
>Monthly
00
4. Feed system
Scavenging
46
Supplementation
04
Frequent
09
Not frequent
41
Chronic respiratory disease
20
Others
00
*Data obtained from respondents comment
60
Table 3e: Management practice in Owerri North LGA

Households
Yes
45
No
05
Yes
00
No
50
Daily
00
Weekly
50
Monthly
00
>Monthly
00
4. Feeding system
Scavenging
49
Supplementation
01
Frequent
10
Not frequent
40
Chronic respiratory disease
20
*Data obtained from respondents comments.
Results And Discussion

The farmers' particulars (Table 1) indicated more
women than men as keepers of local fowls in the
local government areas (LGAs). This result is
supported by Nwakpu et al. (1999) that stated that
more women were involved in local chicken rearing
than men. Most of the farmers (83.67%) were
literates and apart from raising birds were involved
in other fields of endeavor. Flock size per household
differed among the LGAs. Provision of shelter was
done for the chicks under semi intensive system of
management except very few less than 2% of the
population of the poultry farmers in the area did not
provide shelter. Therefore most of the local chicken
rearers provided one kind of shelter. This is not in
line with that reported by Badubi et al. (2006) that
most of the farmers did not provide shelter. Medical
treatment of birds was absent (Table 3) and this must
have adversely affected the population recorded for
the fowls in all the LGAs.
According to respondents common diseases
observed in the LGAs were chronic respiratory
disease (CRD), Coccidiosis and New Castle
disease. But CRD and coccidiosis were more
common. The significant difference (P<0.05) in the
body weight of the chicks same as within the cocks
and hens in the LGAs (Table 4) could be partial
since there was bulking of the birds e.g., for the
chicks aged 0-5 weeks (chick phase) were weighed
and grouped together. The egg parameters (Table 5b)

showed significant difference (P<0.05) in the
albumen index, Haugh unit, shell thickness and
weight and yolk index. Though the score of the
Haugh unit suggested that eggs were not fresh (Card
et al., 1979). The yolk colors were mostly moderate
yellow. The results of the egg quality analysis did not
suggest eggs of high quality.
Conclusion
In the study local birds (2032) in all the households
thrived without medicaments (Table 3). The local
fowls need to be conserved since they were resistant
to diseases. Therefore they possess traits of future
importance in being hardy and well adapted to harsh
environment.
References
AGANGA, A., OMPHILE, U.; MALOPE, P.;
CHABANGA, C.; MOTSAMAL, G. and
MOTSUMI, L., 2000. Traditional Poultry
Production and Commercial Broiler Alternatives for
Smallholder Farmers in Botswana. Livestock
Research for Rural Development 12: 1-8.
AWOLOLA, M.D., 1986. A Case Study on Adoption
of recommended practice in poultry keeping.
Journal of Poultry Association of Nigeria, Maiden
61
Table 4a: Weight (g) of the flock.

LGAs
Chicken type
1
2
3
SEM
Cock
1015.41 999.89
1019.72
11.84
Hen
863.20 875.20
880.00
14.77
Grower
344.49 322.79
374.33
17.00
b
a
b
Chick
33.09 53.91
31.71
7.69
Note: Means within row having different superscripts a a
nd b are significantly
different (P<0.05). SEM = Standard Error of Mean.
Table 4b: Weight (g) of the flock
LGAs
Chicken type
4
5
6
SEM
Cock
1247.00
1193.00
1417.00
26.00
Hen
703.00b
804.00a
1105.00 a
41.00
Grower
236.00
266.00
242.00
13.00
Chick
26.31
25.81
25.40
0.26
Note: Means with in row having different superscripts a and b are significantly
different (P<0.05) and SEM represents standard error of mean.
Table 5a: Egg quality parameters
Parameters
Average egg
weight (g)
Hen day egg
production (%)
Albumen index
Yolk index
Yolk color
Shell thickness
(mm)
Shell weight
(g)
Haugh unit
LGAs
2
SEM
38.06
37.79
37.51
0.85
50.35
0.08
0.31
8.67
46.05
0.09
0.32
8.67
47.68
0.09
0.29
8.78
12.72
0.01
0.02
0.18
0.30
3.68
0.25
3.70
0.26
3.82
0.03
0.29
18.72
20.16
20.11
1.76
SEM represents standard error of mean.

Table 5b: Egg quality parameters
Parameters
Average egg
weight (g)
Hen day egg
production (%)
Albumen index
Yolk index
Yolk color
62
LGAs
5
SEM
33.64
33.91
33.47
0.42
50.00
0.34a
0.43
8.00
48.71
0.30b
0.50
7.75
50.00
0.32ab
0.32
8.38
0.36
0.01
0.02
0.31
Table 5a: Egg quality parameters

Parameters
Average egg
weight (g)
Hen day egg
production (%)
Albumen index
Yolk index
Yolk color
Shell thickness
(mm)
Shell weight
(g)
Haugh unit
LGAs
2
SEM
38.06
37.79
37.51
0.85
50.35
0.08
0.31
8.67
46.05
0.09
0.32
8.67
47.68
0.09
0.29
8.78
12.72
0.01
0.02
0.18
0.30
3.68
0.25
3.70
0.26
3.82
0.03
0.29
18.72
20.16
20.11
1.76
SEM represents standard error of mean.

Table 5b: Egg quality parameters
Parameters
Average egg
weight (g)
Hen day egg
production (%)
Albumen index
Yolk index
Yolk color
Shell thickness
(mm)
Shell weight
(g)
Haugh unit
LGAs
5
SEM
33.64
33.91
33.47
0.42
50.00
0.34a
0.43
8.00
48.71
0.30b
0.50
7.75
50.00
0.32ab
0.32
8.38
0.36
0.01
0.02
0.31
0.21b
4.70a
0.22b
4.38b
0.46a
4.04a
0.05
0.11
41.59a
39.23b
42.57a
0.62
Note: Means within rows having different superscripts a and b are significantly
different (P<0.05) and SEM represents standard error of mean.
63
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BADUBI, S.S. RAKERENG, M. and MARUME,
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th
1979. Poultry Production 12 Ed. Bailliers Tindak,
London.
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LAMBROU, L., 1993. Indigenous Poultry in
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MC AINSH, C.V., KUSINA, J.; MADSEN, J. and
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MOREKI, J.C., 2000. Village Poultry in fifteen

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OLUYEMI. J.A., 1979. Potentialities of the
Indigenous Species of Poultry for Meat and Egg
Productions. Conference held at ABU, Zaria,
th
December 11-13 .
ROSE, S.P., 1997. Principles of Poultry Science,
page 1, CAB International Publishers, Wallingford,
Oxford, UK.
2010 VOLUME 7
65

Plasma and liver cholesterol status of laying hens fed unpeeled cassava root
meal based diets
O.M.O. IDOWU, DAISY ERUVBETINE , A. O. OSO, A. V. JEGEDE AND A. O. FAFIOLU
Department of Animal Nutrition, University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Nigeria
Abstract
Three hundred and sixty twenty-week old Black Harco replacement pullets were used to investigate plasma
and liver tissue cholesterol concentrations of laying hens fed four dietary treatments containing 0, 10, 20 and
30% Unpeeled Cassava Root Meal (UCRM) respectively for 560 days (80weeks in lay). Data recorded were
total lipid, cholesterol and triacylglycerol concentrations. Plasma cholesterol concentrations decreased
significantly with increased levels of UCRM at all stages of lay (0-80 weeks). Plasma cholesterol
significantly increased with the weeks in lay (P< 0.05). Increasing UCRM from 10-30% in the diets of layers
resulted in a concomitant linear reduction (P< 0.05) in the concentrations of the total cholesterol in the liver .
No significant (P>0.05) differences were observed between the overall lipid status of the control group
(0%UCRM) and that of the hens fed 10% UCRM diet except in the liver cholesterol content. The overall liver
cholesterol status of the hens fed 10% and 20% UCRM (80 weeks in lay) were statistically the same
(P>0.05). The overall assessment showed that the inclusion of 10-30 % UCRM reduced plasma cholesterol
by 3.6-28.1% while liver total cholesterol reduced by 27-42%. The mean concentration ranges for the total
plasma cholesterol during 20, 40, 60 and 80 weeks in lay were 84.69-128.17, 92.16-149.93, 100.34-185.67
and 120.16-219.33 mg/dL respectively. The range of mean values for the liver total lipid and lipid related
measurements were as follows: total lipid ( 27.23-29.75mg/g),total cholesterol (1.37-1.92 mg/g) and
triacylglycerol ( 1.62-2.75mg/g ) . The overwhelming evidence in this study therefore was that the feeding
of 10 - 30% UCRM in the laying hens diets resulted in 27 42% reduction in liver cholesterol and 3.6228.17% reduction in plasma cholesterol.
Keywords : cassava root meal, hens, plasma and liver tiisue
Introduction
Nutritional data from U.S. Department of
Agriculture reported that 100 gram sample of raw
cassava root contains 0.280g total lipid (fat), 0.074 g
fatty acids (total saturated), 0.075g fatty acid (total),
0.048g fatty acids (total poly unsaturated) and 0.00
mg cholesterol (USDA, 2003). Cassava root is
known to be relatively rich in calcium (10mg/100g
DM) and ascorbic acid (35mg/100g DM). It also
contains appreciable quatity of thiamine
(0.04mg/100g DM), riboflavin (0.02mg/100g DM)
and niacin 0.6 mg/100DM (Oyenuga, 1968). The
chemical composition of cassava has been reported
(Oyenuga, 1968 and James, 1994) to vary according
to variety, age of the plants and processing
techniques.
66
The work of Quresh et al. (1991) indicated that

certain fibres (barley and oat fibre) contained
substances that inhibit hepatic cholesterol synthesis
when fed to chickens. In laying hens, cholesterol is
primarily biosynthesized in the liver (Christie and
Moore, 1972 and Lubert, 1981) and secreted into
the plasma. The works of Eruvbetine et al.(2003)
and Idowu et al. (2002) also reported a reduction in
the blood cholesterol content of chicken when
unpeeled cassava root meal and cassava root sievate
were fed respectively to laying hens. Cholesterol
excretion is reportedly increased by dietary fibre
(Storey and Furumoto, 1990) resulting in reduced
availability of cholesterol for incorporation into
lipoprotein and the eventual deposition in egg yolk.
Other anti-hypercholesterolemic substances that

have been identified include certain polysaccharides
(Grimminger and Fisher, 1996), saponins (Qureshi
et al., 1983) and synthetic HMG-CoA reductase
inhibitor (Roberts et al., 1993). It is therefore
possible to modify the lipid composition of poultry
tissues and meat by dietary manipulations. The aim
of this study was to investigate the
hypocholesterolemic effect of feeding UCRM on
plasma and liver of hens.
MaterialsAnd Methods
Experimental birds and dietary treatments
Three hundred and sixty Black Harco point of lay
pullets were randomly divided into 12 groups of 30
chickens each. Three groups were assigned to each
of the 4 dietary treatments respectively. Dietary
treatments were formulated to contain 0, 10, 20 and
30% UCRM respectively (Table 1). The additional
protein required as a result of increasing UCRM in
the diets was made up by the inclusion of increasing
levels of soyabean meal. All diets were formulated
to be isocaloric and iso-nitrogenous. Clean and cool
water were also provided ad libitum. Proximate
analysis of the URCM and experimental diets were
done during the acclimatization period and the
results obtained are presented in Tables 2 and 3. The
experiments had 4 feeding regimes of reference (020, and 21 - 40weeks in lay, 41-60 and 61- 80 weeks
in lay) respectively.
Plasma and liver tissue cholesterol determination

At 20, 40, 60 and 80 weeks of experimentation, 12
birds (3 birds per treatment group) were sacrificed
respectively. The birds were weighed before killing
by cervical dislocation. Blood samples (5.0 mL )
were drawn from the wing veins of three (3 ) birds
from each replicate group into lithium heparin bottle
. The birds were bled during the morning period,
immediately after feeding. The heparinized blood
samples were centrifuged and the plasma separated.
Separated plasma was removed with a micro pipette
into a test tube for analysis. Samples from each
replicate group were pooled. The liver samples
were excised ,blotted dry and weighed. The tissues
and liver samples were perfused with saline to
remove residual blood before extraction. This was to
prevent contamination from plasma and red blood
cell lipids.
Plasma lipids extraction procedure

The procedure used was that described by Gary
(1993). The plasma lipid extraction was done in
cold ice bath. The solvent to sample ratio was 30:1.
The plasma sample was first added to the methanol;
then half chloroform was added. The mixture was
stirred for 10minutes. It was brought to volume with
remaining portion of chloroform, mixed thoroughly
and filtered. The filter paper was pre-washed with
chloroform/methanol (2:1) to remove organic
soluble materials found in commercial filter papers.
To ensure complete extraction, the residue in the
filter was washed thoroughly and solvent combined
with the initial extraction solvent. The extract was
washed with 0.2g KCl , centrifuged for 3 minutes.
The supernatant fluid was decanted into another test
tube for lipids analyses.
Liver lipids extraction procedure
Composite paste of liver tissue was prepared by
blending with equal amount of
chloroform/methanol mixture (1:1 v/v). The
resulting paste-solvent mixture was filtered, and
rinsed with an additional volume of the combined
homogenate was allowed to stand for 5 minutes
with occasional stirring. The filtered homogenate
was then equilibrated to remove non-lipid material.
2% (0.32M) w/v KCl solution was added to the
aqueous layer to minimize the loss of liquid to the
aqueous layer. The filtrate was centrifuged and lipid
extract was decanted. The supernatant (extract) was
made up to a final volume by adding choloroform so
that the proportion of chloroform to methanol was
2:1 (v/v) and the final ratio of the solvent to tissue
was 30:1. The supernatant fluid decanted was reextracted before fat , cholesterol and triacyiglycerol
analyses. (Folch et al., 1957 and Gary, 1993).
Cholesterol determination procedure
The cholesterol assay of the plasma and liver
tissues were done by enzymatic colorimetric
methods (according to the manufacturer's manual)
using Randox a diagnostic cholesterol kit
(BIOLAB with code 80106.2 x 100ml cholesterol
CHOD-PAP ). Randox diagnostic cholesterol

reagent measures cholesterol enzymatically and
colorimetrically . This approach measured the
hydrogen peroxide produced by employing a
peroxidase and a chromogenic oxygen acceptor.
The kit consisted of vials R1, R2, and R3. R1 was the
67
cholesterol
(1) Cholesterol esters
cholesterol + Free fatty acids
esterase
cholesterol
(2) Cholesterol + 0 2 +2H2
Cholesten 4 one + H 202
oxidase
POD
(3) 2H 202 + Phenol + 4 Amino antipyrine
Quinoneimine + 4H20 (Pink)
When the reagent was mixed with the extract in

cuvette and placed in the water bath (incubated for
10minutes) the colour changed from milky to a
pinkish . The absorbance of the sample plus reagent
and the standard plus reagent were read at 480nm
using a spectrophotometer (Jenway) against the
reagent blank within 1hr. The cholesterol content
was calculated using the formulae below:
Cholesterol conc. (mg/dL)=
Absorbance of sample
x Standard Concentration (200mg/dL)
Absorbance of standard
Triacylglycerol determination procedure

A commercial test kit used for the triacylglycerol
(triglyceride) determination was Randox
diagnostic triglyceride reagent procedure (GPOPAP Method Randox Laboratory Ltd, UK). This
procedure was also based on enzymaticcolorimetric methods (according to the
manufacturer's label). The triacylglycerols were
determined after the enzymatic hyrolysis with
lipases. The indicator was a quinoneimine formed
from hydrogen perioxide. The reagent contained 4aminophenazone, ATP, lipases, glycerol-kinase,
glycerol-3-phosphate oxidase and peroxidase.
The kit vials consist of R1(Buffer solution
containing 4-chlorophenol and magnesium ions) ,
R2 vial is the enzyme reagent while vial R3 is the
standard solution ( 200mg/ dL). The R2 vial was
emptied into R1 and reconstituted mixture was
left to stand for 10minutes before use. The
chemical / enzymic reactions involved in this
procedure were as follows:
lipases
Glycerol
+ fatty acids
glycerol-kinase
(2) Glycerol
+ ATP
Glycerol -3- phosphate +ADP

glycerol-3-phosphate oxidase
(3) Glycerol -3- phosphate +O 2
dihydroxyacetone-phosphate
+ H 2O 2
H2O2 + 4-aminophenazone+4-chlorophenol
68
Calculations :
Triacyiglycerol concentration (mg/dL)
=
A sample
Further calculations were done to express

concentration in mg/g of the initial sample
extracted.
(1) Triglycerides + H 2O
1000 uL of the reagent (reconstituted reagent) was

pipette into test tubes containing 10uL of the
standard and sample extract respectively. The
content of the tubes were then mixed gently and
o
incubated for 10minutes at 37 C for 5minutes. The
milky colouration of the incubated materials
changed to pink. The content in each test tube was
immediately poured into two different glass
cuvettes. Absorbance of the incubated sample
extract+ reagent (Asample) and the standard +reagent
(Astandard) were read against the blank in Jenway
Spectrophotometer at a wavelength of 500nm.
peroxidase
X 200mg/dL
A standard
Statistical analyses
The data obtained in these studies were subjected
to Analysis of Variance and Duncan's Multiple
Range Test (Steel and Torrie, 1980) was used to
separate significant differences among the means
at 5% level of probability.
Results
Both total cholesterol and triacylglycerol
concentrations were significantly (P<0.05) affected
by the experimental diets. Concentrations of both
cholesterol and triacylglyceride decreased
significantly (P<0.05) in a linear manner with the
increasing level of UCRM in all stages of the period
of lay (Table 2). The initial cholesterol and
triacylglycerol were 96.11 and 360.00 mg/dL
respectively. Plasma total cholesterol content of
hens fed 30% UCRM based diets was significantly
lower (P<0.05) than all other dietary groups (0-20%
UCRM). Control (0% UCRM) group had the
highest total cholesterol concentration.
Triacylglycerol concentration at 20, 40, 60 and 80
weeks was highest in the control group (P<0.05) and
lowest in the hens fed experimental diet containing
30% UCRM. Cholesterol and triacylglycerol
concentrations of the hens on 0 20% UCRM diets
during 20, 40 and 80 weeks in lay were statistically
the same (P>0.05). No statistical difference existed
in values of cholesterol
and triacylglycerol
obtained in the plasma of hens fed 0 and 10%
UCRM diets in all stages of laying (0-80 weeks).
However the triacylglycerol content of the 20%
Quinoneimine + HCl + 4H 2O
UCRM and 30% UCRM group were similar at 20,

