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VictorianLiteratureandtheReceptionofGreeceandRome

AlouseonthelocksofliteraturewasTennysonsresentfulcharacterisationofthe
criticJohnChurtonCollins,whopainstakinglyenumeratedtheLaureatesallusions
toclassicaltexts.Tennysonfelthehadbeenaccusedofunoriginalityoreven
plagiarism,andwasnotappeasedbytheimageofhimselfasadoctuspoeta(learned
poet)likeCatullus,Virgil,orHorace.Collins(aformerstudentofthedistinguished
classicistBenjaminJowett)wasattemptingtoestablishEnglishLiteratureasan
academicdisciplineofequalseriousnesswithClassicsbycreatinganalliance
betweenthesubjects.HefavouredcomparativestudiesofEnglishwritersand
classicalauthors(readintranslation,ifstudentshadnoLatinorGreek),ratherthana
disciplinebasedonphilology.Ifhedidnotsucceedinshapingthenewdisciplineof
Englishintheuniversitiesatthebeginningofthetwentiethcentury,hisemphasison
intertextualstudieshasmuchincommonwithrecentscholarshipontheVictorian
receptionofancientGreeceandRome(Kearney76).

Thenineteenthcenturyhascometobeaprivilegedperiodwithinclassicalreception

studies,withRomanticandVictorianHellenismasprominentareasofinterest.1Intheearly
1980s,pioneeringstudiessuchasRichardJenkynsTheVictoriansandAncientGreeceand
FrankM.TurnersTheGreekHeritageinVictorianBritainremindedreadersofthepervasive
presenceoftheGreeksinthecultureofthegoverningclassesandtheintellectualelite.2
JenkynsandTurnerexploretheinfluenceofancientmythology,historyandreligionon

Victorianliterature,painting,sculpture,architecture,education,philosophyandpolitics,
revealingtheextenttowhichGreekexampleswereregardedasapplicabletomodernlife.
Greeceprovidedfamiliarandidealisedculturaltouchstonesfortheclassically
educatedVictoriangentlemenwhoconsideredthemselvesheirstotheHellenic
tradition.FifthcenturyAthenswasanexemplarymoderncivilisationforMatthew
Arnold.GladstonesreadingofHomer(inhisview,theclosestavailable
approximationofprelapsarianlife)ledhimtotheconclusionthatmodernevilssuch
asprostitution,homosexuality,anddivorcehadnoprecedentinGreece
(Bebbington).

WritingaboutGreecewasinpartawayfortheVictorianstowriteabout

themselvescommentsTurner(GreekHeritage8).Thatclassicalmodelsshouldbe
chosenasasharedframeofreferenceisnotsurprising,since,ChristopherStray
remindsus,formuchofthenineteenthcenturyclassicaleducationwastakenfor
grantedbymenforwhomitwassimplythepervasivesubjectofformallearning
(ClassicsTransformed46).Muchthatwaswrittenabouttheancientworldinthe
VictorianperiodoffersmoretotheVictorianistthanthemodernclassicist.Norman
Vanceobservesthatversionsofcivilityandsuccessfulliving,andmetaphorsand
allusionstodescribeandreflectoncontemporarylifeandthoughtwerederived
fromselectiveandoftenahistoricalandidealizedreadings(Victorian87).Such
appropriationsoftheancientworldarenotablypartialandpersonal,andrecent

criticshaveshedlightontheconflictingdebates,idealismsandprojectionswithin
Victorianreceptionsoftheclassics(Goldhill191).

InWhoNeedsGreek?(2002),SimonGoldhilldescribesanargumentthatbrews

throughoutthe[nineteenth]centuryabout...whatthepointofknowingGreekmight
be(7).FormanyVictorianwriters,whatevertheirownexperienceofeducation,
Greeksignifiesintellectualambitionandthevaluesthatareattachedtothe
intellectuallifestyle;itgeneratesfeelingsofbelongingtoorexclusionfromthe
educatedelite(Evangelista2).AsStraynotesinClassicsTransformed,relativelyfluid
socialboundariesandarapidincreaseinwealthderivedfromcommerceand
industrymadeeducationacrucialstatusmarker,thebattlegroundofclass
identification(27;seealsoBowen).TheaspirationalassociationsofstudyingGreek
(andLatin)derivedpartlyfromalackofutilitarianapplication,andafocuson
developingagenteelliterarystyle.Criticsarguedthatmathematics,scienceand
modernlanguagesoughttoformthecoreofamoderneducation.