60 and 80 weeks in lay.
The mean concentration ranges for the total plasma
cholesterol during 20, 40, 60 and 80 weeks in lay
were 84.69-128.17, 92.16-149.93, 100.34-185.67
and 120.16-219.33 mg/dL
respectively.
Triacylglycerol concentration ranges over the same
laying periods were: 375.83-459.29, 437.80626.60, 503.33-763.00 and 671.67-1203.00 mg/dL
respectively (Table 2). The overall mean total
cholesterol was in a range of 99.34 - 138.28mg/dl
while that of triacylglycerol was 485.41-746.77
mg/dl (Table 2).
Liver samples excised from hens fed the control diet
(0% UCRM) were generally heavier than liver
excised from hens fed UCRM diets (P>0.05). Liver
weight per kilogramme body weight, total lipid,
total cholesterol and triacylglycerol decreased
(P<0.05) linearly with increasing level of UCRM
(Table 3).
Total lipid, total cholesterol and
triacylglycerol were lowest (P<0.05) in the hens fed
30% UCRM diet and was significantly different
from the others. The highest (P<0.05)
concentrations were obtained in the control group
(0% UCRM). Between 10% UCRM and 20%
UCRM groups, levels of total lipid, cholesterol and
triacylglycerol were not significantly different
(P>0.05), although there were numerical
differences. There was no significant influence of
UCRM on the concentration of triacylglycerol at 60
and 80 weeks in lay (Table 3).
Over the period of 20 weeks in lay , the range of
mean values for the liver total lipid and lipid related
measurements were as follows: total lipid ( 27.2329.75mg/g),total cholesterol (1.37-1.92 mg/g) and
triacylglycerol ( 1.62-2.75mg/g ) . Similarly the
range of values for the same parameters at 40 weeks
in lay were as follows: total lipid ( 27.6037.14mg/g),total cholesterol (1.35-1.76 mg/g) and
triacylglycerol ( 1.47-2.54mg/g ). The range of
values at 60 and 80 weeks in lay were as follows:
total lipid ( 29.88-34.96
and
28.33-37.57
mg/g),total cholesterol (1.44 2.73 and 1.38 2.97
mg/g) and triacylglycerol ( 2.55 2.83 and 2.56
3.01mg/g ) respectively. The overall mean
concentration range over the period of 0-80 weeks of
laying were as follows: Total lipid (28.26 34.86
mg/g), total cholesterol (1.39 - 2.35mg/g) and
triacylglycerol (2.05 2.76mg/g).
Discussion
Plasma total cholesterol and triacylgycerol were
significantly reduced by the inclusion of UCRM in
the experimental diet. Plasma total cholesterol and
triacylglycerol were higher in the control group
(without UCRM) while the lowest concentrations
were obtained in the group fed with the highest
(30%) level of UCRM. Concentration decreased
significantly (P<0.05) in a linear manner showing
that further addition of UCRM in the experimental
diets above 30% would have reduced the plasma
lipid concentrations further. The data obtained for
plasma total cholesterol was in agreement with that
of Eruvbetine et al. (2000) who obtained significant
reduction in the plasma cholesterol when 10%
UCRM was fed to old laying hens for 8 weeks.
Turk and Barnett (1972), Anderson and Chen
(1979), Storey and Fumoroto (1990) and Lirette et
al. (1993) also obtained reduction in the plasma
total cholesterol when plant fibres were added to
corn-soya laying hens' diet. Piliang (1990) in his
investigation of the effects of high fibre diets on
cholesterol status of laying hens reported that 61 and
74% rice bran (containing 7.36 and 8.52% crude
fibre) in maize-soya bean diets (6.3% CF) (Table 1)
decreased cholesterol in the whole blood and
plasma proportionately. The explanations for the
observed reduction in plasma cholesterol could
therefore be associated with the hypocholesterolemic influence of the fibre content of the
cassava based diet or the presence of
hypocholesterolemic properties or agents in UCRM
which are currently not popular or understood.
Dietary plant fibre supplements or inclusion have
been known to precipitate increased faecal
excretion of neutral sterols such as cholesterol
(Anderson and Chen, 1979). Feacal loss of
cholesterol and bile salts could be a major route in
the hypocholesterolemic effects of UCRM based
diets. Although balance study was not done in this
study but the mechanism by which the dietary fibre
could have influenced the lipid metabolism are by
interrupting the enterohepatic circulation, binding
up with the circulating bile salts and thereby
prevented their subsequent reabsorption in the GIT.
Furthermore Leeson and Summers (1997) gave
some possible combination of different processes
by which dietary fibre influences lipids and
cholesterol metabolism. These include lowering
cholesterol absorption, shortening of the intestinal
transit time, and increasing faecal sterol excretion.
69
Table 1: Composition of experimental diets
Ingredients (%)
0% UCRM
Corn
Wheat offal
Corn bran
UCRM
Fishmeal
Soyabean meal
Bone meal
Oyster shell
*Vit. Min. Premix
Salt
Lysine
Methionine
Total
Determined analyses
Gross energy (kcal/kg)
Dry Matter(g/kg)
Crude Protein (g/kg)
Crude Fibre (g/kg)
Ether extract(g/kg)
NFE (g/kg)
Ash(g/kg)
ME:P ratio
Cyanide content (ppm)
EXPERIMENTAL DIETS
10%UCRM
20%UCRM
30%UCRM
36.50
10.50
25.00
1.50
16.50
1.50
7.80
0.25
0.35
0.05
0.05
100.00
4252.22 + 4.11
903.00 + 0.09
161.10 + 0.01
57.80 + 0.05
76.00 + 0.04
559.20+ 1.52
48.90+ 0.21
197.08:1
-
24.00
10.50
25.00
10.00
1.50
19.00
1.50
7.80
0.25
0.35
0.05
0.05
100.00
11.50
10.50
25.00
20.00
1.50
21.50
1.50
7.80
0.25
0.35
0.05
0.05
100.00
4134.14 + 5.01
899.00 + 0.03
162.30 + 0.04
65.20 + 0.03
56.00 + 0.06
566.30+1.11
49.20 + 0.01
187.35:1
21.30
10.00
25.00
30.00
1.50
23.50
1.50
7.80
0.25
0.35
0.05
0.05
100.00
4098.14 + 3.17
900.00 + 0.07
160.90 + 0.05
70.00 + 0.04
48.00 + 0.07
522.30 + 1.11
48.80 + 0.22
185.89:1
42.60
4066.57+ 4.21
912.00 + 0.01
160.00 + 0.03
78.00 + 0.02
40.00 + 0.10
585.00 + 1.09
49.00 + 0.09
185.42:1
69.90
*Vitamins/ Mineral premix (Roche Nutripoul 5(R)): Based on 2.5kg per ton.
Vit.A:10 000 000 IU, Vit.D 3: 2 500 000 IU,Vit.E 20 000 mg, Vit.K 3: 2 000mg, Vit.B 1:3
000mg, Vit.B 2:7 000mg, Vit.B 6:5 000mg, Vit.B 12:25mg,Niacin: 30 000mg,Panthotenic
Acid:10 000,Folic Acid:800mg, Biotin:50mg, Manganese:80 000mg,Iron: 40 000mg, Zinc:
60 000mg, Copper :8 000mg , Cobalt: 250mg,Iodine 1000mg, Selenium(1%): 150mg,
Choline: 200 000mg and Antioxidant: 100 000mg
70
Table 2 : Effects of the experimental diets on the blood plasma lipid (0-80wks)
E X P E R I M E N T A L DIETS
0% UCRM
10% UCRM
20% UCRM
30 % UCRM
SEM
Parameters
Blood Plasma concentration
at:
Initial
Total cholesterol (mg/dl)
Total Triacylglycerol (mg/dl)
96.11
360.00
96.11
360.00
96.11
360.00
96.11
360.00
0.00
0.00
20 weeks in lay
Total Triacylglycerol (m g/dl)
128.17a
459.29a
111.50 b
416.92b
91.90c
399.97c
84.69d
375.83c
4.36
34.56
40 weeks in lay
Total Triacylglycerol(mg/dl)
149.93a
626.60a
115.76 b
487.21b
107.96c
472.66bc
92.16d
437.80c
5.16
20.89
60 weeks in lay
Total Triacylglycerol(mg/dl)
185.67a
763.00a
138.33b
624.00b
114.69 c
546.67bc
100.34d
503.33c
9.61
23.21
219.33a
1203.00a
.
169.00b
929.00b
135.84 c
703.00 c
120.16 d
671.67c
11.32
48.11
138.28 a
746.77 a
133.65 a
600.73 b
112.60 b
534.82 c
99.33 c
485.42 c
5.66
27.22
80 weeks in lay
Total Triacylglycerol (mg/dl)
Overall mean:
Total cholesterol (mg/dL)
Total Triacylglycerol (mg/dL)
All values within rows having the same or no superscript are not significantly different
(P>0.05).
71
Table 3: Effects of experimental diets on the liver lipid profile

Measurements
E X P E R I M E N T A L DIETS
SEM
0 % UCRM 10 % UCRM
20% UCRM
Liver concentration at:

20 weeks in lay
Liver Weight (g/kg BWT)
Total Lipid (mg/g)
Total Cholesterol (mg/g)
Total Triacylglycerol (mg/ g)
14.46
29.75a
1.92a
2.75a
14.24
29.31a
1.60b
2.13b
14.01
28.31b
1.51c
1.84 c
13.69
27.23c
1.37d
1.62d
0.12
0.21
0.14
0.20
40 weeks in lay
Total Lipid (mg/g)
Total Cholesterol (mg/g)
18.17
37.14a
1.76a
2.54a
17.24
29.59b
1.56b
2.06b
17.19
29.06b
1.51bc
1.81c
16.04
27.60c
1.35c
1.47d
0.11
0.43
0.05
0.08
19.88
34.96a
2.73a
2.83
18.92
30.53b
1.88b
2.21
18.37
30.07b
1.80b
2.27
17.97
29.88b
1.44b
2.55
0.26
0.36
0.07
0.02
19.94
37.57a
2.97a
3.01
19.35
34.80ab
1.78b
2.22
18.73
31.40bc
1.57b
2.34
18.70
28.33c
1.38c
2.56
0.24
0.51
0.10
0.05
29.71 b
1.60 b
2.07
28.26 b
1.39 c
2.05
0.33
0.21
0.04
60 weeks in lay
Total Lipid (mg/g)
Total cholesterol (mg/g)
80 weeks in lay
Total Lipid (mg/g)
Overall liver means:
Total Lipid (mg/g)
Total Triacylglycerol (mg/g)
34.86 a
2.35 a
2.76
31.06 a
1.71 b
2.16
30 % UCRM
All values within rows having the same or no superscript are not significantly different
(P>0.05).
BWT=Body weight.
Another explanation for the hypocholesterolemic
properties of UCRM or cassava products suspected
to have contributed to the observed
hypochelosterolemic influence was the presence of
glycosides which has ability to interfere with the
intestinal absorption of dietary cholesterol and
lipids, thereby promoting faecal excretion (Cheeke,
1971). The mechanism of the anticholesterolemic
action of the glycosides was the formation of the
72
non-absorbable complex of cholesterol at the

intestinal absorption site (thereby reducing the
blood cholesterol level ). Glycosides also reduce
intestinal absorption of cholesterol and lipids by
forming a coat on the intestinal wall (Cheeke, 1971).
The variations noticed in the plasma triacyglycerol
concentration also followed a well defined trend
similar to cholesterol except at 60 weeks in lay. The
ratio of the cholesterol to the triacylglycerol was
about 1:5 and this ratio was half of the ratio (1:10)
obtained by Lirette et al. (1993) when they fed oat

bran and cottonseed hull to laying hens. However,
Idowu et al. (2002) noticed a reverse trend, plasma
total cholesterol was greater than triacylglycerol
concentration when 0-20% cassava root sievate
was fed to laying hens. The role of plasma
triacylglycerol in the egg or tissue total cholesterol
synthesis or accumulation is not understood yet.
However saturated fat content of egg yolk lipid has
been found to contain about 65.5% triacylglyerides.
The inclusion of up to 30% UCRM reduced the
plasma cholesterol by 28 %.
Liver from hens fed the diet without UCRM was
generally heavier with higher cholesterol content
than those from the hens fed UCRM based diets
irrespective of the level of inclusion. The addition
of UCRM to the diets produced a decrease in the
liver weights, although the differences were not at
significant levels. But in terms of liver weight, the
heavier livers (0% UCRM) had a relatively high
lipid profile while the lighter livers (10-30%
UCRM) had a lower lipid profiles.
The findings of Donaldson (1989) that the size of
liver affects the hepatic lipogenic enzyme activities
provide the needed explanation for the observed
trend. These observations in this study also agreed
with the earlier reports of Bragg et al. (1973) and
Sim and Bragg (1978) that the degree of cholesterol
accumulation in the liver is closely related to the
liver weight. The linear decline (P<0.05) noticed in
the cholesterol content of the liver as the level of
UCRM increases suggests that the liver cholesterol
accumulation was greatly affected by dietary
treatments. The inclusion of 10 and 30% UCRM in
the diet reduced the liver cholesterol by as much as
27% and 42% respectively, compared with the liver
cholesterol content of the UCRM free control
group. The hypocholesterolemic effect of UCRM
based diet was very pronounced in the liver lipid
profile than other tissues and this could be due to the
fact that the liver was the major synthesis site as
well as the storage site. Similar observation was
reported by Kim et al. (1993) in their study on
effects of dietary thyroxine on the carcass quality of
broiler chickens. Thus a decrease in the proportion
of cholesterol in the liver will make it less available
for packaging into the lipoprotein and their
subsequent absorption by the ovarian follicles
Conclusion
Feeding of UCRM based diets resulted in a
significant linear reduction in the concentration of
the total cholesterol found in the liver. The
hypocholesterolemic effect of the UCRM based
diets was pronounced in the liver lipid profile. The
overall mean values of the liver total lipid and total
cholesterol were significantly lowest in the hens fed
30% UCRM diet. Significant difference was noticed
between the overall lipid profile of the control group
and that of the hens fed 10% UCRM diet except in
the liver cholesterol content. The liver cholesterol
content of the group on 10% UCRM and 20%
UCRM were statistically the same (P>0.05). The
percentage reduction in the triacylglyceride content
was lower than what was obtained in the cholesterol
reduction.
The plasma cholesterol and triacylglycerol
concentrations over the period of 0-80 weeks in lay
were significantly affected by the UCRM inclusion
in the diets of laying hens. Cholesterol and
triacylglycerol concentration decreased
significantly with the increased levels of UCRM at
all stages of laying. Plasma cholesterol and
triacylglycerol increased with weeks in lay.
Inclusion of 10 - 30% UCRM in the laying hens
diets resulted in 27 42% reduction in liver
cholesterol and 3.62-28.17% reduction in plasma
cholesterol.
References
ANDERSON, J.W. AND CHEN, W.J.L. 1979.
Plant fiber: Carbohydrate and lipid metabolism.
Anim. J. Clin. Nutr. 32: 346-363.
BRAGG, D.B., SIM, J.S. AND HODGSON, G.C.
1973. Influence of dietary energy source
o n
performance and fatty liver syndrome in White
Leghorn laying hens. Poultry Sci. 52: 736 740.
CHEEKE, P.R. 1971. Nutritional and physiological
implications of saponins: a review. Canadian J. Of
Animal Sci. 51:621-632.
CHRISTIE, W.W. AND MOORE, J.H. 1972. The
lipid components of the plasma, liver and ovarian
follicle in the domestic chicken. Comparative
Biochemistry and Physiology 41: 287.
DONALDSON, W.E. 1989. Lipid metabolism in
liver of chicks: Response to feeding. Poultry Sci.
73
69: 1183 1187.
74

Use of Information Communication Technology to Boost Poultry Production in

South Western Zone of Nigeria
1
OLADEJI. O. BOLARINWA, K.K LADOKUN, B.
Department of Agricultural Extension and Rural Development, University of Ibadan, Nigeria.

2
Department of Agricultural Administration, University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Nigeria
3
Department of Animal Physiology, University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Nigeria.
Correspondence: bkolade17@gmail.com
Abstract
The research focuses on poultry farmer's accessibility to relevant information and its implication on poultry
production level in Nigeria. Design expost-facto descriptive survey research design was used. Three states
were randomly selected out of 6 states that comprise South West zone. Farmers' poultry association registers
were used as sampling framework from where 350 farmers were randomly selected in the 3 states Data were
collected by administering structural questionnaires, and analyzed using inferential statistical tools. Results
showed that majority (62.3%) of the farmers was in the economic active age (35.-52) years, 96% of them
were literate, more than 58% of them were aware of ICT component. Majority 63.9% and 89.4% of the
farmers claimed that ICT components enhanced their living standard and increased poultry production.
Erratic power supply and non-availability of ICT component constraints rank first and second respectively.
There is correlation (p<0.05) between use of ICT's component and benefit derived from using ICT
components. There is every tendency that use of ICT will increase poultry production level, if solutions will
be provided to farmers' constraints to use of ICT identified in this study. Use of ICT components is a new
innovation in Nigeria and little or no researches have been done on effect of use of ICT on poultry production
in Nigeria.
Key Words: Farmers, information communication, constraints, production, living standard
Introduction
Dissemination of information using the right
communication technology is very important if the
receiver must make a meaning out of the message
received. In our world today, access to information
is now faster, quicker and especially now that there
is integration of computers to help facilitate
accessibility of information. The accessibility to
information which is made readily available by
information communication technologies (ICTS)
has helped in molding-attitude towards life as there
is more information about certain aspects of life
including the agricultural sector. More so there are
more information packages developed for
agriculture (Spore, 2004). Awoshakin (2002),
opined that emerging information communication
technologies are fundamentally transforming
society by influencing the way we live, play and
even interact with others.

Agriculture is an enterprise in which adequate
information is needed to meet inherent challenges.
The information are needed by the farmer so as to
improve their farming methods, increase
productivity that will bring about increase in
income, higher output and also better living
conditions. It is therefore of great significance that
for an average farmer to survive and function, in the
modern and developing society, he needs
information (Ogundare, 1997). Access to
information is one of the most valuable resources in
agricultural development. It has helped to raise
awareness about the impact of some choices that the
farmer makes, for instance, embarking on the use of
genetically modified crops. Information also helps
the farmer to get to know about the experiences of
other farmers in order to search for better
75
opportunities and sustainable solutions to their

problems.
In livestock poultry farmer needs information about
the breeds of poultry, the feed types for the different
birds types Farmers need to be adequately informed
about the types of housing that are available; for
example, battery cage, floor brooder, deep litter etc.
They also need information about light regulation in
a way that will not be detrimental to the health of the
birds. Farmers need information about all these in
order to improve the productivity and to help them
keep abreast of latest developments in agriculture as
well as the experiences of other farmers (Ogundare,
1997).
Information has been identified as one of the
resources required for the improvement of
production and if it is judiciously used it will
increase production and farmers socio-economic
status. Spore (2004) clearly stated that farmers who
are well informed are able to perform better in their
production and realized higher profit than those who
are not. There are different types of information
communication technologies component in Nigeria.
These include: computers, telephone, Global
Mobile System (GSM), digital receivers, video,
radio, magazines, newspaper, internet, e-mail,
books, filmstrips, audio cassettes, multimedia
overhead projectors, and the world wide web
(Yahaya, 2003, Spore, 2004).
Farmer needs to be aware of these ICTs components
so as to use them in obtaining information. This will
in turn affect their production and they will be
informed about new developments in agriculture
and ways of improving their performance so that
they will have better product for the market (Spore,
2004).
Statement of the Problem
Dissemination of relevant information on improved
practices to farmers is very essential for increased
agricultural production. Spore (2004) stated that
lack of information or poor communication scheme
is one of the factors responsible for low production.
It is important that the information reaches the
farmer when he needs it, using appropriate
communication technologies in order to reinforce a
new behavior so that it can become part of his routine
practice. Information dissemination can help poultry
farmers by: making them aware of a particular (or
various) problems; increasing the range of
alternatives from which they can make several
choices, allowing them to decide which goal(s) is
76
(are) of the highest importance, allowing them to

make decisions either as individuals or as member
of a group, informing them about the expected
consequences of each or several alternatives,
allowing them to learn from others' views,
experiences and results, stimulating them to share
their knowledge and acquire information with
other people, giving them opportunities to make
choices about development options, for example
moving from free range to semi-intensive or
increase levels of resources and inputs.
However, some general problems or constraints
militated against the use of information
communication technologies in developing
countries .These constraints are:
Policy Consideration: There are lack of policies
and strategies that facilitates the harnessing of new
information communication technologies for
agricultural development and where policies have
been formulated; proper implementation plans are
needed (Fillip, 2000). At present, the regulations
are rigid and telecommunication types and import
duties on information communication
technologies equipments are high. The situation is
compounded by lack of political goodwill. High
telecommunication costs in developing countries:
The cost of internet remains a strong deterrent.
Although, market liberalization had led to the
entry of several private sectors, interest service
providers (ISPs), service provision is through
phone companies whose services are inadequate in
terms of robustness, low bandwidth, congestion
and noisy lines.
Infrastructure: The electricity infrastructure in
developing countries is lacking or is poorly
developed in rural areas and often inadequate in
urban areas .
Lack of Local contents and Language Barrier:
Information available through information
communication technologies is mostly in English
which majority of developing countries rural
dwellers cannot access. Materials in local
languages that respond to their needs are not
available and this calls for significant investment
and support for local contents (O'Farrell et al,
1999). High rate of Literacy in Rural Areas:
Illiteracy is a fundamental barrier to participation
in knowledge societies (Mansell, 1998). A large
proportion of the rural populations of developing
countries are illiterates. This means that these
individuals are disadvantages and lack the basic
skill required to harness the benefits of
information communication technologies.
Inadequate Human Resources: To pave way for

majority to harness the benefits of information
communication technologies, training and capacity
building must be incorporated. It has been observed
that a critical factor in meeting the challenge of
agricultural development in Africa is human
resource development through knowledge building
and information sharing (Forno, 1999). Users of
information communication technologies have to be
trained in the use, application and maintenance of
information communication technologies before
they are comfortable and confident enough to use
them (Richardson and Rajasundaram, 1999).
Despite these constraints small scale, medium
scale, or large scale poultry farmers need to have
access to relevant poultry information that will help
to increase his production consumption purpose or
both. It is against this background that this study of
Information Communication Technologies on
poultry farmer production level becomes pertinent
in order to
determine the poultry farmers'
awareness of information
communication technologies;
identify the poultry farmers' sources of
ICT component information
ascertain the poultry farmers use of ICT
components as means of receiving
poultry information
identify the possible benefit poultry
farmers derived from use of ICT
components
identify the constraints faced by the
poultry farmers in the use of ICT
components.
Hypothesis: There is no significant
relationship between farmers' personal
characteristics and use of ICT
components
Methodology
Three states out of five states that comprises South
Western zone of Nigeria were randomly selected.
Poultry farmers were stratified into 2 based on the
extent to which they are making use of ICT
components. The poultry farmer's registers served
as the sampling frame work where 350 farmers were
randomly selected for the study. Data were collected
by administering structural questionnaires and
secondary data were obtained through relevant
literature. Statistical analyses used are frequency,
counts, percentage chi-square correlation
coefficient to determine the relationship between
77
the variables used for testing the hypotheses.

Result And Discussion
Personal and Socio Economic Characteristics' of
Poultry Farmers
Table 1 revealed that majority (62.3%) of the
poultry farmers were in their economic active age
35-54 years. Yinusa (1999) opined that this age
bracket contained the innovative, motivated and
adapted individuals. Also, 60% of the farmers were
male and 51% married. Majority (96%) of them
were literate Islam, (1997) and Gordon and Craig,
(2001) stressing the importance of education
emphasized that higher educational status will
enhance productivity, entrepreneurial activities
and increases ICT skill levels. Higher proportion
(80.9%) of the poultry farmers kept 2,999 birds
while 3% of them kept 7000 and above birds.
Majority (88%) farmers kept fowl while 4% and 8%
kept duck and turkey. Fifty-six percent of the
poultry farmers kept birds for subsistence and
commercial purposes and 73.4% of the farmer
combine their work with another income generating
activities. It was confirmed that majority of the
poultry farmers belong to small scale category.
Poultry FarmersAwareness of ICTS
As shown in the Table 2 more than (50%) of the
poultry farmers were aware of the ICT components.
That is the poultry farmers have come across the
following ICT components internet, e-mail,
television, video, multimedia overhead projector,
audio cassettes, journal and telephones.
Sources of information Communication
TechnologiesAwareness
As shown in Table 3 majority (91.4%) of the poultry
farmers have knowledge of ICT components
through friends and neighbors while 34.6% aware of
ICT component through extension agents. Also
97.1% and 90.5% were aware of ICT component
through radio and television advertisement
respectively.
It could be deduced from the findings that radio and
television are good ICT component for
disseminating poultry information to poultry
farmers. Yahaya (2003) opined that because
television can be complemented with the visual
components, farmers can follow the demonstration
sequentially as it was being done. Friends and
neighbors were also good medium of disseminating
information to poultry farmers.
Table1: Distribution of the Respondents Personal Characteristics

Age
Frequency
Percentage
15-24
46
12.3
25-24
29
25.4
35-44
45-54
Above 54
58
54
54
16.7
29.8
15.8
Tota1
350
100
Sex
Male
210
60.0
Female
140
40.0
Total
Marital Status
350
100
Single
Married
Divorced
115
180
10
33.0
51.0
13.0
Widowed
45
88.0
Total
350
100
Educational Qualification
No formal education
Primary Education
15
4.0
Secondary Education
30
9.0
Tertiary education
205
59.0
Informal education
100
29.0
Total
350
100
78
Table1 b Socio Economic Characteristics of Farmers

Variables
Frequency
Percentage
280
80.0
3000-4999
20
6.0
5000-4999
40
11.0
7000 and above
10
3.0
350
100
186
53.1
30
9.2
Deep litter
134
23.7
Total
350
100
Subsistence
26
7.4
Commercial
129
36.0
Both
195
56.6
Total
350
100
Poultry keeping
110
60.0
Civil servant
110
Number of birds kept

1-2999
Total
Types of housing method used
Battery cage
Floor brooder
Purpose for keeping the birds
Major occupation of respondents
Artisan
16
2.0
Business
20
6.0
Others
1.0
Total
350
100
255
73.0
95
27.0
350
100
Other generating income activities

Farming
Non-farming
Total
79
Table 2 Distribution of the Poultry Farmers Awareness of Information

Communication Technologies
Yes
No
ICTS
Frequency
Percentage
Frequency
Percentage
Internet
241
68.8
109
31.2
E-mail
292
83.4
58
16.6
Television
341
97.4
9
2.6
Video
335
45.7
15
4.3
Multimedia
262
74.9
88
25.1
Overhead projector
284
81.0
66
18.9
Audio cassettes
294
84.0
56
16.0
Journals
287
82.0
63
18.0
Telephones
385
92.8
25
7.2
Table3: Distribution of the Poultry Farmers Sources of Awareness
Yes
No
Sources
Frequency
Percentage
Frequency
Percentage
Friend and neightbours
320
91.4
30
8.6
Contact farmers
68
19.4
282
80.6
Extension agents
121
34.6
229
65.4
Posters and pamphlets
74
21.1
276
78.9
Workshop and seminars
34
9.7
316
90.3
Radio
340
97.1
10
2.9
Television
315
90.0
35
10.0
Social organization
84
24
266
66
Newspaper
112
32
238
68
Journals
82
23.4
268
76,6
NGOs
72
20.5
278
89.5
Veterinary officers
130
37.1
220
62.9
Table 4: Distribution of Poultry farmers by ICTs Components Used
ICTs Components
Frequency
Percentage
Internet
E-mail
Television
Radio
Video
Telephone
Newspaper
Journal
Multimedia
Overhead Projector
313
223
341
348
298
321
310
225
127
111
89.4
63.7
97.4
99.4
85.1
91.7
88.6
64.5
36.3
31.7
80
Table 5 Distribution of Poultry farmers by Benefits Derived from the use of ICTs
Components.
Benefit
Frequency
Percentage
Increase in production.
Low output(egg, meat)
Better Information about modern agriculture
Improved practices
I spend money for getting information
Increase in income
No significant improvement in my production
Enhanced my Standard of living
Unskilled labour hiring is limited
No visible change in my production
Wider market outlet due to production increase
Better knowledge of medical care
313
44
223
342
242
345
35
298
145
25
314
342
89.4
12.9
63.7
98.2
69.1
98.5
1.0
85.1
41.4
7.7
89.7
97.7
Access to client
Use of modern agricultural practices has
on my birds
247
44
70.6
12.6
adverse effect
Table 6 Constraints faced in the use of ICTs Components

Statement
81
Frequency
Rank
Not always available for use
310
2nd
Cannot easily access them
198
9th
Cannot afford them
251
7th
Too complex
232
8th
Lack of credit to obtain ICTs
288
5th
Lack of technical assistance
112
11 th
Erratic power supply
345
1st
Lack of adequate manpower
98
12th
Network problem
275
6th
Illiteracy in the use of ICTs
122
10th
Server problem
300
3rd
Inadequate information about ICTs
298
4th
Do not take ICT usage
44
13th
Table 7: Chi-Square Analysis of Poultry Farmers Personal Characteristics and their

Awareness of Information Communication Technologies
Variables
X2
Df
Cont. Coeff.
Remark
Age
11.0
4
0.26
Not significant
Religion
2.916
1
0.088
Not significant
Sex
0.272
1
0.602
Not significant
Marital Status
12.749
3
0.005
Significant
Educational Qualification
18.307
4
0.001
Significant
Table 8: Linear Relationship between derive benefits from ICTs and use of ICT by
the poultry farmers.
Variables
Correlation Coefficient (r)
Coefficient of
Decision
determination (r2)
Awareness
0.374xx
0.12641
Benefit derives
0.456xx
0.16681
*Critical value of r at 0.01 and 112 d.f = 0.2240 level of significant 0.01
Poultry, Farmers use of Information
Communication Technology Components
As indicated in Table 4 majority (99%, 97% and
91%) received poultry information from radio,
television and telephone respectively. Also 88.6%,
89.4% and 63.4% of them received poultry
information from newspaper, e-mail and internet
respectively. However, very few 36.3% and 31%
received poultry information from multimedia and
overhead projector.
It could be inferred from the findings that radio and
television was still the most accessible ICT
components to poultry farmers. This agreed with the
findings of Memeka (1990) and George (1990) who
noted that radio and television were the most
relevant ICT components for dissemination of
agricultural information. Hence, the three ICT
components could be used as appropriate means of
disseminating poultry information to farmers. The
findings also revealed that multimedia and overhead
project ICT components may not be appropriate for
the dissemination of poultry information to farmers.
Benefits Poultry Farmers Derived from Use of
ICT
Table 5 recorded benefit poultry farmer derived
from accessing information from ICT components.
The most prominent benefit derived by poultry
farmers are high production (89.4%), new poultry
production information (89.7%), medical care for
poultry (97.7%) wider markets outlets (89.7%) and

enhancement of poultry's livelihoods (85.1%) .The
findings revealed that use of ICT improved poultry
production in the area.
Constraint to Use of ICTs Components
As shown in Table 6 Poultry farmers ranked erratic
power supply first, non-availability of ICT second
and server problems third. Inadequate information
about ICT and lack of credit to purchase ICT
th
th
components ranked 4 and 5 respectively. These
constraints should be address so as to boost poultry
production in Nigeria.
Hypotheses Testing
Chi-square was used to analyze this hypothesis
since variables were all measured at the nominal
level. Ho: There is no significant relationship
between the farmers' personal characteristics and
their awareness of information communication
technologies. The hypothesis is testing whether
there is any association or relationship between
farmers' personal characteristic and awareness of
ICT.
Table 7 shows that marital status and educational
qualification of the poultry farmers were
significantly related to the respondents' awareness
of information communication technologies. This
implies that marital status and educational
qualification has a significant effect on the poultry
farmers' awareness of information communication
82
technologies.
Hypothesis 2
There is no significant relationship between derived
benefits from ICTs and use of ICT by the poultry
farmers. Table 8 indicated that a positive and
significant relationship exist between awareness
benefit derived by poultry farmers and use of ICT
components. These showed that the benefit and
awareness of ICTs explain 17% and 13%
respectively of poultry farmers' use of ICT
component
Conclusion
Based on the findings of this study the following
conclusions are drawn.
n Higher proportion of the farmers in the study
areas are in their middle age, male and were
married.
n The literacy level is high among the poultry
farmers. This high literacy level influenced their
use of other components of ICTs rather than
extension agent, radio and television.
n Radio, television, telephone and newspaper in
that order were the most popular ICT
components used by the poultry farmers.
n There is a positive significant relationship
between, awareness and derived benefit from
use of ICT components utilization n the areas.
In view of the foregoing, it is recommended that:
Making the ICT components available and
accessible to poultry farmers.
provision of stable power supply;
provision of solution to server problems
provision of credit facilities and
reduction in the price of ICT components to
enable poultry farmers make use of ICT
component.
References
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of Ibadan: Its growth and structure. Department
of Geography, University of Ibadan.
FAO 2000. Research. Extension and Training
Division. Communication for Development Group.
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(SDRE).
GEORGE, A. 1990. The Trickster character in

Development of Soap opera. Hero or Villain? A
paper presented to the International Communication
Association, Dublin, Ireland.
GORDON A. AND CRAIG, C. 2001. Rural nonfarm activities and poverty alleviation in SubSahara Africa. Policy Series 14, Chalthman, U.K.
MRI.
ISLAM, N. 1997. The non-farm sector and fund
development. Review of issues and evidence. Food
Agric and Environ Discussion Paper, No. 22.
Washington DC, IFPRI.
MANSELL, R. AND WHEN, U. (eds.) 1998.
Knowledge Societies Information Technology for
Sustainable Development. United Nation
Commission on Science and Technology for
Development. Oxford University Press, New York.
MOEMEKA, A.A. 1990. Mass Media
Communication and Rural Dwellers: Towards
Effectiveness of Development Messages in
Adebayo, L. (eds.) Communication and Rural
Development in Nigeria. Ogun State. Printing
Corporation, pgs 52-73.
O'FARREL, C.; NORRISH, P; AND SCOTT, A.
1999. Information and Communication
Technologies for
Sustainable Livelihoods:
Preliminary Study.
OGUNDARE, G.O. 1997. Analysis of source of
information on the knowledge of women in oil palm
production in Irework Local Government Area of
Osun State, Nigeria. Unpublished B.Sc. Thesis,
University of Ibadan.
RICHARDSON,D. AND RAJASUNDARAM,
C.V. 1999. Training Education Community
Animators as Participatory Communication for
Development Practioners.
SPORE 2004. Information for Agricultural
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FILLIP. B. 2000. Distance education in Africa: New

technologies and new opportunities. Japan
International Cooperation Agency. USA, p. 8.
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Lesson from changes and Social Engineering
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pg. 135-183.
FORNO, D.A. 1999. Sustainable development

starts with agriculture. In: agriculture initiative.
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DAREASC. Working Paper, 38.
83

Application of canonical discriminant analysis to performance traits in broiler

strains
1
* YAKUBU, A., AKINFEMI, A., ABIMIKU, H.K. and HASSAN, D.I.

1
Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Nasarawa State University, Keffi, ShabuLafia Campus, P.M.B. 135, Lafia, Nigeria.
2
Department of Animal Science, College of Agriculture, Lafia, Nasarawa State.
*Correspondence: abdul_mojeedy@yahoo.com
Abstract
Multivariate analysis has been established as a very powerful and effective tool in classifying and grouping
individual traits. In the present study, broiler chicken performance was evaluated using canonical
discriminant analysis. A total of 480 chicks from two commercial broiler strains, Anak Titans and Arbor
Acres were utilized in the 4-week trial. Each genetic group was divided into three replicates of eighty birds
each in a completely randomized design. A clear distinction between strains was found, where final body
weight, average weekly body weight, average weekly body weight gain and feed conversion ratio were
significantly (P<0.05) higher in Arbor Acres compared to their Anak Titans counterparts. There were no
strain-associated differences (P>0.05) in average weekly feed intake and mortality rate. In the discriminant
function analysis, the six original performance traits were reduced to one canonical variate, which explained
100% of the total variation. Average weekly body weight gain was retained as the most discriminating
variable between the two strains.
Keywords: broiler strains, performance traits, discriminant analysis, Nigeria.
Introduction
The potential of development in broiler chickens
can be assessed using body composition and
growth performance. Performance traits such as
final body weight, feed intake, body weight gain
and feed efficiency are some of the selection
variables that form an integral part of poultry
breeding. The evaluation of these traits has been
centred on univariate analysis. However, the
mechanisms involved in the control of growth in
chickens are too complex to be explained only
under analysis of variance (Rosario et al., 2007).
This is because of the biological correlation of the
performance traits. Multiple variable analyses
therefore offer a better complement.
Canonical discriminant analysis is a multivariate
technique that describes the relationship between
two variable sets by calculating the linear
combinations that are maximally correlated
(Tabachnick and Fidel, 2001; Manly, 2005). It
consists of two closely related procedures that
allow researchers to discover underlying, dominant
gradients of variation among groups of sampling
entities (such as species, breeds, individuals, or any
naturally occurring group) from a set of
multivariate observations. The goal is to elucidate
how variation among groups is maximized and
variation within groups is minimized along a

gradient (McGarigal et al., 2000).
In Nigeria, exotic broiler genetic types play a
predominant role in commercial broiler production.
However, their characterization using discriminant
function analysis for the assessment of performance
indices has not been widely exploited. Therefore,
the investigation set out to quantify the relationship
between performance traits using canonical
discriminant analysis in the early growth stage of
two broiler chicken strains in a sub-humid tropical
environment.
Study location
The research was conducted in the Poultry Unit of
the Teaching and Research Farm, Faculty of
Agriculture, Nasarawa State University, Keffi,
Shabu-Lafia Campus. It is located in the guinea
savannah zone of North Central Nigeria, and found
on latitude 08o 35'N and longitude 08o 33'E
respectively.
Experimental design
Four hundred and eighty day- old chicks comprising
equal number of Anak Titan and Arbor Acre
commercial hybrid broiler types were utilized for
84
Table 1: Effect of strain on the performance traits of four-week old Anak Titan and Arbor
Acre broilers
Arbor
Anak
Acres
Titans
Mean
SD
SE
Prob.
Mean
SD
SE
Traits
FBW
472.26
23.07
13.32
559.62
28.67
16.55
*
AWBW
290.87
11.78
6.80
340.45
22.52
13.00
*
AWBWG 107.90
4.94
2.85
126.99
5.91
3.41
**
AWFI
277.99
11.24
6.49
291.42
5.73
3.31
ns
FCR
2.58
0.07
0.04
2.30
0.07
0.04
**
MORT.
9.17
1.91
1.10
7.50
1.25
0.72
ns
FBW: Final body weight (g); AWBW: Average weekly body weight (g); AWBWG: Average
weekly body weight gain (g); AWFI: Average weekly feed intake (g); FCR: Feed conversion
ratio; MORT. : Mortality (%); SD: Standard deviation; SE: Standard error; *P<0.05;
**P<0.01; ns: not significant
Table 2: Summary of the standardized canonical discriminant function coefficient of
broilers
Parameter
Value
Average weekly body weight gain

Function
Eigenvalue
% of variance
Cumulative %
Canonical correlation
Wilks Lambda
Bartletts Test (chi-square)
1
4.558
100.00
100.00
0.91
0.180
6.003 (P<0.01)
Table 3: Canonical structure matrix of the performance traits of broilers

Traits
Function 1
Average weekly body weight gain
1.00
Final body weight
0.996
Average weekly body weight
0.967
Mortality
-0.782
Average weekly feed intake
0.752
Pooled within- group correlations between discriminating variables and standardized
canonical discriminant function. Variables ordered by absolute size of correlation within
function.
the investigation. Each genetic group was divided
into three replicates of eighty birds each in a
completely randomized design. The allocation of
birds was based on minimizing the variation in
initial body weights between replicate pens. The
birds were raised on conventional starter ration
(22% crude protein and 2800kca/kg ME) from dayold to four weeks of age. Feed and fresh clean water
were supplied ad libitum. Vaccination schedule and
other management practices were adhered to
strictly.
Data collection
The parameters taken were final body weight;
average weekly body weight; average weekly feed
intake; average weekly body weight gain; feed
conversion ratio was calculated by dividing feed
intake by weight gain; animal checks were done
three times daily and mortality was recorded as it
occurred; this was later expressed as a percentage of
the total number of birds per group.
85
Univariate analysis of variance was employed in
determining the effect of strain on birds'
performance using the General Linear Model
(GLM). The multivariate technique involved the
use of Canonical Discriminant Analysis. A
discriminant function, also called a canonical root
is a latent variable which is created as a linear
combination of discriminating (independent)
variables (Tabachnick and Fidell, 2001).
The ultimate goal of a discriminant function is to
evaluate the relative contribution of each
independent variable in this case (final body
weight, average weekly body weight, average
weekly feed intake, average weekly body weight
gain, feed conversion ratio and mortality) to the
derived canonical functions in order to explain the
nature of the relationship(s). The mathematical
expression of a discriminant function is:
Fkm = U0 + U1X1km + U2X2km + - - - UPXPkm
where,
Fkm = the value (score) on the canonical
discriminant function for case m in the group k
X1km = the value on discriminant variable X1 for case
m in group k; and
U1-P = coefficients which produce the desired
characteristics in the function
U0 = a constant
Wilks` Lambda (U statistic) was used to test the
significance of the discriminant function while the
Bartlett`s V transformation of Lambda (chi-square
statistic) was later used to compute the significance
of Lambda. SPSS (2001) statistical package was
employed in the canonical discriminant analysis.
The effect of strain on the performance indices of
broilers is presented on Table 1. Genotypeassociated differences (P<0.05) were observed in
final body weight, average weekly body weight,
average weekly body weight gain and feed
conversion ratio with higher values recorded for
Arbor Acres compared to their Anak Titans
counterparts. However, the two genetic types were
similar (P>0.05) in ranking in terms of average
weekly feed intake and mortality. The feed
conversion ratio indicated that less feed is required
by Arbor Acres for a-unit increase in body weight.
The present results on body weight and feed intake
are consistent with the findings of Bozkurt et al.
(2006). In another related study, Marks (1991),
observed major differences in the feed efficiency of
diverse genetic groups when data were segmented
into periods which allowed investigation of
86
differences at early ages, especially immediately

after hatching. However, his findings also indicated
that changes in early feed efficiency along with
changes in feed intake both play major roles in
explaining genetic differences in growth. Similarly,
Zhang and Aggrey (2003) reported that genetic
variations for feed utilization efficiency exist
widely in meat-type chickens, even in populations
that have undergone selection for the traits. Ajayi
and Ejiofor (2006) also reported genetic variation
in the performance of chickens.
Eigenvalue, variance proportion, canonical
correlation and standard discriminant function
coefficient of the most discriminating variable are
presented in Table 2. Only one discriminant
function was extracted. The significance of the
discriminant function tested with Wilks' Lambda
(Lambda=0.18) and Bartlett's Test (chisquare=6.003; P<0.01) provided validity for the
canonical discriminant analysis. After weighting
the power of each of the six original independent
variables to discriminate between the two
genotypes (Anak Titans and Arbor Acres), average
weekly body weight gain was retained as the most
discriminating variable. The standardized
discriminant function coefficient of 1.00 obtained
for average weekly body weight gain indicates the
semi-partial contribution (the unique, controlled
association) of this variable to the discriminant
function. The eigenvalue, also called the
characteristic root of each discriminant function,
reflects the ratio of importance of the dimensions
which classify cases of the dependent variable
(Tabachnik and Fidell, 2001; McLachlan, 2004). In
the present study, there is one discriminant function
and one eigenvalue which accounted for 100% of
the explained variance. This is in concert with the
findings of Martinez-Gomez and Curry (1998) in
another study where a single canonical function of
tarsal length was used to differentiate between the
sexes of sub-adult and molting adult birds. The
canonical correlation (R C ) of 0.91 of the
discriminant function is also the correlation of that
function with the discriminant scores. A canonical
correlation close to 1 means that nearly all the
variance in the discriminant score can be attributed
to group (in this wise, genotype) differences.
The canonical structure matrix is presented in Table
3. Structure coefficients are the simple correlations
between a given independent variable and the
discriminant score associated with a given
discriminant function. These coefficients show the
order of importance of the discriminating variables
by total correlation, whereas the standardized
coefficients show the order of importance by

unique contribution (McLachlan, 2004). Apart
from average weekly body weight gain, other
variables positively associated with discriminant
function 1 in the present study were final body
weight, average weekly body weight and average
weekly feed intake. However, negative correlation
was observed between mortality and discriminant
function 1.
The present findings lent credence to the earlier
reports emphasizing the evaluation of performance
traits using canonical discriminant analysis.
According to Rosario et al. (2008), evaluation of
broiler chicken performance was facilitated by the
fact that the six original traits (average live weight,
average feed intake, feed conversion and carcass,
breast and leg weights) investigated were reduced
to only two canonical variables. They further
reported that average live weight and carcass
weight (first canonical variable) were the most
important traits to discriminate treatments. In a
similar study, Yang et al. (2006) applied canonical
correlation analysis to identify the relevant
variables of the three character sets (body weight,
body measurements and carcass characteristics) of
Jinghai yellow chicken. In their own findings,
Chen et al. (2004) reported that twelve out of the
twenty performance traits investigated were
effective in detecting the differences between the
genotypes and temperature combinations using
canonical discriminant analysis.
Nigeria. Proceedings 11 Annual Conference of