StraysstudyofclassicsinEnglishschoolsanduniversitiestracesthe

developmentofthesubjectfromamateurismtoprofessionalism,fromclassical
dominancetoapluralizedfieldofspecialisms(12).Cambridgefocusedonphilology
untillateinthecentury,whenoptionssuchasarchaeology,philosophyandancienthistory
wereintroduced(StrayCambridge).AtOxfordGreekliterature,historyand
philosophywerereadforcontentaswellaslinguistictraining.Jowett,thetranslator
ofPlatosdialogues,wasinstrumentalinestablishingthenewethosofOxford

education,andinsistedonthevividcontemporaneityandphilosophicaldepthof
Greektexts(Dowling64).Aristotle,whoseEthicshadbeenatthecoreofOxford
classics,waspartlydisplacedbyPlato,sinceJowettaspiredtocreatePlatonic
guardiansforBritainanditsempire(Stray,ClassicsTransformed122).3Heinfluenced
VictorianliteraryculturethroughhisstudentsPater,SwinburneandSymonds;Pater
thentaughtOscarWildeandGerardManleyHopkins.ThefocusonPlatohad
consequencesunforeseenbyJowett,asreadingsoftheSymposiumandthePhaedrus
enabledthedevelopmentofaradicalcounterdiscourseofmalelove,ahomosexual
code(Dowlingxiii).AestheticwriterssuchasSwinburne,PaterandWildereacted
againstearlierversionsofHellenism,suchasArnoldsnotionoftheGreekspiritasa
sourceofsweetnessandlight:PatercorrectsArnoldssanitisedandbloodless
idealisationofancientGreecebyfocusingonthesidelinedelementsofprimitivism,
irrationality...andthegrotesque(Evangelista38).

TheCambridgeclassicalscholarJaneEllenHarrisonisafocalpointfor

discussionsofHellenismwhichemphasisetheprimitiveandtheirrational.InYopie
PrinsGreekMaenadsandVictorianSpinsters,theentryofwomenintoGreek
studies,andespeciallytheirincreasedaccesstoformaleducationisexamined
throughtheexamplesofHarrisonandKatherineBradley(onehalfofthepoeticduo
MichaelField)(43).PrinsreworksDowlingsHellenismandhomosexualityin
VictorianOxfordasHellenismandfeminisminVictorianCambridge(46),and
focusesonPaterasamediatinginfluenceintheformationofnewsocialidentities,

newconfigurationsofsexualityandgender(47).Harrisonscontroversialtheories
aboutGreekart,religionandmyth,basedondevelopmentsinarchaeologyand
anthropology,leftbehindthetextualtraditionofpurescholarshipfora
combinationofscientificknowledgeandimaginativeinsight(Fiske1501).Herwork
onGreekreligion,whichfocusesonchthoniccultsratherthantheworshipofthe
Olympiangods,hasbeencentraltoaccountsofadarksideoflateVictorian
Hellenism,associatedwithamoreprimitiveGreecebeneaththewhitemarble
surfacesadmiredbyearliergenerations(Evangelista;Olverson;Radford).Although
HarrisonisstronglyassociatedwithCambridge,andparticularlywithNewnham,
herexperienceofpopularlecturingandherinvolvementinLondonliterarysociety
inthe1880shaverecentlyattractedattention(Beard;Fiske).Reactingagainstthe
conservativeandmaledominatedacademy,Harrisonconnectedthestudyof
antiquitytointellectualfreedomandinnovation,contributingtoaprocessofcross
pollinationbetweenGreekstudiesandaestheticism(Evangelista).