Animal Science Association of Nigeria (ASAN),
September, 18-21, 2006, I.A.R. and T. Ibadan. Pp
245-248.
Conclusion
The univariate analysis revealed that at four weeks
of age, Arbor Acres were better than their Anak
Titans counterparts in final body weight, average
weekly body weight, average weekly body weight
gain and feed conversion ratio. There were no
significant differences between the strains in
average weekly feed intake and mortality rate.
However, when the six original traits were
subjected to stepwise canonical discriminant
analysis, they were reduced to a single discriminant
function, with average weekly body weight gain as
the most discriminating variable. Thus, average
weekly body weight gain is the trait of utmost
importance in classifying the two strains into
separate distinct groups at early ages.
MCGARIGAL K, CUSHMAN S & SUSAN S,

2000. Multivariate Statistics for Wildlife and
Ecology Research. Springer Verlag, New York.
References
TABACHNICK B.G & FIDELL, L.S, 2001. Using

Multivariate Statistics. Allyn and Bacon, Boston,
USA. Pp. 966.
AJAYI FO & EJIOFOR O, 2006. Genotype and sex

variation in the early growth responses of Ross and
Anak broiler strains in the high rainforest zone of
th
BOZKURT Z, BAYRAM I, TURKMENOGLU I

& AKTEPE O.C, 2006. Effect of cage density and
cage position on performance of commercial layer
pullets from four genotypes. Turk. J.Vet. Anim. Sci.,
30: 17-28.
CHEN C.F, BORDAS A, GOURICHON D &
TIXIER-BOICHARD M, 2004. Effect of high
ambient temperature and naked neck genotype on
performance of dwarf brown egg layers selected for
improved clutch length. British Poultry Science, 45
(3): 346-354.
MANLY B.F.J, 2005. Multivariate Statistical
Methods: A. Primer. Third Edition, Chapman and
Hall/CRC: Boca Raton, Florida.
MARKS H.L, 1991. Feed efficiency changes
accompanying selection for body weight in
chickens and quail. World's Poultry Science
Journal, 47: 197-212.
MARTINEZ-GOMEZ J.E & CURRY R.C, 1998.
Distinguishing sex of Socorro mockingbirds by
body measurements. Ornithologia Neotropical, 9:
103-110.
MCLACHLAN G.J, 2004. Discriminant analysis

and statistical pattern recognition. WileyInterscience, New York.
ROSARIO M.F, SILVA MAN, COELHO A.A.D,
SAVINO V.J.M & DIAS CTS, 2007.Canonical
discriminant analysis applied to broiler chicken
performance. Animal, 2: 419-424.
SPSS, 2001. Statistical Package for Social
Sciences. SPSS Inc., 444 Michigan Avenue,
Chicago, IL60611.
87
YANG Y, MEKKI D.M, LV S.J, YU J.H, WANG LY,

WANG J.Y, XIE K.Z & DAI G.J, 2006. Canonical
correlation analysis of body weight, body
measurements and carcass characteristics of Jinghai
Yellow chicken. J. Anim. Vet. Adv., 5: 980-984.
88
ZHANG W AND AGGREY S.E, 2003. Genetic

variation in feed utilization efficiency of meat-type
chickens. World's Poultry Science Journal, 59:
328-339.

Poultry Breeding And Climate Change: The Role Of Feed Efficiency.

VICTOR E. OLORI
Aviagen Limited, 11 Lochend Road Newbridge, UK
Summary
Livestock production contributes significantly to green house gas (GHG) emissions which have been implicated in
climate change. The impact of poultry production is significantly less compared to other livestock species. Its
contribution emanates mostly from the emission of nitrous oxide, ammonia and eutrophying gases in waste
management. A high proportion of poultry's share in global GHG emission stems from the feed supply chain which
includes land use in the cultivation of grains, energy use in feed processing and transportation. Improving the
efficiency of this process has the potential to minimise the impact of poultry production on climate change. A key
factor in this regards is the genetic improvement of poultry species to become more feed efficient, less susceptible to
disease and stress, more fertile and highly productive. Success achieved to date via traditional selection and breeding
has been pivotal in limiting GHG emissions in poultry to current low levels. Recent developments in this field, such as
application of genomic selection techniques, has the potential to further accelerate the rate genetic improvement of
these traits. This implies that further progress will be made in reducing the impact of poultry production on climate
change with the adoption of highly feed efficient and resilient strains and increased efficiency of the feed supply chain.
Introduction
Recent data from various sources suggest that our world
is warming up resulting in climate change. In Africa, the
climate is believed to be warmer now than it was 100
years ago and it is projected that climate change will
bring about further increases in temperature and huge
variation in precipitation in the continent. Several
climate model simulations under a range of possible
emissions scenarios suggest that for Africa in all
seasons, the median temperature increase lies between
3C and 4C, which is about 1.5 times the global mean
response (van de Steeg et., al. 2009). The National
Aeronautic and Space Administration (NASA) declared
2010 and 2005 before then as the two hottest years in the
last century (NASA, 2011) and indicated that global
temperature trend has been on the increase since 1998.
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(IPCC) has predicted global temperature increases of 1.8
o
o
- 3.9 C (3.2-7.1 F) by the year 2100 (IPCC, 2007). In a
comprehensive analysis of the impact of climate change
on agriculture in East central Africa (ECA), van de Steeg
et., al. (2009) reported that many parts of the ECA are
likely to experience a decrease in the length of the
growing period (LPG) defined as 'the number of days in
any given rainfall season when there is sufficient water
stored in the soil profile to support crop growth.' They
estimated that the surface area with prolonged growing
period over 210 days will decrease in most countries.
Such a reduction in the area of land which supports high
crop yield will result in a decline in the production of
many major crops.
Increasing global temperatures has been attributed
mostly to the effect of green house gasses like carbondioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), Nitrous Oxide (N2O) and
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
(Koneswaran and
Nierenberg, 2008). It is now generally accepted that
increasing concentration of these gases is mostly due to
human activities (Rosenzweig et al., 2007) of which
agriculture and livestock production play a part
(Steinfeld et al., 2006; Koneswaran and Nierenberg,
2008; Pelletier, 2008). The forgoing suggests that
agriculture, including livestock production, is caught in
the climate change circle where it contributes to the
change and is also affected by the change.
Poultry Versus Other Species In GHG Emission
The livestock sector is believed to be responsible for
18% or one fifth of the human induced GHG emissions
(Steinfeld et al., 2006). The contribution of individual
livestock species to total GHG emission however
depends on emissions per unit animal and the total
number of animals present. In the UK it was estimated
that in 2005 cattle contributed 76% of the total UK
agricultural methane production while sheep
contributed 19%. Pigs and poultry were estimated to
each contribute 2% respectively. These livestock species
in that order also accounted for 52%, 5%, 10% and 12%
respectively of agricultural NH3 emissions (NAEI,
2007). N2O emissions estimates for Western Europe as a
whole suggest that cattle, sheep/goats, pigs and poultry
generally account for 50%, 19%, 19% and 8%
respectively (Steinfeld et al., 2006). These indicate that
poultry, compared to other livestock species, contributes
less to direct GHG emission. This low impact of poultry
89
compared to other species can be attributed to rates of

genetic improvement achieved in poultry, especially
broiler, breeding over the years (Genesis Faraday,
2007a).
In a recent Life Cycle Assessment of broiler production
in the USA, which takes an inventory of the material and
energy inputs and emissions associated with each stage
of production, Pelletier (2008) showed that feed
provision alone accounted for about 80% of the overall
supply chain energy use in poultry production. This
process contributed 82% of the GHG emission from
poultry production and 98% of ozone depleting
emission, 96% of acidifying emissions and 97% of
eutrophying emissions. This analysis is most likely a
reflection of the situation in other countries with
intensive poultry production systems. It indicates that
increasing the efficiency of feed utilisation and all
processes associated with the feed supply chain from
crop cultivation to farm gate delivery of feed will have a
major impact in reducing the share of poultry production
to global GHG emission.
Climate change and poultry breeding for the future
Climate change has an impact on poultry breeding
decisions in two ways. Firstly poultry breeding is faced
with the challenge of mitigating the environmental
impact of poultry production especially those factors
which contributes directly or indirectly to GHG
emission. Secondly primary poultry breeders have a
challenge to continue the supply of highly improved
strains that will be robust in performance and guarantee
profitable return to investment in the face of severe
climate changes, dwindling resources and increasing
feed cost. For example, van de Steeg et al. (2009)
reported that one of the likely effects of climate change in
Africa is a reduction in areas which currently support the
cultivation of high yielding crops. Such a decline will
likely increase feed cost with a reduction in grain
cultivation and or yield per hectare. Another
consequence of climate change is higher temperatures
which is one of the major non-genetic constraints
limiting expression of the full genetic potential of
chickens (See review by Oguntunji and Alabi, 2010).
Adaptation of agriculture in general to changes brought
about by climate change is therefore paramount if we are
to be able to continue to feed large numbers of especially
poor, people in marginalised regions. Similar
adaptations are also required for the poultry sector to
guarantee continued availability of affordable poultry
products in all regions of the world with climate change.
It is a commonly held opinion that highly intensive
productions systems and highly productive exotic
90
breeds alone are to blame for the contribution of poultry

production to global warming. The reality however is
that efficient production systems which have lower land
use dependency, lower production cycle, lower feed
consumption and energy use per ton of meat produced
are likely going to have lower overall impact on the
environment than alternative systems with inefficient
genotypes. Ongoing studies comparing the main
environmental impacts of different broiler and egg
production systems in the UK seem to be suggesting
that the length of production cycle, efficient feed
utilisation as well as material and energy use are the key
factors which determine the environmental impact of
different poultry production systems.
Genetic improvement and climate change
A key factor in the adaptation of poultry production to
climate change is the availability of genetically
efficient strains of poultry for production. These are
essential for the survival of the industry in regions
where climate change is set to affect availability and
cost of resources. Genetically efficient strains are also
essential in resource rich regions because it is a proven
strategy for the reduction of the carbon footprint of
livestock production. In the last few decades,
significant genetic improvement has been achieved in
poultry breeding (Table 1) which has contributed
immensely to the reduction in GHG emissions by
livestock (Genesis Faraday 2007a, Garwes, 2009).
Table 2 shows the percentage reduction in methane,
nitrous oxide and global warming potential (GWP100) of
various livestock species in the UK with genetic
improvement between 1988 and 2007.
Traits that are important in the reduction of the carbon
footprint of poultry production include feed efficiency,
growth rate, liveability (disease and metabolic stress
resistance), fertility and hatchability. In the broiler
industry, high growth plus efficient feed utilisation has
the potential to reduce the amount of feed required per
unit meat produced as well as the amount of faecal
waste and hence ammonia and nitrous oxide emissions.
Improved reproductive ability and higher chick
survival has the potential to reduce waste as well as the
emission of GHG associated with waste disposal.
Increased profitability will encourage investment in
technologies and processes that can help mitigate the
effect of poultry production in global warming
especially in the areas of waste management. Examples
of these include investment in anaerobic digesters to
capture methane from manure for use as source of
energy as well as the conversion of animal waste to fuel
(Koneswaran and Nierenberg, 2008).
Table 1
Estimated genetic trends per year that have been achieved in the UK industry at
the com mercial level for monogastric species (after accounting for the relevant penetration
rates)
Species/year range
trend applies to
Broilers
All years
Layers
All years
Turkeys
1988-07
2008-22
Pigs
All years
Traits selected
Daily gain
(g/d)
0.80
FCR
(kg/kg)
-0.02
Mortality
(%)
-0.07
Killing
out (%)
0.10
Eggs per
breeder hen
0.90
Hen live wt
(g)
-25.20
FCR
(kg/kg)
-0.03
Egg weight
(g)
0.11
Finishing
live wt (kg)
0.11
0.16
FCR
(kg/kg)
0.00
-0.01
Eggs per
breeder hen
0.45
1.00
Lifetime
daily gain (g)
6.40
FCR
(kg/kg)
-0.02
Numbers born
alive per litter
0.12
Eggs per hen

0.99
Table
2. Percentage
reduction
in methane
* Adapted
from Genesis
Faraday,
2007band nitrous oxide emissions per tonne of product
from genetic improvement between 1988 and 2007
Kg GHG per
tonne of product
Methane
Layers
Broilers
Turkeys
Pigs
Dairy (milk)
Beef
Sheep
Adapted from Garwes, 2009.
30
20
0
17
25
0
1
Nitrous oxide
29
23
0
14
30
0
0
GWP100 (Global
warming
potential) *
25
23
0
15
16
0
1
* GWP100 is Global warming potential of the emissions over 100 years. The GWP100 is
expressed in CO2 equivalents and is mainly driven by emission of methane and nitrous oxide.
A Role for Genomic Selection
Improvement of the traits identified as essential in
mitigating the effect of climate change (Genesis Faraday,
2007a) is very challenging because of the difficulty and
high cost of recording, low heritability and antagonising
relationship with other traits of economic importance.
This combination of factors makes genetic improvement
through traditional methods slow though steady.
Genomic selection (Meuwissen eta al., 2001) has been
shown to have the potential for the rapid improvement of
traits especially those that are presently difficult to record
because of sex and age limitations as well traits that
presently can only be recorded on sacrificed relatives. It
is also promising for traits with low heritability because
the true genetic potential of each individual can now be

more accurately determined by genotyping thus
avoiding the need for extensive progeny data.
Implementation of genomic selection is however capital
intensive because of the high cost of sampling and
genotyping of individual animals and the need for
extensive computing facilities for genomic data storage,
management and analysis. Yet in order to overcome the
challenges imposed by climate change and the need to
minimise the carbon footprint of poultry production,
poultry breeders are investing in this alternative route for
genetic improvement based on genetic markers. For
example, in 2009 a project aimed at 'developing new
tools for genetic selection for sustainable poultry
industry (CHIPSUS)' was put in place in a collaboration
between academic and industry partners with funding
91
from the British Biological Scientific Research Council

(BBSRC).
This tripartite partnership between
government, industry and the Academia stems from the
belief that a synergy of efforts in this direction is essential
and will allow both government and the industry to fulfil
their climate change responsibilities by using innovative
scientific techniques to solve an industry problem to the
benefit of humanity.
Conclusion
With an ever increasing global population and increasing
demand, global meat production is projected to keep
increasing in the foreseeable future. With livestock
sector contributing one fifth of the global GHG emission,
minimising its effect on climate change would require
significant improvements in the efficiency of meat
production. Poultry production has been recognised as
one of the most efficient means of producing terrestrial
animal protein (Flachowsky, 2002). This is attributable
to the efficiency with which it utilises feed to produce
meat compared to other livestock species. Further
genetic improvement of feed efficiency therefore has the
potential to limit GHG emission from livestock
production. This will inevitably reduce the carbon
footprint per ton of meat, milk or egg produced.
Adoption of strains which are feed efficient and robust to
the impact of climate change is key to reducing poultry
production systems' effects on climate change. It is
therefore pertinent that in the discussion of Climate
Change and its implication on poultry production in
Africa, sufficient attention should be paid to the impact
of increasing the efficiency of the total production
system and the individual genotypes used in poultry
production in a world with limiting resources.
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92
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93
Nigerian Poultry Science Journal 7: 94 - 103

Growth Performance and Cost Benefits of Chicks and Growing Pullets Fed
Fermented and Unfermented Groundnut Husk Meal Based Diets
*BELLO, K. O., FANIMO, O. A., ERUVBETINE, D. and AINA, B. J.
College of Animal Science and Livestock Production
University of Agriculture, Abeokuta
P. M. B. 2240, Abeokta, Ogun State, Nigeria
*correspondence: kazeembello19@gmail.com
Abstract
Astudy comprising 2 experiments was conducted to evaluate the performance and cost benefits of chicks and
growing pullets in a 3 x 3 factorial arrangement of 3 main treated groundnut husk meal (Unfermented GHM,
Fermented GHM and Unfermented GHM supplemented with enzyme) and 3 levels of GHM (0, 30 and 60%)
as replacement for wheat offal. Dominant brown pullets (540) were randomly allocated to 9 diets. Records
of their growth parameters and cost per diet were taken and analyzed statistically. The results revealed that
treated GHM influenced (P<0.05) the feed intake and cost of daily feed intake of pullets chicks while GHM
levels significantly (P<0.05) influenced the final weight, weight gain, feed conversion ratio, protein
efficiency and cost of feed intake of starting pullets. The mortality of growing pullets decreased (P<0.05)
from 3.54 to 0.95% with increasing GHM levels. The Study concluded that fermented GHM could serve as
replacement for wheat offal up to 60 % replacement levesl in diest of chicks and 60% in Unfermented GHM
diets supplemented with enzyme for growing Pullets.
Key words: Fermented Groundnut Husk, Unfermented Groundnut Husk, Enzyme, Chicks, Growing pullets.
Introduction
Biofuel production through the use of maize,
additional energy requirement for industrial growth
and the expected increase human population by
st
mid-term of 21 century poses a serious threat to the
environment and the required basic needs of man
(Daly, 1993; Eruvbetine, 2008). The ways out to
these challenges are to produce plants/crops that
maintain the earth's ecosystem without
compromising its bio-diversity and minimizing
waste through recycling (FAO, 1995). Livestock
play a symbiotic role. Therefore, priority should be
given to livestock species that combine efficiency
of conversion and productivity and have capacity to
use by-product and residues of cropping systems.
Poultry, undoubted is the preferred animal species
(Cardozo 1993).
Nigeria is the 3rd leading producers of groundnut in
the world (FAOSTAT, 1999) and it is an important
component of Nigerians' diets. About 5 percent of
the estimated 58.9gm of crude protein available per
94
head per day is contributed by groundnuts (Abulu,

1978). Out of the several millions of tones of
groundnut produced in the world each year, husks
represent about 15 percent of the total mass
produced but have been poorly utilized (FAOSTAT,
1999). Groundnut Husk (GHM), a good source of
crude protein and fibre, 16.4 and 22% respectively
(Bello, 2005) but has been poorly utilized
particularly in the poultry, the animal species of high
nutrition and biological values which has very high
global population and wide acceptability (Kampeni,
2000; FDLPCS, 2003; Olomu, 2003; Sonaiya,
2007).
This study is aimed at utilization of processed GHM
and levels of inclusion into poultry feed without any
deleterious effect on performance of pullets. It also
aimed to solve the problem of high cost of feed in
poultry production, reduce competition for
conventional feedstuff and increase poultry
production and protein intake particularly in
developing countries like Nigeria.