LikePlato,Sapphoiscentraltoaestheticrenegotiationsofgenderandsexuality

andtheconstructionofalternativeliterarysexualidentities(Maxwell75).The
mythicfigureofSapphoaswecurrentlyunderstandher,YopiePrinsarguesin
VictorianSappho,isanineteenthcenturyconstruction.Prinsexaminesversionsofthe
OvidianimageofSapphoasapoetesswholeapsfromacliffwhendesertedbyher
malelover,andastheveryembodimentoflyricsong...anexemplarylyricfigure
inWhartons1885scholarlyedition(61).PrinstracestheemergenceofaSapphic

straininVictorianpoetry(19),inwhichpoetssuchasSwinburneandMichaelField
exploittheindeterminacyofSapphosidentity,andespeciallyofhersexuality.Some
ofthetextsdiscussedbyPrins,SwinburnespoemsAnactoria,SapphicsandOn
theCliffsandMichaelFieldsvolumeLongAgo,havebeenfurtherexploredina
recentstudyofaestheticismandthefindesiclebyStefanoEvangelista,whosuggests
thatLongAgoshouldbereadasanimaginativebiographyofSappho,likeoneof
PatersimaginaryportraitsoradramaticmonologuebyBrowning(102).

TheremarkablevarietyofreworkingsofclassicalmythinVictorianculturehas

inspiredmuchrecentscholarship.AsCatherineMaxwellcomments,mythic
representationsallowtheexpressionofdifferentkindsofhumandesire,whetherthis
besexualoramorousdesire,thedesireforcertainkindsofidentitiesor
identifications,nostalgicdesireforanimaginedclassicalpast,oradesiretoo
transgressiveeventobemademanifest(76).Totakejustoneexample,Persephone,
snatchedtotheunderworldbyHades,mournedbyhermothertheearthgoddess
Demeterandfinallyallowedtoreturntotheearthforonlypartoftheyear,was
beginningtobeunderstoodasamythaboutthecycleoftheseasons.Ruskin,
Swinburne,Pater,Tennyson,Hardy,DanteGabrielRossetti,JeanIngelowandDora
Greenwellreadandrewritethemythinavarietyofforms(Louis;Radford).InTess
oftheDUrbervilles,thecharactersunknowinglyactoutthemythofPersephone:
corruptedbythemodernworld,theyareincapableofreadingmythicallyanddo
notunderstandtheirroles(Bonaparte416).Death,thebondbetweenmotherand

daughter,fertility,andthefigureofthefallenwomanareaspectsofthemythwhich
appealedtoitsVictorianinterpreters.

Notionsofclassicalinfluenceortheclassicaltraditionsuggestahandingdown

ofmaterialfrompasttopresent.Suchconceptualisationsoftherelationshipbetween
pastandpresentencouragedreaderstobelievethattheycouldrecoverclassicaltexts
astheyhadbeeninterpretedbytheirfirstaudiences,strippingawayinterveninglayersof
interpretation.Inthiscontext,attemptsbywriterstotranslateoradaptancienttextsand
tropeshavebeencriticisedfortheintrusionofmodernconcernsorliterarydevicesinto
ostensiblyGreekorRomanworks.Victorianpoets,dramatistsandnovelistshave
beenassessedfortheirimitativeexcellenceandjudgedmoreorlessasfailuresatatask
thathasmuchincommonwiththeeducationaltraditionofverseandprose
composition.Totakeoneexampleofsuchappraisals,HughLloydJoneswritesthat
VictorianpoetryexhibitsGreekdecorratherthanrealGreekinfluence,Arnoldis
onlysuperficiallyGreek,andSwinburneaveryunhellenicauthor(143).Redefining
ourrelationshiptotheancientworldintermsofintertextualityandreceptionenablesus
toappreciatetheVictorianqualitiesofVictorianinterpretationsoftheclassics,
insteadofdismissingthemasunclassicalorunhellenic.Receptionallowsforthe
activeparticipationofreadersandwriters,placingthepresentandpastindialogue:
whentextsarereadinnewsituations,theyhavenewmeanings(Martindale
Reception298).