Chick Phase
Experimental Site
The study was carried out at the Poultry unit,
Teaching and Research Farm, University of
Agriculture,Abeokuta, Ogun State, Nigeria. The site
is 76m above sea level and falls within latitude
7013'22.44N and longitude 3025'48.57E (Google
Earth, 2010).
Materials
Groundnut Husk
Groundnut Husk was obtained from the Teaching
Farms Seed store University of Agriculture,
Abeokuta (UNAAB). The husk was sun dried,
bulked and milled to give Groundnut Husk Meal
(GHM). The resultant GHM was divided into 3 parts
for the unfermented, fermented and enzyme treated
GHM. HemiCel (D) enzyme was sourced from
reputable ingredient company and was added to one
portion of the GHM at 500ppm (500g HemiCel (D)
in1000kg Diet). The enzyme and feed were
thoroughly mixed on clean concrete floor, packed,
bagged and stored in cool and dry place until use.
Each treated GHM at either 0, 30 or 60 percent was
used as replacement for wheat offal in the diets
(Tables 1 and 2). Other feed ingredients were
purchased from reputable feed mill within the town.
Experimental Birds and management
A total of 540 day old pullet chicks were purchased
from a reputable commercial hatchery. They were
divided into 9 groups of 60 birds each. Each group
was replicated 3 times. The birds were intensively
managed throughout the period of the study. All
recommended medications and vaccinations were
adopted.
Experimental Diets
Nine experimental diets were formulated (Table 1)
to meet the nutrient requirement of this class of
birds. The diets consisted of 3 levels (0%, 30% and
60%) of unfermented (UFGHM), Fermented
(FGHM) and UFGHM with Enzyme as replacement
for wheat offal. The nine diets were fed to each of the
nine groups
Growth Phase
At 8 weeks of age, the birds were placed on grower's
diets and managed as continuation from the chicks
phase study.
Grower Experimental Diets
Nine grower diets were formulated to meet the
nutrient requirement of the birds. The diets
consisted of 3 levels (0%, 30% and 60%) of

Unfermented Groundnut Husk (UFGHM),
Fermented Groundnut Husk (FGHM) and
Unfermented Groundnut Husk (UFGHM)
supplemented with Enzyme. The birds were fed
with grower's ration (Table 2) and was offered ad
libitum.
Data Collection
The experimental birds per replicate were weighed
accordingly using top loading scale to determine
their weekly body weight and weight gain. Also,
feed intake was determined weekly through
deduction of left over feed from initial feed
supplied. Mortality per replicate and feed efficiency
were determined weekly. Cost of feed per kilogram
diet and cost per feed intake were also estimated
using the prevailing market prices of feedstuff at the
period of study.
StatisticalAnalysis
The data generated from the study were subjected
to analysis of variance (ANOVA) in a 3 x 3 factorial
randomized complete block design using SAS
(1999). Significant means at 5% were separated
using Duncan's Multiple Range Test (Duncan,
1955) as contained in SAS (1999).
The effect of treated and levels of GHM on
performance and cost benefits of starting and
growing pullets are shown in Tables 3 and 5
respectively. In starting pullets, feed intake was
significantly (P<0.05) influenced by the type of
GHM. Feed intake increased from 45.40g/bird/day
in UFGHM fed birds to 45.89g/bird/day in FGHM
fed birds. Starting pullets fed with UFGHM
supplemented with Enzyme recorded the highest
feed intake (46.75g/bird/day). The increase in feed
intake could be as a result of energy diluting effects
of fibre content of GHM. Bello et al., 2007 and
Awesu, 2002 who reported that high fibre in feed
reduces energy content and increases feed intake
since birds eat to satisfy their energy requirement.
Fibre contributes to the bulkiness and reduced
nutrient utilization in diets (Abiola and Tewe,
2003). Therefore, the pullet chicks' diets could be
assumed to be merely bulky and low in energy.
The results also revealed a significant (P<0.05)
increase in cost of daily feed intake of chicks fed
with different GHM type. UFGHM supplemented
with Enzyme had the highest cost of feed intake
95
TABLE 1:
Composition of Chick Diets

UFGHM
0%
30%
60%
0%
1
2
3
4
47.00 47.00 47.00 47.00
15.00 15.00 15.00 15.00
Ingredients
(%)
Maize
Soybean
Meal
Groundnut 11.00 11.00
cake
20.00 14.00
Wheat
offal
UFGHM
6.00
FGHM
UFGHM + Enzyme
Fish Meal
3.00
3.00
Bone Meal 2.50
2.50
Oyster
0.50
0.50
Shell
Lysine
0.20
0.20
Methionine 0.30
0.30
Premix*
0.25
0.25
Salt
0.25
0.25
Total
100.00 100.00
Calculated Analysis (%)
Crude
20.21 19.72
Protein
Crude fibre 7.63
7.63
3.53
3.49
Ether
1.06
1.06
Extract
Calcium
Phosphorus 0.69
0.69
FGHM
30%
5
47.00
15.00
60%
6
47.00
15.00
UFGHM + ENZYME
0%
30%
60%
7
8
9
47.00 47.00 47.00
15.00 15.00 15.00
11.00
11.00
11.00
11.00
11.00
11.00
11.00
8.00
20.00
14.00
8.00
20.00
14.00
8.00
12.00
-
6.00
-
12.00
-
-+
6.00+
12.00+
3.00
2.50
0.50
3.00
2.50
0.50
3.00
2.50
0.50
3.00
2.50
0.50
3.00
2.50
0.50
3.00
2.50
0.50
3.00
2.50
0.50
0.20
0.30
0.25
0.25
100.00
0.20
0.30
0.25
0.25
100.00
0.20
0.30
0.25
0.25
100.00
0.20
0.30
0.25
0.25
100.00
0.20
0.30
0.25
0.25
100.00
0.20
0.30
0.25
0.25
100.00
0.20
0.30
0.25
0.25
100.00
19.60
20.21
19.89
19.53
19.79
19.60
20.10
7.33
3.64
1.06
7.63
3.53
1.06
7.72
3.56
1.06
7.67
3.57
1.06
7.78
3.59
1.06
7.81
3.61
1.06
7.63
3.75
1.06
0.69
0.69
0.69
0.69
0.69
0.69
0.69
*vitamin A 12,000,000i.u; vitamin D3 2,500,000i.u; vitamin E 30,000i.u; vitamin K 2,000mg; vitamin B1

2,250mg; vitamin B2 6,000mg; vitamin B6 4,500mg; vitamin B12 15mcg; Niacin 40,000mg; Pantothenic Acid
15,000mg; Folic Acid 1,500mg; Biotin 50mcg; Choline Chloride 300,000mg; Manganese 80,000mg; Zinc 50,000;
Iron 20,000mg; Copper 5,000mg; Iodide 1,000mg; Selenium 200mg; Cobalt 500mg; Antioxidant 125,000mg.
96
97
16.78
7.68
0.83
0.61
16.85
7.76
0.83
0.61
16.40
7.79
0.83
0.61
60%
3
45.00
15.00
3.50
13.20
19.80
2.20
0.30
0.20
0.30
0.25
0.25
100.00
16.86
7.76
0.83
0.61
0%
4
45.00
15.00
3.50
33.00
2.20
0.30
0.20
0.30
0.25
0.25
100.00
16.74
7.81
0.83
0.61
FGHM
30%
5
45.00
15.00
3.50
23.10
9.90
2.20
0.30
0.20
0.30
0.25
0.25
100.00
16.40
7.74
0.83
0.61
60%
6
45.00
15.00
3.50
13.20
19.80
2.20
0.30
0.20
0.30
0.25
0.25
100.00
UFGHM +
UFGHM + HemiCel (D) Enzyme
** vitamin A 4,000,000i.u; vitamin D3 800,000i.u; vitamin E 10,000mg; vitamin K 1,200mg; Thiamine B1

1,000mg; Riboflavin B2 1,500mg; Niacin 10,000mg; Pantothenic Acid 4,500mg; Vitamin B6 500mg; Vitamin B12
10mg; Folic Acid 200mcg; Biotin 15i.u; Choline Chloride 120,000mg; Cobalt 500mg; Copper 800mg; Iodide
400mg; Iron 15,000mg; Manganese 60,000mg; Selenium 40mg; Zinc 15,000mg.
UFGHM
30%
2
45.00
15.00
3.50
23.10
9.90
2.20
0.30
0.20
0.30
0.25
0.25
100.00
0%
1
45.00
15.00
3.50
33.00
2.20
0.30
0.20
0.30
0.25
0.25
100.00
Composition 0f Growing Pullets Diets
Maize
Soybean Meal
Groundnut cake
Wheat offal
UFGHM
FGHM
UFGHM+
Bone Meal
Oyster Shell
Lysine
Methionine
Premix**
Salt
Total
Calculated Analysis (%)
Crude Protein
Crude fibre
Ether Extract
Phosphorus
Ingredients (%)
TABLE 2:
16.62
7.88
0.83
0.61
16.55
7.85
0.83
0.61
16.74
7.72
0.83
0.61
UFGHM + ENZYME
0%
30%
60%
7
8
9
45.00
45.00
45.00
15.00
15.00
15.00
3.50
3.50
3.50
33.00
23.10
13.20
-+
9.90+
19.80+
2.20
2.20
2.20
0.30
0.30
0.30
0.20
0.20
0.20
0.30
0.30
0.30
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
100.00
100.00
100.00
98
0.29
50.37
2.31ab
1.01
0.21
0.30
50.37
2.29b
Mortality (%)
Feed Efficiency
Protein Efficiency Ratio
Cost per Kilogram Diet (N/kg)
Cost per Feed Intake (N/day)
0.21
2.36a
50.48
0.28
0.20
1.52
46.75a
9.30
554.44
33.65
UFGHM + Enzyme
8.96b
9.40b
0.28b
0.27b
2.30b
2.29b
50.25
0.20b
0.20b
50.14
1.52
1.52
45.53
535.56b
560.00b
45.98
33.56
30 %
33.22
0%
Means within rows followed by different superscripts are significantly different (P<0.05)
UFGHM
=
Unfermented Groundnut Husk
FGHM
=
Fermented Groundnut Husk
UFGHM + Enzyme =
Unfermented Groundnut Husk supplemented with Enzyme
ab
45.89ab
45.40b
Feed Intake (g/bird/day)

1.01
9.62
572.22
9.71
577.78
Final Weight (g/bird)
33.45
FGHM
Weight Gain (g/bird/day)
33.45
UFGHM
Main Effect of Treated and Levels of GHM on Performance and Cost Benefits of Pullet Chicks
Treated GHM
GHM Levels
Initial Weight (g/bird)
Parameters
Table 3:
2.37a
50.84
0.31a
0.22a
0.51
46.53
10.26a
608.89a
33.78
60 %
0.02
0.06
0.01
0.01
0.77
0.35
0.25
14.07
0.13
SEM
99
Table 4: Interactive Effect of Treat ed and Levels of GHM on Performance and Cost Benefits
of Pullet Chicks
DIETS
Parameters
1
2
3
4
5
6
33.22
33.56
33.59
33.22
33.56
33.59
603.33ab
570.00abc
523.33bc 623.33a
560.00abc 570.00abc
9.58abc
10.16ab
9.58abc
8.74bc
10.53a
Weight Gain (g/bird/day) 9.39abc
Mortality (%)
1.52
1.52
0.00
1.52
1.52
0.02
c
bc
bc
ab
bc
45.73
45.88
46.69
45.31
45.67bc
Feed Intake (g/bird/day) 44.58
Feed Efficiency
0.21abc
0.21abc
0.22ab
0.21abc
0.19bc
0.23a
ab
ab
a
b
ab
0.30
0.32
0.27
0.28
0.31a
Protein Efficiency Ratio 0.28
50.14b
50.14b
50.84a
50.14b
50.14b
50.84a
Cost Per Kilogram Diet
(N/kg)
Cost Per Feed Intake
2.23b
2.29b
2.33b
2.34b
2.27b
2.32b
(N/day)
abc
8
33.56
513.33c
8.57c
1.52
45.55bc
0.19c
0.27b
50.47b
2.30b
7
33.22
550.00abc
9.23abc
1.52
46.66ab
0.20bc
0.26b
50.14b
2.34b
2.44a
9
34.16
600.00ab
10.10ab
1.52
48.03a
0.21abc
0.30ab
50.84a
0.006
SEM
0.04
4.69
0.08
0.26
0.12
0.002
0.003
0.02
100
37.32
3.32
0.122
0.72
37.66
3.19
Feed Efficiency
Cost per Kilogram Diet (N/kg)
Cost per Feed Intake (N/day)
ab
3.98a
2.02b
Mortality (%)
3.38
37.66
0.70
0.112
1.52b
89.67
10.02
1326.11
0.76
0.11
88.28
84.82
9.67
10.30
1317.00
3.22
37.42
0.72
0.114
3.54a
86.07
9.78
1312.67
3.34
37.42
0.72
0.113
3.03a
89.23
10.01
1306.67
3.33
37.79
0.74
0.118
0.95b
87.45
10.21
1394.89
1371.11
535.56
560.00
608.89
554.44
577.78

572.22
60 %
Table 5: Main Effect of Treated and Levels of GHM on Performance and Cost Benefits of Growing Pullets
Treated GHM
GHM Levels
Parameters
Unfermented
Fermented
Unfermented + Enzyme
0%
30 %
0.089
0.192
0.01
0.005
0.617
2.351
0.326
24.231
14.075
SEM
101
3.03ab
3.03ab
86.17
0.12
0.72
37.42
3.22
Mortality (%)
Feed Efficiency
Cost of Feed/Kilogram Diet

(N/kg)
Cost of Feed/Feed Intake

(N/day)
abc
10.43
10.43
3.17
38.12
0.74
0.13
32.99
0.00b
10.47
1409.33
603.33ab
3.26
37.42
0.72
0.11
87.15
4.55a
9.32
1286.67
570.00abc
3.25
37.42
0.73
0.11
86,91
4.55a
9.66
1267.33
523.33bc
3.18
37.42
0.70
0.12
86.17
1336.00
1368.00
570.00ac
560.00abc
3.46
37.12
0.82
0.11
90.77
4.55a
9.52
3.19
37.42
0.72
0.11
84.89
2.85ab
9.52
600.06ab
3.58
37.42
0.72
0.11
95.50
3.03ab
10.43
3.38
38.12
0.65
0.11
84.89
0.00b
10.11
1316.67 1378.33
550.00ab 513.33c
1397.00 1283.33
623.33a
Table 6: Interactive Effect of Treat ed and Levels of GHM on Performance and Cost Benefits
of Growing Pullets
DIETS
5
6
Parameters
1
2
3
4
0.03
0.06
0.01
0.002
0.78
0.00
0.11
8.08
4.69
SEM
(N2.36/day) while the least value (N2.29/day) was

recorded with chicks fed UFGHM. This finding was
not unprecedented as groundnut husk is unpopular in
the livestock feed industry. Groundnut husk is
relatively unexplored and attract little or no cost
compared to HemiCel (D) enzyme that is used in
other industries. This result supports the earlier
findings of Onifade et al., 1999 and Bello, et al.,
2007.
Table 3 also revealed that GHM level had significant
(P<0.05) influence on final weight, weight gain and
feed efficiency of pullet chicks. Chicks on 60%
GHM replacement for wheat offal gave superior
performance in terms of final weight (608.89g/bird),
weight gain (10.26g/bird/day), feed efficiency
(0.22) and protein efficiency ratio (0.31). The result
is at variance with findings of Abiola and Tewe
(2003) who reported reduced nutrient utilization
with cocoa husk. However, GHM could be of good
source of fibre or more digestive enzymes are
secreted by the chicks to aid digestion. This opinion
is supported by Ketelaars, 1997. Schneeman and
Gallaher, 1992 reported that grinding the fibre
source to a fine particle size may disrupt the cell wall
structure sufficiently to speed up digestion.
Therefore, the form in which the GHM is presented
could be responsible for the result obtained.
All the growth parameters of growing pullets except
mortality were not significantly (P<0.05) affected
by GHM type and levels. This could be due to the
fact that older birds tolerate more fibre level than the
younger birds. Reddy et al., 1975, 1976 and
Ranjhan, 1980 gave credence to this observation.
Also, Salih et al. (1991) reported that negative effect
of high dietary levels of fibre in barley decreased as
the birds grow older. Mortality was highest (3.98%)
with FGHM (Table 5) but it reduced with increasing
GHM level from 3.54% to 0.95%. This could be a
pointer to the fact that neither processed GHM nor
GHM levels in any way inhibited the good health
status of the birds which could result in death of the
experimental birds. Also, the level of mortality
recorded still fall within normal range recommended
for healthy birds (Neshiem et al., 1979).
Tables 4 and 6 show dietary interactions between
processed and levels of GHM of chicks and growing
pullets. Diets significantly (P<0.05) influenced all
the growth parameters of pullets chicks except
mortality (Table 4). Birds fed diet 6 had the highest
final weight (623.33g/bird), weight gain
(10.53g/bird/day), feed and protein efficiency ratios
102
(0.23 and 0.31 respectively) for pullet chicks. This

could be a pointer to quality and acceptability of the
diet.
Table 6 revealed that diets had significant (P<0.05)
influence on the mortality of the growing pullets but
it did not follow a particular trend. Growing birds fed
with diets 3 and 9 had 0% mortality while birds fed
diet 4 recorded the highest mortality (4.55%). This
observation (4.55% record) was similar (P>0.05) to
the birds fed Diets 5 and 6. The results obtained still
fall within normal range recommended for healthy
birds (Neshiem et al., 1979).
The results of the study are attestation to good
economy potential of GHM. It therefore concluded
that FGHM at 60% replacement for wheat offal can
be used in diets of chicks and growing pullets
without any detrimental effects of their growth
performance and Diet 6 is economically satisfactory
for production of chicks and growing pullets.
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Relationship between hatching egg quality or incubation conditions and dayold chick quality
A
K. TONA , O. ONAGBESAN , V. BRUGGEMAN , F. M. GBEASSOR , AND E. DECUYPERE
Laboratory of Poultry Sciences, Faculty of Sciences, University of Lome, Lome, Togo

b
Department of Animal Physiology, University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Nigeria
c
Laboratory for Physiology and Immunology of Domestic Animals, Department of Biosystems, K.U. Leuven, Belgium.
Summary
A bird's egg is a self-contained life-supporting system for the developing bird embryo. However, the weight and
quality of the day-old chicks depend on several factors. These factors may include pre-incubation and incubation
factors. Several studies have determined the effect of some of these influencing factors on broiler chick hatching
weight with little attention to post-hatch performance. In hatchery management, the judgement of the quality of a dayold chick is usually based on qualitative aspects, such as abnormalities and contamination. Thus, day-old chick quality
when removed from the hatcher seems to be an all-or-none question. But recently, methods for determining and
quantifying chick quality based on physical appearance were reported. Physical parameters for determining chick
quality were defined and scored according to the level of anomaly in the parameters. Also, the potential influence of
these parameters on post-hatch performance was reported. This paper reviews the different methods available for
measuring chick quality. It, also, provides an overview of incubation systems, incubation conditions and delay in feed
access, and their effects on day-old chick quality and post-hatch performance. All these factors have implications on
chick embryo physiology and development and consequently on the quality of the hatched chick. It is clear that
adaptations of the incubation/early post-hatch environment to the 'needs' of the embryo/hatchling could potentially
lead to improved post-hatch performance.
Pre-Incubation Factors
The successful development of the fertilized ovum
through the embryo and day-old chick is mainly
determined by hatching egg characteristics. Egg
characteristics involve several parameters which can be
classified into two groups namely physical and internal
characteristics. Egg physical characteristics include size,
shape, colour, cleanness, integrity of the shell, and
absence of shell malformations (Decuypere et al., 2001
and Narushin and Romanov, 2002). Egg internal
components include albumen, yolk and inclusions such
as blood, bloodspot or meat spot. All the factors that can
affect egg characteristics, within lines, strains or flock
are determined mainly by the age of the breeders and the
egg storage conditions (Williams, 1992).
Effects of age of breeders on egg characteristics
Flock age has a major impact on both external and
internal egg qualities. According to Bains (1994), hens
start to lay the eggs of the best quality by 35 weeks of age
and this progressively becomes worse as they reach 50
weeks of age. The effects of age and genotype of the
breeder parents on egg quality are well known
(Proudfoot, 1962; Kidwell, 1964; Fletcher et al., 1981,
1983).
Egg size is mainly influenced by age of breeders

(Crittenden and Bohren, 1961; McLoughlin and Gous,
1999 and Vieira and Moran, 1999). It is an important
parameter since the size of the one-day old chick is
directly related to egg size (Moran, 1990) and is about
64 70% of the weight of the egg (Merrit and Gowe,
1965). Increasing age of breeders leads to increasing
eggshell weight but to decreasing shell specific gravity
or shell pore concentration (Peebles and Brake, 1987).
Thoryeinson et al. (1997) reported that as the hen age
increases, yolk sac weight increases. Eggs from young
hens have high albumen HU compared to those from
older breeders (Benton et al., 1997) but within a flock,
the relationship between hen age and albumen HU is not
well established.
In a review article, Decuypere and Michels (1992)
reported that embryonic development at oviposition is
different as a function of parental age and linked this
indirectly to variations in oviductal transit time and/or
body temperature which could be linked to hen's age.
Peebles et al. (2001) reported that during incubation
th
th
(12 or 18 day), yolk sac weight percentages were
positively correlated with age of breeders (27 and 36
weeks of age) indicating a reduced transfer of lipid from
the yolk to the embryo in eggs from older breeders.
th
These authors found that on the 18 day of incubation
and in relation to egg weight, percentages of dry embryo
104
weight and shell weight decreased with increasing age of

breeders while percentages of embryo moisture content
and wet liver weight were positively correlated with age
of breeders. With regard to incubation duration, Reis et
al. (1997) observed similar incubation duration at
median hatch for eggs from breeders of 32 to 34 weeks
and 48 to 50 weeks while Suarez et al. (1997) showed a
curvilinear relationship between age of breeders and
incubation duration with the lowest values for breeders
of 41 to 47 weeks of age.
Several authors have reported a relationship between age
of broiler breeders and hatchability (Fasenko et al., 1992,
Roque and Soares, 1994, Bramwell et al., 1996 and
Lapo et al., 1999) or chick weight at hatch (Fasenko et
al., 2002; Bray and Iton, 1974 and Wilson, 1991).
Between flocks, the variability of hatchability increased
gradually with increasing age of breeders (Heier and
Jarp, 2001).
Effects of storage on egg characteristics
Egg storage conditions include storage environmental
conditions, especially temperature, and storage duration.
Increasing egg storage duration affects egg internal
quality, especially albumen quality (Benton and Brake,
1996; Reis et al., 1997; Suarez et al., 1997; Lapo et al.,
1999 and Silversides and Scott, 2001).At oviposition, the
egg contains a high level of CO2, which starts to escape
after laying and during storage. Egg albumen contains
bicarbonates and CO2 and the loss of dissolved CO2
results in an increase in the pH (7.6 to 9.5) of the albumen
from the first days of storage but then levels off or even
slightly decreases after longer storage (Romanoff and
Romanoff, 1949; Benton and Brake, 1996; Lapo et al.,
1999 and Silversides and Scott, 2001). This catalytic
activity continues to break down albumen proteins,
resulting in increased quantity of thin albumen (Bains,
1994). Albumen pH is positively quadratically linked to
egg storage time (Lapo et al., 1999). In addition, yolk
membrane becomes weaker leading to easily breaking
and mottling of the yolk as well as yolk weight increases
with increasing storage duration (Fromm, 1964; Britton,
1973 and Silversides and Scott, 2001).
Egg storage extends the duration of incubation (McLaury
and Insko, 1968; Mather and Laughlin, 1976; Muambi et
al., 1980). This extended incubation duration is a
consequence of the effects of storage on embryonic
development. For long stored eggs, the initiation of the
embryo development is retarded (Arora and Kosin,
1966), the growth rate is lower (Mather and Laughlin,
105
1977) and their CO2 production is altered up to 18 days of

incubation as illustrated in Figure 2 (Haque et al., 1996
and Fasenko et al., 2002). However, the effects of
storage duration x embryonic developmental stage
interactions on incubation duration need further
investigation.
Apart from increasing incubation duration, the effect of
egg storage and its consequent rise in albumen pH on
embryo survival, hatchability and chick quality is still
not fully understood. Embryonic development may be
linked to the observation that periodic heat treatment
during egg storage for prolonged periods improved
storage and allowed the embryo to redress
disproportionate development and ensured the required
degree of embryonic development for all tissues in a
proportionate way (Decuypere and Michels, 1992).
It is generally agreed that the incidence of abnormal and
dead embryos, embryos with necrotic or apoptotic cells
(cells programmed to die) increased with increasing
storage duration (Bloom et al., 1998). This effect of
storage is more obvious in eggs from older flocks (Lapo
et al., 1999). Reis et al. (1997) found no effect of preincubation storage on viability and hatchability in young
breeders and viability was even higher in fresh eggs from
older hens whereas storage decreased embryonic growth
rate, viability and hatchability at all flock ages and was
more pronounced in older flocks (Lapo et al., 1999 and
Fasenko et al., 2002).
Incubation Factors
There are two different incubation systems that are
currently in use in hatcheries. These include the single
stage and the multi-stage incubation systems. It is often
assumed that single stage incubation enables a specific
group of eggs to be provided with what must be optimum
incubation conditions, and therefore results in better
performance. Whatever the incubation system applied,
incubating eggs need specific incubation conditions
such as temperature, relative humidity (RH), turning,
and ventilation rate.
Incubation systems
There are two incubation systems, multistage system and
single stage system, for large scale production of day-old
chicks. Every system has its advantages and
disadvantages. Hill (2001) reported that single stage
incubation system leads to higher chick length at hatch
compared to multi-stage incubation system. These
effects can be due to differences in incubation
conditions.
Multistage system
Multistage incubation system refers to individual setters
that contain multiple groups of eggs with embryos at

varying stages of development. In general, the machines
are operated continuously, with eggs being set and
transferred in the machine once or twice a week. Multistage incubation uses the heat generated by the eggs at
the end of incubation to warm the eggs at the start of
incubation. It is important that a similar number of eggs
from each stage of incubation are placed within the
setter.
Major advantages :
Lower operating costs due to heat output from
older eggs in the incubator being used to warm
the younger eggs.
Simplicity of operation.
Major disadvantages:
Because multi-stage incubators operate continuously, it
is difficult to properly clean, disinfect and carry out
routine maintenance within the machines. For this
reason it is important to program a time when the multistage machines can be completely emptied of eggs.
Apart from turning requirements, ventilation and
temperature should be well regulated in order to meet the
requirements of all embryos. Because there is no
possibility for a differential regulation of whatever
variables, ventilation should be sufficient to keep the
CO2 level below 0.3%; over ventilation can result in
problems of temperature and humidity control. With
regard to temperature, typically multi-stage incubators
will be operating at 37.4 37.8C. To cancel out possible
temperature and ventilation gradient during incubation,
the positions closest to and furthest away from the heater
and fan should be interchanged in function of
developmental stage.
Single stage system
Single-stage incubation is when all the eggs within the
incubator are at the same stage of development. The
machine is filled at each setting and emptied at each
transfer. This type of incubation is also known as all-in,
all-out incubation. The major advantages of single-stage
incubation are:
The machines are completely emptied after each

batch of set eggs to allow cleaning, disinfection
and maintenance.
The incubation conditions can be matched to the
requirement of the egg at each stage of
incubation.
Temperature programmes for single-stage incubators
normally start higher than 37.5C and then decline
through incubation so that they are lower than 37.5C by
the end of incubation.
It is assumed that better results are achieved if humidity is
high at the start of incubation and low at the end of
incubation with regard to achieve the correct level of egg
water loss at transfer.
In single-stage incubators, the amount of ventilation
required in the first 10-12 days of incubation is very low
close to 0%. Therefore, the machine can be kept
completely closed and CO2 levels can reach up to 1-1.5%
without any adverse impact but providing stable
environmental for embryo.
Incubation conditions
Temperature
It is the most important single factor that affects
hatchability. Ancel et al., (1993) reported that the
optimum temperature for chicken embryo development
is between 37.5 to 38C (Table 1) and gives the highest
chick quality as well as the best hatch. The developing
embryo temperature is dependent on the incubator
temperature, the ability of heat transfer from the
incubator to the embryo and the metabolic heat
production of the embryo itself (French, 1997). The
chicken embryo is more sensitive to high than to low
temperature and the sensitivity to hyperthermia increases
as the embryo age increases (Wilson, 1991, French,
1997). Eggs incubated at high temperature (38.8C)
hatch earlier than those incubated at temperature of
35.8C (Decuypere et al., 1979).
Table 1. Typical effects of temperature on development of the avian embryo-temperature ranges

shown are estimates based on available evidence.
Incubation temperature
(C)
47
39 - 47
38 40
37 38
35 37
27 35
14 27
0 14
<0
106
Effect on the embryo

Immediate mortality
Mortality dependent on length and timing of exposure
Altered rate of development and post hatch performance
Normal embryo development
Altered rate of development and post hatch performance
Embryo development stops, no adverse effects of holding for 24 h in
embryos in last third of incubation
Immediate mortality
Relative humidity (RH)

To maintain the RH of incubating eggs, several authors
argued that, at the optimum RH of 50 to 60%, incubating
eggs should lose ideally 11.5 to 15% of their initial mass
up to the beginning of pipping (Meir et al., 1984; Vick et
al., 1993; Collins, 1999; Taylor, 1999 and Bruzual et al.,
2000). During incubation, most of the energy needed for
embryonic development is obtained from the fat stores of
the yolk, and for every gram of fat burned an almost
equal mass of metabolic water is generated. Therefore,
the relative water content of the egg will increase during
incubation unless water is lost (Rahn and Paganelli,
1979). Since temperature and air velocity requirements
are set for other developmental needs rather than egg
weight loss, the level of humidity is regulated during
incubation in order to achieve the optimal egg weight
loss (Tullett, 1981). Too high RH prevents hatching
because not enough water is lost and when the RH is too
low, dehydration occurs (Taylor, 1999 and Bruzual et al.,
2000).
Ventilation
Incubator ventilation is influenced by heating, cooling,
humidifying and circulation air. It provides adequate O2
and eliminates CO2 from the incubator. Brian (2000)
assumed that optimal CO2 concentration in a multi-stage
setter is between 0.1 to 0.4% and rises from 0.5 to 0.8%
in hatchers. It is believed that this level acts as a stimulant
to early embryonic development but it may also slightly
increase the pH level during these early stages (Tullett,
1990), which can stimulate some enzyme activities
during this period. Some recent evidence suggests that
better results can be achieved in single stage setters if
levels of CO2 in the early stages are allowed to reach 0.6
to 1% (Tazawa, 1980; Tullett and Burton, 1986; Okuda
and Tazawa, 1988 and Tona et al., 2005). At the
beginning of incubation, the surface area of area
vasculosa and the growth rate of the chorioallantois are
closely linked to O2 uptake (Tazawa and Whittow, 2000)
whereas CO2 supply acts as a stimulant for early
embryonic development (Tullett, 1990). Increased
metabolic demand and the development of lung
respiration towards the end of incubation lead to
increased O2 supply (Tullett, 1990) and at this stage, CO2
level acts as hatching stimulus (Visschedijk, 1968).
Although there is an obvious lack of knowledge of the
effects incubator O 2 / CO 2 levels on embryo
physiological parameters and post-hatch performance,
CO2 regulation has begun to take place in practice and
this CO2 control is foremost in the minds of incubator
companies.
Turning requirements during incubation
Egg turning requirements during incubation can be
considered as a physical incubation condition since it

involves parameters such as frequency, axis of setting and
turning, turning angle, planes of rotation and stage of
incubation requiring turning (Wilson, 1991). During
artificial incubation, egg turning has been reported to
reduce malpositions (Robertson, 1961), to prevent
abnormal adhesion of the embryo or embryonic
membranes to the shell membrane (New, 1957) and to
encourage the complete and timely closure of chorioallantois at the small end of the egg (Deeming, 1989 a, b).
Randle and Romanoff, (1949), Deeming (1990) and Tona
et al. (2003) reported that turning is required to ensure the
proper utilisation of albumen by the developing embryo
within the normal incubation period.
With regard to turning requirements and period that
required egg turning, Proudfoot (1966), Bowman (1969),
Becker et al. (1969), Miller and Wilson (1976) and Elibol
et al. (2002) reported egg turning during storage to be
beneficial for hatchability by reducing embryonic
mortality. Moreover, Becker et al. (1969) argued that not
only egg turning during storage but also the angle of
turning of 90 improves hatchability compared to no
turning or turning with an angle of 180. Elibol et al.
(2002) showed that not only egg turning during storage
but also the frequency of turning (4 or 24 times / day)
improved hatchability. Landauer (1967) reported that in
natural incubation, the hen moves the eggs many times,
up to 96 times daily. The frequency and the number of
days that eggs are turned during incubation is important
(Deeming, 1991). Turning eggs 24 times daily during
incubation is widely documented to obtain better
hatchability than less frequent turning (Kaltofen et al.,
1955; Robertson, 1961; Freeman and Vince, 1974 and
Wilson, 1991). Olsen and Byerley (1936) pointed out
that turning 48 or 96 times daily resulted in higher
hatchability compared to turning 3 times daily. On the
other hand, Robertson (1961) reported that egg turning
480 times daily decreased hatchability compared to
turning 96 times per day. Wilson (1991) and more
recently, Elibol et al. (2003) observed that turning 96
times daily improved hatchability especially in eggs from
old hen. In the literature, reports are conflicting as to
when during incubation turning is important. The
periods of 1 to 7 days or the second week (7 14 days) of
incubation have been proposed as most critical period for
turning of chickens' eggs (Deeming, 1991 and Wilson,
1991). However, Proudfoot et al. (1981), Sauveur and
Riviers (1987), Wilson and Wilmering (1987) and Elibol
et al. (2003) suggested turning the eggs until 14, 16, 13 or
11 days of incubation respectively. And in practice, the
eggs are turned until 18 days of incubation.
Chick quality
A good quality one-day old chick is a crucial hinge
between the hatchery and the poultry farm. In general, a
day-old chick of good quality can be defined as a chick of
high performance potential. Hatchling quality is very
important in commercial poultry production for
107
minimizing mortality and as an indicator of post-hatch

performance. Assessment of chick quality can be done
by taking into account :
- Quantitative parameters : day-old chick weight
and length are differently used as quantitative
measurements of chick quality (Hill, 2001;
Deeming, 2000; Boerjan, 2002; Decuypere et
al., 2002; Tona et al., 2003a);
- Qualitative parameters : it is generally agreed
that a day-old chick of good quality must be
clean, dry and free from dirt and contamination,
with clear and bright eyes, free from
deformities, with completely sealed and clean
navel, and no yolk sac or dried membrane
should protrude from the navel area. The body
should be firm to touch, without any sign of
stress such as respiratory distress. It should be
alert and interested in its environment,
responding to sound, normal conformation of
legs, no hock, no swelling, no skin lesions, have
a well formed beak, not soft but straight toes
(Funk and Irwin, 1955; Raghavan, 1999;
Deeming, 2000; Boerjan, 2002; Decuypere et
al., 2002; Tona et al., 2003a).
Effects of pre-incubation conditions on chick quality
Pre-incubation factors may determine hatching egg
characteristics that may affect chick quality and their
performance. All the factors that can affect egg
characteristics, within line, strain or flock are
determined mainly by the age of the breeders and the egg
storage conditions (Williams, 1992; Tona et al., 2002,
2004b). Mirosh and Becker (1974); Muambi et al.
(1980); Deeming (1996); Christensen et al. (2001);
Peebles et al. (2001) and Tona et al.(2003b) have
demonstrated that egg storage and age of broiler breeders
influenced embryonic development and therefore dayold chick characteristics. Hatching egg weight and
therefore day-old chick weight at hatch depends on the
age of the breeder (Bohren, 1978; Pearson et al., 1996;
Tona et al., 2004b). Similarly, Hill (2001) reported an
increase in chick length with increasing age of the
breeder. Also, increasing age of breeders leads to an
increase of the incidence of chick of subnormal quality
(Tona et al., 2001; Boerjan, 2002; Tona et al., 2004b).
Figure 1 shows the effects of storage duration, age of
breeders and turning duration on broiler chick juvenile
growth.This effect of age was reversed by the moulting
of older breeders leading to an improvement in chick
quality (Tona et al., 2002). With regard to storage
condition, there is greater occurrence of poor quality
chicks from eggs stored for longer duration than from
108
eggs stored for shorter duration (Boerjan, 2002; Fasenko,

2002; Tona et al., 2003a) and this was more pronounced
by storage of eggs of older age of breeders (Tona et al.,
2004b).
Effects of incubation conditions on chick quality

Hill (2001) reported that single stage incubation system
leads to higher chick length at hatch compared to multistage incubation system. The author also showed that
hatchery management influences chick length at hatch.
Incubation temperature is important not only for
hatchability but also for post-hatch growth (Romanoff,
1935 and Romanoff, 1936). Intermittent low temperature
(33.5C) treatment during the last days of incubation
affected post-hatch growth (Decuypere, 1979; Nvota et
al., 1980; Khn et al., 1982; Decuypere, 1984; Minne and
Decuypere, 1984). By contrast, periodic heat treatment
during the first 10 days or the last 10 days of incubation
(39C) improved feed efficiency (Abd El Azim, 1991).
Boerjan (2002), using Pasgar score as a quantitative
tool for chick quality measurement, reported an
improvement in quality score (9.1 vs 8.6) when hatching
eggs from hens of 45 weeks of age were incubated at
higher temperature (0.2F from day 10-12 and 1F at day
18 of incubation). It is assumed that too high RH prevents
hatching because not enough water is lost and when the
RH is too low, dehydration occurs (Taylor, 1999).
However, Bruzual et al. (2000) and Bamelis
(unpublished) showed that incubation RH of 43 to 65%
had no significant effects on broiler chick qualitative
aspects, day-old chick weight or its post-hatch growth.
Turning involves several parameters such as frequency,
axis of setting and turning, turning angle, planes of
rotation and stage of incubation requiring turning
(Wilson, 1991). Deeming (2000) reported that
insufficient turning during incubation leads to a delay of
hatching and adversely affects day-old chick qualitative
aspects. It was also shown that transferring eggs from
turning trays to hatching basket before day 18 of
incubation depressed chick quality and this is more
pronounced in chicks from eggs of older breeders (Tona
et al., 2001). Paradoxically, egg turning until day 18 of
incubation depresses broiler chick juvenile growth up to
7 day while it improves chick qualitative aspects (Figure
1) (Tona et al., 2003c). However, turning eggs until day
12 and transferring to hatcher baskets at day 18 improved
broiler chick juvenile growth and chick quality was
comparable to turning until day 18 of incubation.
Figure 1. Effects of storage duration, broiler breeders' age and turning duration on broiler chick juvenile growth
vDelay in feed access

The first week of life of layer or broiler chick is a critical
stage of development with regard to feeding factors.
Usually, hatchery practices result in a 24 to 72 hour
transition between hatching and placing birds at the
farm and birds do not receive feed or water. In practice,
chicks hatch over a 24- to 48- hour period and are held in
the incubator until a large percentage of the birds have
hatched. Although newly hatched chicks have only a
limited ability to assimilate feed and water (Nitsan et
al., 1991), early feeding is important for the
improvement of production parameters as well as
liveability. Absence of early feed results in mobilization
of body reserves to support metabolism and thermal
regulation, decreases body weight, and impairs overall
performance (Noy and Sklan, 1999; Pinchasov and
Noy, 1993). The delayed access to feed leads to a
depression in intestinal function due to a reduction in
absorption capacity, and may explain the long-term
reduced growth in chicks. When the fasting period is
longer than 24 hours, delayed feeding has a negative
linear effect on the final performance at 42 days of age
for broiler chickens (Gonzles et al., 2003) and at 56
days at least for layer chicks (Gaglo et al., 2009).
Conclusion
Day-old chick quality is related to egg characteristics
and incubation conditions, and the conditions between
hatching and placement at the farm. Although there are
still some unknown factors that can be involved in chick
quality definition, it is clear that quantitative (weight or

length) and qualitative assessment of day-old chick
quality are relevant and related to broiler performance.
Chick quality as well as broiler performance are greatly
depressed by longer storage of hatching eggs and this
effect is more pronounced in eggs from older breeder.
These effects of storage or age of breeders could not be
explained by the proportion of sub-optimal chicks in the
flock as these growth performance differences were
predominantly present in chicks with maximal quality
score. Therefore, there are still other unknown factors
that affect later performance. Although biology of
chicken embryo development is universal, it is possible
that fine tuning of incubation conditions (temperatures,
humidity, ventilation conditions) according to egg
characteristics and climatic zones can lead to a one-day
old chick with different intrinsic factors which can
improve post hatch performance.
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112

Effect of Artificial Incubation and Brooding On Productivity of Village

Chicken
THOMAS JUNNE KAUDIA
Science Products Centre
Abstract
In Kenya village chicken represents 81% of all (32m) the chicken (GOK, 2010). The chicken is preferred by many
consumers and comparatively commands higher market prices. Reports (Robert, 1992; GOK, 2006; Kaudia, 2002;
Kitalyi, 1998) indicate that village chicken has the potential to break the vicious cycle of poverty, malnutrition and
disease and improve social welfare of women who are the main custodians of the chicken. This has not been possible in
Kenya because productivity and income under natural production are very low with many rural smallholder farmers
living below the poverty line. The objective of the study was to investigate the effect of artificial incubation, brooding
and supplementation on productivity and to indentify key challenges to commercial production.
Key words: Village-Chicken, market-prices, poverty, malnutrition, disease, productivity
Introduction
In Kenya village chicken represents 81% of the total
number of chicken (GOK, 2010). However, the income
earned from selling village chicken remains low with
many farmers living below the poverty line even in areas
with large numbers of this chicken (Kaudia and Kitalyi,
2002). For example, in Kusa Nyando district, households
earn an average of US$ 0.23 per person per month from
sale of village chicken in the local market (Kaudia, 2002)
According to Roberts (1992), village chicken has the
potential to break the vicious cycle of poverty,
malnutrition and disease. According to Sonaiya (1990),
production of village chicken has however, attracted little
attention from policy-makers, scientists and development
workers possibly due to its low productivity compared to
exotic breeds.
Pandey (1992), Aini (1990) and Kitalyi (1998) reported
that improved poultry production common with exotic
broilers and layers has not been applied on village
chicken. Village chicken therefore suffers high mortality
because of starvation, lack of water, predation and
diseases. Consequently, benefits of keeping village
chicken are not currently being realized in Africa
particularly south of the Sahara. The objective of this
research is to investigate the effect of artificial hatching
and incubation on the productivity of village chicken.
Determining Productivity and Production Systems
A total of 250 households were interviewed to determine
village chicken productivity and production methods in
Kusa village of Nyando district. To estimate quantitative
levels of supplementation each system used to scoop

feed was calibrated by weighing the amount of feed at
full scoop level.
Focus Group Discussions (FGD) and person-to-person
interviews were used to gather information from the
community. A total of 99 people participated in the
Focus Group Discussions. During the interviews, a
total of 121 questions were put to the respondents who
were randomly picked through a systematic transect
walk.
Determining Productivity under Artificial
Incubation and Different Management Systems
Six hundred saleable chicks were hatched in a 1000 egg
paraffin incubator and brooded for one month in a
paraffin heated brooder. The chicks were reared to week
8, divided into three lots and reared to week 144 under;
lot 1; free range, lot 2; semi-intensive and lot 3;
intensive. These lots of birds were treated as parent
flocks. The birds were reared as straight run flock. At
week eighteen, obviously small cocks less than 1.3
kilograms were culled from the flock and replaced with
other cocks bought from a pilot farm. A cock to hen ratio
of 1: 6 was maintained as determined in an earlier
experiment. Each lot had a flock structure of 50 hens and
eight cocks. Eggs from the three lots were hatched in the
1000 egg paraffin incubator and chicks reared for table
birds under different conditions comparing growth
rates. All the birds were vaccinated against Newcastle
Disease, Fowl Pox, and Fowl Typhoid adopted from
exotic layer vaccination program. Weight at first egg,
total number of eggs and hatchability were used to
determine productivity.
113

Sample eggs were candled on day 12 to give an
indication of fertility using a conventional dry cells
torch. Temperature and humid were measured using a
digital temperature/hygrometer gadget. Hatch analysis
was done on day 24.
Feed rations were locally made using maize, wheat
bran, hominy feed, fish meal, sunflower seed cake,
cotton seed cake, blood, premixes, common salt, bone
meal, marine shells. The compositions of the rations
were: Chick starter: 3000Kcal/kg, 20% CP; grower:
2500 Kcal/kg, 14% CP and layer: 2800 Kcal/kg, 18%
protein. The mixing was done manually.
All the birds were housed in east west oriented, open
sided poultry houses. Water was supplied through
automatic waterers while tube feeders were used to
provide feed.
Analysis of Results
Descriptive statistics were used to analyze egg-hatching
results. The mean rate of growth of chicks was
compared statistically p<. 05. Survey data was analyzed
using Statistical Package for Social Scientists computer
package (SPSS)
Productivity and Production Systems Under

Scavenge Systems
Village chicken production systems are based mainly on
scavenging with few farmers trying semi-intensive and
intensive systems. Farmers hardly keep farm records on
productivity and management practices. More than 50%
reared chicken as a source of income (39.4%) and food
(36.2%).
The average flock per family ranged between 1-59 hens
with 10% of the households having no chicken. A good
productive hen lays is 15.4 eggs per cycle with an
average of 3.1 cycles per year under natural production.
Farmers who wean off chicks at day old reported 5 cycles
while those confiscating eggs from laying pens reported
six cycles per year. Most farmers reported a hatchability
of 87%. The main challenge noted was high mortalities
averaging 80% during the brooding stages, use of
inappropriate equipment and lack of organized
coordination system as well as lack of skilled human
capital to offer needed technical advice.
Birds reached a market weight (2kg) after a minimum of
eight months with average five growers reaching market
weight per hen. Outbreaks of diseases remained the
biggest challenge with farmers selling off their flocks
when disease symptoms are noted. Ninety-eight percent
(98%) of the farmers feed supplements to chicken.
Productivity under Artificial Incubation and Brooding

Table 1: Productivity under artificial incubation and different management systems
Production parameters
Weight at first egg (kg)
Number of eggs 144 weeks
% Hatchability of fertile
Free range
1.2
85
58
Semi intensive
1.4
142
69
Intensive
1.8
176
77
Artificial incubation and improved management resulted in an increase in productivity between

88-291% depending on management system.
Table 2: Performance of Table Birds under different management systems
Parent Flocks
Management
system
Free Range Hens
Semi Intensive
Hens
Intensive Hens
Performance of Table Birds reared under different management

conditions and from Differently reared parent flocks
Time (months) to attain
Mortalities % in Table Birds
market weight (2kg)
Free
range
9
8
Semi
intensive
6
5.5
Intensive
Free range
Intensive
70
69
Semi
intensive
20
17
5
4
69
16
4
3.5
Intensive management resulted in faster growth rate, earlier attainment of market weight and
reduced mortalities.
114
Conclusions
Artificial incubation and improved management as well
as application of innovative technologies are the key
factors in improving productivity of village chicken.
The main challenges are free range system, failure to
apply innovative technologies, lack of coordination
mechanisms and lack of skilled human capital.
References
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South-eastAsia", Worlds poultry, 46, 51-57.
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base in assessments of the productivity of scavenging
village chicken. In P. B. Spradbrow, ed. Newcastle
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Malaysia.
SONAIYA, E. B. 1990. Towards sustainable poultry
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system in rural Africa: Household food security and
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Rome, Italy: FAO
115

Observations on the parasites and pathology of gastrointestinal tract of freerange chickens in Abeokuta, Southwestern Nigeria.
OLANIYI, M. O.,AKINYEMI, A.A., AKANDE, F..A., TAKEET M.I., AJAYI O.L. AND OLUGBOGI
E.I.
College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Agriculture, Abeokuta. Nigeria.
Correspondence: mosh_unaab@yahoo.com
Abstract
This study was aimed at identifying the parasites and associated pathology of gastrointestinal tract (GIT) of
indigenous domestic chickens (Gallus gallus domesticus) reared on free-range in Abeokuta and its environs
in Ogun state, Nigeria. GIT samples from fifty one (51) apparently healthy adult male and female chickens
were examined. Thirty (58.8%) were infected with at least one species of helminth and the infection was
predominantly polyparasitism. Six (6) species of helminths were recovered; these were Ascaridia sp.
(13.7%), Heterakis sp. (7.8%), Subulura sp. (11.8%), Raillietina sp. (45.1%), Choanotaenia sp. (17.6%),
and Amoebataenia sp (5.9%). However no trematode was recorded. Cestodes occurred more frequently
(P<0.05) than nematodes with Raillietina sp having the highest worm burden of 29.2%. Male fowls carried a
significant worm burden (P<0.05) than the females. Morphological appearance of lesions observed along the
GIT included catarrhal / haemorrhagic enteritis (60.8%), hypertrophy of intestinal wall with serosal oedema
(47.1%), mucosal hyperaemia with or without haemorrhagic exudates (17.6%), haemorrhagic caecal tonsils
(58.8%) and focal areas of ulceration in the intestinal mucosa (2.7%). The implication of the result is
discussed with reference to the management system, public health importance and control of helminthosis of
free-range chickens in the
study area and Nigeria at large.
Keywords: Helminth/free range chicken/gastrointestinal tract/pathology
Introduction
Rural poultry production, particularly free-range
chickens followed by ducks play a significant role
in the socio-economic development of Nigeria and
almost 90% of all rural families keep a small
number of indigenous chickens under traditional
free-range (Sonaiya, 2003). In Nigeria, the local
chickens (Gallus gallus domesticus) is widely
reared traditionally on a free-range at a subsistence
level (Adegeye et al.,1988; Fakae and Paul-Abiade,
2003) with more than 80% of this poultry
population found in the rural areas (Sonaiya, 2003).
Homestead in rural and peri-urban areas in Nigeria
is estimated to keep 8 free-range chickens where
these chickens contribute over 90% of the internal
supply of poultry meat (Ikeme,1997) and cash
income when sold (Sonaiya, 2003).
Statistics had shown that there are over 150 million
poultry in Nigeria of which 102.8million are
indigenous (RIM report, 1993). Throughout the
developing world this birds are raised under
extensive system of management with little or no
supplementary feed and without any veterinary care
116
(Fakae et al., 1991).

The few available data (Fabiyi et al., 1972, Malaki,
1976, Fakae et al., 1991) strongly suggested that
parasites of chickens, particularly endoparasites are
a major constraint to
production and productivity of free range chickens
in Nigeria.
Studies on parasites of the GIT of free range
chickens and the associated pathology are scarce in
Nigeria and its research has received little attention,
ostensibly due to less visible lesions produced by
these parasites. Attempts had however been made
by few workers; Fabiyi (1972), Gadzama and
Srivastava (1986) who studied the epidemiology
and prevalence of GIT helminthes in Northern
Nigeria. Likewise, Fakae and Paul Abiade (2003),
Fakae (1986), Fakae et al. (1991) did similar work
in Eastern Nigeria. Hitherto to the best of our
knowledge no previous work of this kind has been
done in South-West Nigeria.
Since free-range fowls are a source of ready cash
and meat their potential could be enhanced through

appropriate research, therefore the overall
objective is to carry out an observation of the
parasites and pathology of the gastrointestinal tract
of free range chickens in Abeokuta, South Western
Nigeria.
Study Population
Thirty-five apparently healthy adult male and
female free-range chickens were purchased from
local markets located in the rural and peri-urban
areas of Abeokuta South Local government Area,
Abeokuta. In addition 16 fresh GIT samples of
adult free range chickens were collected at
slaughter sites at the Kuto Market in Abeokuta
metropolis.
Examination Procedure
Following sample collection, the different regions
of the GIT were ligated to prevent migration of their
content into adjacent portion. The samples were put
in sterile labeled polythene bags before been taken
to the laboratory. In the laboratory each region was
identified anatomically and incised longitudinally,
these were processed separately according to
Ashenafi and Eshetu (2004). Each region was split
open and observed for lesions associated with the
parasites. Thin fresh smears were made from the
small intestine and the caecal content; these were
mixed thoroughly with 2/3 drops of normal saline
on a glass slide, covered with a cover slip and
examined under the microscope (Olympus
Germany) for
coccidia oocysts.
Parasite Identification
The worm samples recovered were placed on Petri
dish containing lacto-phenol to facilitate
identification. Examination and identification were
carried out using a stereomicroscope at x40
magnification. Identification of the various
parasites was performed as described by Soulsby
(1982). Genus Rallietina could not be identify to
species level due to loss of scolices
during collection.
DataAnalysis
Results were presented as means and percentages.
Data were compared using chi-square statistical
method. In all cases, P values less than 0.05 were
considered significant.
Results
A total of 51 intestinal samples were collected
during the study. 30 (58.82%) samples were
infected with at least a helminth. However the
infections were mainly polyparasitism. 6 helminths
species observed were: three nematodes namely:
Ascaridia sp. (13.7%), Heterakis sp. (7.8%), and
Subulura sp. (11.8%) and three cestodes viz
Raillietina sp. (45.1%), Choanotaenia sp. (17.6%),
and Amoebataenia sp (5.9%). No trematode was
recorded. The prevalence of each worm species are
shown in figure 1. The result showed a stastistically
significant difference (P<0.05) in the prevalence
and incidence rate of cestode and nematode
in the infected birds (Table 1).
The highest prevalence of infection in this study
was due to Rallietina spp (45.1%), followed by
Choanotaenia spp (17.6%). The prevalence and the
mean worm burden of the birds examined are as
shown in Table 1. Male birds carried significant
worm burden (P<0.05) than the female (Fig.2).
The common combinations of helminthes observed
in this study are presented in Table II. Coccidia
oocysts occurred in 26.8% of the studied chickens
and in all cases, oocysts occurred concurrently with
at least one helminth. Catarrhal/ haemorrhagic
enteritis (60.8%) topped the list of pathological
lesions observed, this is closely followed by
haemorrhagic caecal tonsils (58.8%), and other
lesions are hypertrophy of intestinal wall with
serosal oedema (47.1%), mucosal hyperaemia with
or without haemorrhagic exudate (17.6%)
and focal ulceration of intestinal mucosa (2.7%).
Of the coccidia oocysts observed in this study,
Eimeria brunetti had the highest infection rate
followed by E. tenella. Rallietina spp and Ascaridia
galli were found attached to the small intestinal
mucosa particularly the ileum resulting into focal
areas of ulceration observed in this study.
Discussion
The present study recorded a relatively high
prevalence (58.87%) of helminth in the
traditionally reared free range chickens; this figure
was lower than the previous studies by Fabiyi
(1972) and Fakae et al., (1991). This could be as a
result of the fact that people are becoming more
enlightened on the need to give proper
management.
117
Table 1: Frequency, worm burden and female to male ratio of helminths species recovered
from the proventriculus and Small intestine of free range chicken in Abeokuta.
Helminth species
No infected
Total number
Of chicken
infected
Total number
Sampled =51
Mean
Male : female
Ratio
45.1
29.2
3 :1
17.6
9.4
3.5 :1
5.9
3.5
1 :2
26
11
37
68.6
Ascaridia galli
13.7
7.2
1 : 0.6
Heterakis gallinarum
7.8
6.8
1 : 0.4
Subulura spp.
11.8
4.1
2:1
14
17
31.5
Cestodes:
Ralietina
Choanotaenia
Amoebotaenia
Total cestode
Nematode:
Total nematode
(%)
18
25
Table 2. Common combinations of GIT worms observed in the free-range chickens during
the study.
Genera
Infection rate (%)
Rallietina spp alone
52.8
Subulura spp
22.9
Rallietina spp and Heterakis spp
8.2
Rallietina spp, Heterakis spp and Ascaridia galli
5.8
Rallietina spp, Heterakis spp, Coccidia and Ascaridia galli
26.8
The high prevalence recorded in this study might be
a result of continuous exposure of free range
chickens to conditions that facilitate infections.
Throughout the developing world indigenous free
range chickens are known to scavenge for survival
with little or no supplementary feeding (Fakae et
al., 1991). They satisfy their nutrient requirement
by roaming from place to place usually seeking
their feed in the superficial layer of the soil which
often are contaminated with all kinds of living
organisms including various insects and
earthworms which serves as intermediate hosts for
helminthes that infect poultry (Fakae et
al., 1991,Ashenafi and Eshetu, 2004).
The highest prevalence of infection in this study
was due to cestode (68.6%) of which Rallietina spp
118
was the highest(45.15%), this can be attributted to

the wide spread and easy availability of the
intermediate hosts (dung beetles and ants) to the
scavenging chickens.
Rallietina spp has been reported to be the most
common prevalent helmith of poultry of free range
chickens in Nigeria ( Fabiyi et al. 1972, Gadazama
and Srivabtava, 1986, Fakae et al. 1991), this
cestode had been reported to be responsible for
major problem of indigenous birds in Nigeria
especially when such incidence is associated with
clinical rallietinosis (Okoye and Chime, 1988).
Parasitic cestodes in poultry are known to cause
retarded growth, diarrhea and
catarral/haemorrhagic enteritis (Gordon and Jordan,
1982) which was observed in this study. Heavy
35
Prevalence (%)
30
25
20
Male
Female
15
10
5
ai
lli
et
in
a
sp
.
ho
an
ot
ae
ni
a
sp
Am
.
oe
ba
ta
en
ia
sp
.
As
ca
rid
ia
sp
.
H
et
er
ak
is
sp
.
Su
bu
lu
ra
sp
.
Helminths species
Fig. 1: Prevalence and incidence rate of gastrointestinal helminths of free-range chickens inAbeokuta.
60
50
Number (%)
40
30
20
10
0
Male
Female
Sex
Fig. 2: Frequency distribution showing prevalence of infection in male and female birds.
119
infections have also been shown to cause death of

young birds as well as decreased
egg production in laying chickens (Gordon and
Jordan, 1982).
The most prevalent nematode species in this study
was Ascaridia galli (13.7%) closely followed by
Subulura sp (11.8%) while Heterakis gallinarum
was the least observed. Ascaridia galli has been
shown to have major effect on the health of
chickens by sharing feed with the affected birds
thus causing stunted growth and low productivity
(Permin et al., 1997) this may be related to
intestinal damage caused by this parasite (Fatihu et
al., 1992) as observed in this study.
Polyparasitism involving two helminth genera was
most common in the present study and concurrent
infections of helminthes with coccidia as observed
in some of these birds. Protozoans of the genus
Eimeria multiply in the intestinal mucosa with
resultant interruption of digestive process or
nutrient absorption, leading to dehydration, loss of
weight and drop in egg production in laying birds
(Hedge and Keid, 1969). Eimeria spp are also
capable of suppressing the immune mechanism of
the host thus making them susceptible to other
disease agents (MacDongald et. al., 1979).
This study showed that free range chickens are
highly susceptible to Newcastle disease (ND)
Virus; previous studies have reported that ND virus
is endemic in indigenous village poultry (Orajaka
et al., 1999, Ohore et al., 2003, Nwanta et al., 2006,
Oyekunle, et al., 2006, Otesile et al., 2008). High
incidence of haemorrhagic and catarrhal enteritides
(60.8%) and haemorrhagic caecal tonsils (58.8%)
which are consistent lesions in ND recorded in the
present study lend credence to this assertion. Hence
the necessity to routinely vaccinate free-range
chickens against ND as earlier recommended by
Otesile, et al., (2008).
This study concluded that local chickens managed
under free-range conditions are heavily parasitized
and especially with those helminthes that require
intermediate hosts. Other studies across the
continent of Africa (Jansen and Pandey 1989,
Fatihu et al., 1992, Ashenefi and Eshetu, 2004,
Fakae et al., 2003, Permin et al., 1997, Ssenyonga,
1982) have earlier maintained that the predominant
gastrointestinal helminths of the free range
chickens are those that require invertebrate vectors.
It is thus suggested that the dominant role and
120
voracious eating habit of adult male birds may have

predisposed them to picking more intermediate host
during scavenging than the females, hence the high
significance difference
in the worm burden between the sexes observed in
this study.
This study strongly recommend the introduction of a
modified traditional management system, such as
semi intensive system of husbandry in which birds
will be raised in the backyard enclosure with poultry
feed supplementation, this system will surely reduce
contact with intermediate hosts. Preventive and
control strategies are the surest way in preventive
and public veterinary medicine; the use of broad
spectrum antihelminthics in drinking water and
maintenance of clean environment remain the most
probable and reliable option for the control of
helminth infection in the free range chickens in
Nigeria.
This study therefore recommends periodic use of
suitable coccidiostat in drinking water to prevent
coccidiosis, a disease which itself may predispose
birds to clinical helmithosis and Newcastle disease
due to immunosuppressive effects.
References
ASHENAFI, A. & ESHETU, T. (2004). Study on
Gastrointestinal helminthes of local chicken in
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FAKAE, B.B, UMEORIZU, J.M. & ORAJAKA,
L.J.E. (1991). Gastrointestinal helminth infection of
domestic fowl (Gallus gallus) during dry season in
Eastern Nigeria. Journal of Zoology 105: pp503508.
FATIHU, M.Y. OGBOGU, V.C, NJOKU, C.O. &
SARROR, D.I. (1992). Observations on lesions
associated with some gastrointestinal nematodes of
chickens in Zaria, Nigeria. Bull. Animal Prod. Afr.
40: 15-18
GORDON, R.F & JORDAN, F.T. (1982). Poultry
nd
diseases. Baillere & Tindale. 2 Ed. Great Britain.
HEDGE, K.S & REID, W.M. (1969). Effect of six
single species of coccidia on egg production and
culling rate of susceptible layers. Poultry Science.
28:818-820
JANSEY, J. & PANDEY, V.S. (1989). Observation
on helminth parasites of domestic fowls
in Zimbabwe. Zimbabwe Vet. Journal. 20: 15-17.

MALAKI, A. (1976). A checklist of helminth
parasites of domestic animals in Nigeria. Bull.
Animal health production 24: 301-305.
MCDOUGALD, L.T. KARISON, T. & REID, W.M.
(1979). In: Disease of poultry 10th
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NWANTA, J.A. UMOH, J.U, ABDU, P.A. AJOGI,
I. & ALLI-BALOGUN, J.K. (2006). Management
of loses and Newcastle disease in rural poultry in
Kaduna State Nigeria. Nig
Journal ofAnimal production. 33(2): 274-285.
OHORE, O.G., OZEGBE, P.C., EMIKPE, B.O. &
OKOJIE, V.E. (2003). Survey of Antibodies to
Newcastle disease Virus in apparently healthy adult
indigenous chickens (Gallus gallus domesticus) in
Ibadan using ELISA. Africa Journal of Clinical and
Experimental Microbiology 3 (1):38-40.
OKOYE, J.O.A & CHIME, A.B. (1988). A case
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OTESILE, E.B., OYEKULE, M.A., ONI, O.O.,
ADEBOWALE, O.O., KEHINDE, O.O., OJO,
E.O.& AKINDUTI, P.A.(2008. Detection of
Newcastle Disease Virus Antigen and Antibody in
Vaccinated and Unvaccinated Local Chickens in
Abeokuta. Nigeria Poultry Science Journal 5 (3):
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OYEKUNLE, M.A., TALABI, A.O. & OKEOWO,

A.O. (2006). Serological status for Newcastle disease
virus in unvaccinated indigenous chickens in Yewa
Division of Ogun State, Nigeria. International
Journal of Poultry Science.5 (12): 1119-1122.
PERMIN, A., MAGWISHA, H., KASSUKU, A.A.,
NANSEN, P., BISGAARD, M., FRANDSEN, F. &
GIBBONS, L. (1997). A cross-sectional study of
helminthes in rural scavenging poultry in Tanzania in
relation to season and climate. J. helminth. 71: 233240.
ORAJAKA, L.J.E, ADENE, D.F., ANENE, B.M. &
ONUOHA, E.A. 1999. Sero-prevalence
of Newcastle disease in local chicken from southeast
derived savannah Zone of Nigeria. Revev d'Elevage
et la Medecine Veterinarian des pays Trop. 52 (3-4):
185-188.
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Report. (1993): Nigeria Livestock Reserve; Fed.
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FMA, Garki,Abuja.
SSENYONGA, G.S. (1982). Prevalence of helminth
parasites of Domestic fowl (Gallus domesticus) in
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122
Short profile of Editorial Board

Dr S.I.Ola - Editor-in-Chief
Address: Department of
Animal Science, Obafemi
Awolowo University Ile-Ife,
Nigeria.
Education : University of
Ibadan, Nigeria (Ph.D., Animal
Science); Obafemi Awolowo
University, Ile Ife, Nigeria
(M.Sc., Animal Science; University of Ibadan, Nigeria
(B.Sc.,Animal Science).
Scholarly Interests and Publications: Dr Ola is an
Assistant Professor in reproductive biology with focus
on the ovarian functioning in farm animals. He is a
recipient of a number of awards, research grants and
research fellowships including from TWAS and IFS.
Has about 40 scientific publications and attended many
scientific meetings including two World Poultry
Congresses.
Professional Organization/Affiliations: Member:
Society for the Study of Reproduction (US); Nigerian
Society for Animal Production; Animal Science
Association of Nigeria; Worlds Poultry Science
Association , Nigerian Branch; New York Academy of
Sciences; and Affiliate Fellow of Academy of Sciences
for the Developing World, TWAS.
DrA.V Jegede - Deputy Editor-in-Chief

Address: Department of Animal Nutrition, University
ofAgriculture,Abeokuta, Nigeria
Education : B Sc, M Sc, Ph.D. (Animal Nutrition),
University ofAgriculture,Abeokuta, Nigeria.
Scholarly Interests and Publications: Utilization of
alternative feedstuffs for poultry production.
Nigerian Society for Animal Production; Animal
Science Association of Nigeria; Worlds Poultry Science
Association.
Associate Editors
Dr A.O. Makinde (Poultry product and value addition
sub-editor)
Address: Department of Animal Science, Obafemi
Awolowo University Ile-Ife, Nigeria.

Education : B Sc, M Sc, Ph.D. (Animal Science),
ObafemiAwolowo University, Ile Ife, Nigeria.
Scholarly Interests and Publications: Research interests
are in animal nutrition and animal products. Current
research activity concerns development of simple and
rapid production procedures for processing wet animal
feed sources such as brewers dried grains and rumen
content. Has a number of publications to his credit.
Science Association of Nigeria; Worlds Poultry Science
Association , Nigerian Branch.
Dr J.O.Agbede (Poultry Nutrition and Feed sub-editor)

Address: Department of Animal Production and Health,
Federal University of Technology, Akure, Nigeria
Education: Ph.D. (Animal Production), M. Agric.
Tech., (Animal Production & Health), B. Agric. Tech.
(Animal Production & Health) Federal University of
\technology,Akure, Nigeria.
Scholarly Interests and Publications: His current
research interest is on Microbial Phytase effects on
amino acid digestibility and energy metabolisability of
caecectomised laying hens fed lysine or methionine
deficient diet. He is an AvH fellow with over 50
scientific publications. A reviewer to many journals
including Asian Journal of Agricultural Research; Asian
Journal of Animal and Veterinary Advances; Nigerian
Poultry Science Journal; Journal of Food Composition
and Analysis, Italy; Nigerian Journal of Animal
Production, Nigeria; Asian Journal of Animal Sciences,
Pakistan; Asian Journal of Biochemistry, Pakistan;
Asian Journal of Poultry Science, Pakistan; Applied
TropicalAgriculture, Nigeria
Nigerian Society for Animal Production; Worlds
Poultry Science Association; MASHAV Shalom Club,
Israel; Deutsch Poultry Science Association, Alexander
von Humboldt Stiftung/Foundation Fellow, Nigeria
Branch.
123
Dr R. Kassali (Poultry
Economics and French abstract
sub-editor)
Department of Agricultural
Economics, Obafemi Awolowo
Education : B Sc.
(Agriculture), University of
Niamey, Niger; M Sc, PhD
(Rural Economics), University
of Cocody, Cote de Voire.
Scholarly Interests and Publications: Research
interest is focused on the economics of poultry products
in Nigeria. Has a number of publications to his credit.
Nigerian Association of Agricultural Economists,
Farm ManagementAssociation of Nigeria.
Dr S.O.Adejoro (Industry and Commentary sub-editor)

Address: Head of Marketing and Research, Zartech
Farms limited, Ibadan, Nigeria
Education: DVM, M.B.A., University of Ibadan,
Nigeria.
Scholarly Interests and Publications: Agriculture &
Natural Resources, Livestock management and capacity
development. Dr Adejoro has several years experience
and impeccable records as farm management consultant
with many awards to his credit. He has published widely
and is a regular contributor to World poultry Magazine
and Nigerian National dailies. He also published two
books namely: A handbook for poultry practitioners and
consultants (layers); and Poultry Feed formulation for
laymen.
Professional Organization/Affiliations: Member &
past president of Nigeria Veterinary Medical
Association of Oyo & Oshun States of Nigeria; Member
& past president Private Veterinary Medical
Practitioners of Oyo & Oshun States; Member Nigeria
Institute of Management (Agric Management; President
Cattle Ranchers Association of Oyo State (For youth &
gender empowerment); Member Poultry Association of
Nigeria; Registered Consultant to Africa Development
Bank.
Dr A. Ladokun (Reproduction and Physiology subeditor)
Address: Department of Animal Physiology, University
Education : B Sc, M Sc, Ph D (Animal Science),
University of Ibadan, Nigeria.
Scholarly Interests and Publications: Hormonal
124
regulation of growth and fertility in farm animals with

over 20 scientific publications. Professional
Organization/Affiliations: Member: Nigeria Society for
Experimental Biology; Nigerian Society for Animal
Production; Animal Science Association of Nigeria;
Worlds Poultry ScienceAssociation , Nigerian Branch.
Professor M. O. Ozoje (Animal Breeding and

Genetics sub-editor)
Address: Department ofAnimal Breeding and Genetics,
University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Nigeria Education
: B.Sc. Genetics, University of Calabar, Nigeria, M Sc,
Ph D., Animal Breeding and Genetics, University of
Ibadan, Nigeria.
Scholarly Interests and Publications: Research
interest includes: Prediction and Estimation of Genetic
Parameters for Growth, Survival and Reproduction in
Ruminant Species; Pleiotropic Effects of Qualitative
Trait Genes on the Productive Adaptability of the West
African Dwarf Sheep and Goat; Mathematical Modeling
of Economic and Performance Traits in Sheep and Goats
under different Management Systems; Analysis of
Quantitative Trait Loci using Candidate Gene Approach
for Growth and Milk Traits; Statistical Genomics and
Bioinformatics of Epigenetic Changes in Inherited
Diseases.
Has over 50 scientific publications and attended many
scientific meetings.
Nigeria Society for Animal Production; Genetics
Society of Nigeria; Foundation for Africa Development
through International Biotechnology; International Goat
Association; International Biometrics Society.
Professor M.A. Dipeolu (Animal Health sub-editor)

Address: Department of Veterinary Public Health and
Reproduction, College of Veterinary Medicine,
University ofAgriculture,Abeokuta, Nigeria
Education: DVM, MVPH, Ph D., Faculty of Veterinary
Medicine, University of Ibadan, Nigeria.
Scholarly Interests and Publications: Dr Dipeolu is
involved in veterinary public health and extension
activities with over 50 scientific publications and
attended many scientific meetings.
Nigerian Veterinary Medical Association; Nigerian
Society for Animal Production; World Poultry Science
Association; Nigerian Field Society; Nigerian Society of
Parasitology.
International Advisory Board

Professor E.B. Sonaiya
Animal Science, Obafemi
Awolowo University Ile-Ife,
Nigeria.
Cornell
Education:
University, Ithaca, NY, USA.
(Ph.D., Animal Science);
University of Ife, Ile Ife,
Nigeria (M.Phil. Animal
Science; B.Sc.,Agriculture).
Scholarly Interests and Publications: Within the
broad area of sustainable animal agriculture, has made
significant contributions to knowledge in four specific
areas: Energy Nutrition of Livestock; Energetics of the
growth and development of poultry; Sustainable
Commercial Poultry Production; Smallholder Family
Poultry for community development. Recipient of
several research grants, scholarships, study and research
fellowships. Has supervised 15 PhD, M.Phil and M.Sc
students. Has 145 scientific publications including 10
authored and 5 edited books.
Professional Organization/Affiliations: Fellow,
Nigerian Society for Animal Production (NSAP),
Animal Science Association of Nigeria (ASAN),
Coordinator, International Network for Family Poultry
Development (INFPD) and Former president, Worlds
Poultry Science Association , Nigerian Branch(WPSANB).
Professor M.O. Onagbesan

Address: Department of Animal Physiology, University
Education: BSc. (Animal Science), University of
Ibadan, Nigeria; MSc (Animal Genetics and
Breeding)University of Edinburgh, UK.;. Phd
(Reproductive Physiology/ Endocrinology), University
of Southampton, UK.
Scholarly Interests and Publications: Major research
interests are endocrine, paracrine and autocrine control
of reproduction in farm animals, embryo physiology,
adaptation physiology, incubation biology,
developmental biology and gene expression profiling
using molecular biology and proteomic methods.
Additional interests are in the field of nutritionreproduction interaction in farm animals. Recipient of
several research grants, scholarships, study and research

fellowships. Review of several manuscripts for the
following journals: Reproduction; General and
Comparative Endocrinology;
The Histochemical
Journal; Biology of Reproduction; British poultry
Science; Domestic Animal Endocrinology;
Biotechnology Progress; American Journal of
Physiology -Cell Physiology; FEBB Letters;
Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology A; Journal
of Animal Breeding and Genetics.; and Veterinary
Research Communications. Has over 150 scientific
publications including Chapters in 4 books and 12
Genebank publications.
Professional Organization/Affiliations: Member of
Society for the Study of Fertility, UK; Society for
Endocrinology, UK; British Poultry Science
Association; Growth Factors Group, UK; Animal
Science Society, UK; Worlds Poultry Science
Association (Belgium Branch).
ProfessorA.O.Adebambo
Address: Department ofAnimal Breeding and Genetics,
University ofAgriculture,Abeokuta, Nigeria
Education : B.Sc. (Hons) Animal Science; Ph.D
Animal Breeding (University of Ibadan, Nigeria)
Scholarly Interests and Publications: Research focus is
on evaluation of indigenous livestock genetic resources
for effective utilization and the development of new
strains and breeds of truly tropical livestock breeds for
the Nigerian market. So far 2 new breeds of pigs,
namely the NIGERHYBS I and II, and 2 new strains
of chicken namely, Alpha White (meat-type) and Alpha
Brown (egg-type) are the results of several years of
research for the Nigerian farmer. The First and only
female Professor of Animal Breeding and Genetic in
West Africa. Recipient of several research grants,
scholarships, study and research fellowships. Has
supervised/advised over 25 graduate students. Has over
80 scientific publications including edited books,
reports and peer reviewed papers.
Professional Organization/Affiliations: Life member of
Genetics Society of Nigeria and Nigerian Society for
Animal Production and member, British Society for
Animal Production; American Society for Animal
Science; Rare Breeds International (World Society for
Conservation of Animal Genetic Resources); World
Poultry ScienceAssociation.
125
Professor S. Yalcin
Animal Science, Ege
University, Turkey
Education: B.S., PhD, Ege
University, Izmir-Turkey
Scholarly Interests and
Publications: Her current
researches are on genotype by
environment interactions,
adaptation and prenatal stress, developmental stability
in broilers, broiler carcass and meat quality. Has over 70
scientific publications. Professional
Organization/Affiliations: Secretary of WPSA Turkish
Branch, elected 1999 and Chairman of WG11
(Education and Information) of WPSA European
Federation since 2004.
Dr H.M. Yakout Address: Department of Poultry

Science,Alexandria University,Alexandria, Egypt
Professor EAIyayi
Address: Department of Animal Science, University of
Ibadan, Nigeria
B Sc, MSc, Phd in Agricultural
Education:
Biochemistry and Nutrition, Dept of Animal Science,
University of Ibadan, Nigeria.
Scholarly Interests and Publications: Research focus is
Nutritional Biotechnology for improved Farm Animal
Production.. Recipient of several research grants,
scholarships, study and research fellowships. Has
supervised over 25 graduate students. Has over 100
scientific publications.
Professional Organization/Affiliations: Member,
Science Association of Nigeria (Editor-in-Chief of the
associations journal 2002-2005); British Society for
Animal Science; World Poultry Science AssociationNigerian Branch; Nigerian Institute of Experimental
Biology and Member of Council of the Nigerian
Institute ofAnimal Science.
Professor O.Adeola
Animal Sciences,
Purdue
University, West Lafayette, IN
47907, USA.
Education: Ph.D. in Animal
Science with Distinction,
Univ. of Guelph, Canada; M.
126
Sc. in Animal Science, Univ. of Guelph, Canada; B. Agr.

in Animal Science, Univ. of Ife, Ile-Ife, Nigeria.
Scholarly Interests and Publications: His research
program emphasizes amino acid nutrition and utilization
of plant minerals by non-ruminant animal species. His
specific research thrusts include: 1) amino acid
availability and amino acid-energy relationships, 2)
nutritional evaluation of non-traditional feedstuffs, and
3) mineral utilization and excretion in non-ruminants.He
is a recipient of several awards. He has published
extensively including over 104 Peered Reviewed
Journal Articles, 5 Book Chapters, 17 Conferences
Proceedings, and 104Abstracts.
Professional Organization/Affiliations: Membership of
American Society of Animal Science; American Society
for Nutrition; British Society of Animal Science;
Canadian Society of Animal Science; Poultry Science
Association; and Worlds Poultry ScienceAssociation.
Dr V. Olori
Address: Aviagen Inc., Scotland, United Kingdom
Education: PhD (Quantitative Genetics / Animal
breeding), University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh,
Scotland, M. Sc. , B. Agric in Animal Science, Obafemi
Awolowo University Ile - Ife, Nigeria.
Scholarly Interests and Publications: Dr Olori is a
System Geneticist with Aviagen ltd., a poultry breeding
company with breeding programs for broiler Chickens
and Turkeys. He is responsible for the routine genetic
evaluation of several pure lines of Chickens and Turkeys
in the breeding programs within the Aviagen portfolio.
He is equally involved in research as well as genetic
system (computing) developments to facilitate and
enhance accuracy of breeding selection. He has
published extensively with over 50 peered reviewed
journal articles, book chapters, conferences
proceedings, abstracts and technical report.
Professional Organization/Affiliations: Member of
Nigeria Society of Animal Production (NSAP);
International Network for Rural Poultry Development
(INFPD); Canadian Society of Animal Science (CSAS);
and Irish GrasslandAssociation (IGA).
Professor Hui Li
Address: College of Animal
S c i e n c e & Te c h n o l o g y
Northeast Agricultural
U n i v e r s i t y, H a r b i n ,
Heilongjiang Province, 150030,
P. R. CHINA
Education: Ph. D. Major: Animal Genetics and

Breeding, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, P.
R. CHINA; M. Sc. Major: Poultry Breeding and
Production. Xinjiang Agricultural University, Urumqi,
Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, P. R. CHINA;
B.Sc. Major: Animal Science. Xinjiang Agricultural
University, Urumqi, Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous
Region, P. R. CHINA.
Scholarly Interests and Publications: His research
interest includes Poultry Genetics and Breeding;
Molecular Genetic Characters and Marker-Assisted
Selection of Poultry Important Economic Traits. He is a
recipient of several research grants, scholarships, study
and research fellowships. Has over 60 scientific
publications. Reviewer for: National 863 Project of
China; National Natural Science Foundation of China
;Journal of Genetics and Genomics; Hereditas (Beijing);
Chinese Journal of Animal Science; Gene; Journal of
Animal Breeding and Genetics;Acta Biochimica et
Biophysica Sinica; Journal of Agricultural
Biotechnology;Agricultural Sciences in China.
Professional Organization/Affiliations: Member,
World Poultry ScienceAssociation ;
Vice Director of Poultry Association, Chinese
Association of Animal Science and Veterinary
Medicine; Vice Director of Animal Genetics and
Breeding, Chinese Association of Animal Science and
Veterinary Medicine.
Dr K.M. Shouq
Address: 392-A, Samanabad
Faisalabad Pakistan-38070
Education:
D . V. M
(University Of Agriculture
Faisalabad, Pakistan) F.Sc
Agriculture (University Of
Agriculture Faisalabad,
Pakistan); S.S.C Sargodha
Board.
Scholarly Interests and Publications: Dr Shouq has
been editor to many publications including;
www.agrilive.com.pk; www.pakissan.com; livestock
and poultry information network (LPIN); veterinary
news and views weekly; agricultural news agency
Pakistan; poultry and livestock industry finders (PLIF)
and many others.
Professional Organization/Affiliations: Life Member
of Pakistan Veterinary Medical Association and Pakistan
Veterinary Medical Council (RVMP-84); Secretary
Pakistan Veterinary Medical Association Punjab Zone;
Secretary Advisory Board Pakistan Veterinary Medical
Association Punjab Zone; Secretary, World Poultry
ScienceAssociation, Pakistan Branch.
127
128
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P SJ
NIGERIAN BRANCH
Official International Journal of the World Poultry Science Association-Nigeria Branch

Le Journal Officiel International de la Branche Nigeriane de lAssociation Scientifique Avicole Mondiale
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Npsj

Nigeria Poultry Science Journal

ISSN - 2006 0718

Full paper also available online at

ISSN - 2006 0718

College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Agriculture,

REVIEWERS FOR VOLUME 5

A.O. Amao M.O. Ozoje

Nigerian Poultry Science Journal

Content of Volume 6 (2009) & Volume 7 (2010)

Economics of Egg Wholesale Market in Osun State, Nigeria

Utilization of instant noodle wastes in diets of cockerel chicken

Application of canonical discriminant analysis to performance traits in broiler strains

Poultry breeding and climate change: The role of feed efficiency.

Nigerian Poultry Science Journal

Effect ofArtificial Incubation and Brooding On Productivity of Village Chicken

Observations on the parasites and pathology of gastrointestinal tract of free-range chickens in

Nigerian Poultry Science Journal

Nigerian Poultry Science Journal

S.I. Ola Phd

Nigerian Poultry Science Journal

Nigerian Poultry Science Journal

Nigerian Poultry Science Journal Vol 6, 2009

Nigerian Poultry Science Journal 6:2 - 10

Economics of Egg Wholesale Market in Osun State, Nigeria

eggs will need to be assembled, packaged and

are produced from different systems: extensive,

marketers, can bring improvement in egg

Market conduct is the ensemble of behaviours and

Nigeria which often account for increased

Measures of Markup and Markup Percentage

selling price (Baker, 1985).

Medium Wholesaler(300 - 500)

Small Wholesaler (<300)

Fast food firms

Fig 1: Egg wholesale marketing channels in Osun State

storage were adopted by wholesalers: storage at

value of 0.1. These three measures of the egg

Table 1: Analysis of egg wholesale market structure

Nigerian Poultry Science Journal

Table 2: Analysis of egg wholesale market conduct and performance

Table 3: Determinants of egg wholesaling performance

Nigerian Poultry Science Journal

poultry marketing firms affect competition in

Determinants of egg wholesaler's

2007. Briefing Rooms. Food Marketing System in

COUTTS JA & WILSON GC, 2006. Optimum Egg

Nigerian Poultry Science Journal

Nigerian Poultry Science Journal 6: 11-16

meant for one adult chicken (Haruna et al., 1997),

recorded no deleterious effect on carcass yield and

Each treatment group was further sub-divided into

Table 1. Proximate composition of maize and millet

Nigerian Poultry Science Journal

Table 2. Composition of the experimental diets feed to the quail

Replacement levels of millet (%)

Nigerian Poultry Science Journal

Table 3: Performance and nutr ient utilization of quail chicks fed

diets containing maize and

Replacement levels of millet (%)

Initial weight (g/bird)

Final weight (g/bird)

Daily weight gain (g/bird)

Daily feed intake (g\/bird)