RecentscholarshiphasemphasisedtheinsightfulnessofVirginiaWoolfsessay

OnNotKnowingGreek,aremarkablecritiqueofsimplisticidentificationwithan
ancientandforeignculture.Woolfarguesforamodelofscholarshipthattakesinto
accountculturaldifferenceandacrucialmarginofunknowability(Evangelista12).
ForitisvainandfoolishtotalkofknowingGreek,...sincewedonotknowhowthe
wordssounded,orwherepreciselyweoughttolaugh,orhowtheactorsacted,and
betweenthisforeignpeopleandourselvesthereisnotonlydifferenceofraceandtongue
butatremendousbreachoftradition.Allthemorestrange,then,isitthatweshouldwish
toknowGreek,trytoknowGreek,feelforeverdrawnbacktoGreek,andbeforever
makingupsomenotionofthemeaningofGreek...(Woolf93)

Woolfhighlightstheroleoftheimaginationinanyreconstructionofapastculture.
Forthewriterratherthanthescholar,Greecedoesnotpresentitselfasalanguageto
bemastered,oratexttobeedited,butasasupremefiction,anidealspacethatmight
yieldahostoffinepoeticimaginings(Aske35).

Inasonnetmuchdiscussedbycritics,KeatsfamouslyencountersHomernot

inGreek,butinChapmanstranslation:adisplacementwhichsignifies,forthe
modernpoet,theimpossibilityofapure,unmediatedreturntoorigins.(Aske42;see
alsoGoldhill).Achildhoodencounterwithamajorclassicaltextintranslationisa
commoneventinthebiographiesofnineteenthcenturywriters.PopesHomer
encouragedanobsessiveimmersionintheHomericstories,whichwasoftenlater
supplementedbyareadingofthetextinGreek.BrowningspoemDevelopment

(1889)tracesanengagementwithHomerfromchildhoodgamesbasedonstoriesof
theTrojanwar,throughPope,totheGreektextandlaterthroughthequestionof
Homersidentity.AsMeileeBridgescomments,thepoemexemplifiesthedreamof
anintense,personalcontactwiththeepicheroesofHomerspoetry.Bycomparison
withreadersimaginativeconvictionofthetruthoftheHomericworld,Bridges
argues,attemptstoprovethehistoricityoftheepicsbymeansofarchaeologyand
philologicalresearchprovokeddisenchantment(166).CorneliaPearsallsimilarly
arguesthatthedebateoverwhetherTroywasamythiccityor...ahistorically
verifiableonewasnotasimportanttothepoetastothearchaeologist:forTennyson,
TroywasanimaginativespacecreatedbyHomer(122).

Creativeinterpretationsofclassicaltextsdrawonpreviousreceptions.Edith

HallsTheReturnofUlysses(2008)surveysanastonishingrangeofresponsesto
Homerindiverseartforms,inwhichtheVictorianperiodiswellrepresentedin
poetry,fiction,paintingandthepopulartheatre.Intertextualityisafundamental
attributeoftheepictradition,whichevolvesbyassimilatingnewtextsandforms
suchastheVictoriandramaticmonologue.UlyssesisapoemspokenbyHomers
OdysseusandDantesUlisseandTennysonsUlysses.ThepoetislikeaHomeric
bard,aroleOdysseushimselftakeson,craftinganewpoemfromwellknown
material.InPearsallsreading,thecharacterofUlyssesispartofadebateabout
politicsandpoetrybetweenGladstoneandTennyson,throughthemediatingfigure
ofArthurHallam;Ulyssesisapersuasiveoratorwhoisawareofhisaudienceand

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hopingtoenlistsomeoftheIthacansasmarinersonanewvoyage.Telemachus,she
argues,isadifferentkindofhero,resemblingVirgilsAeneasratherthanthe
HomersOdysseus:prudent,decent,deserving,blameless,oneskilledincivilizing
others,subduingthemtohismildyoke,aheronotedespeciallyforhisfilial
devotion,histendernessandmeetadorationforhishouseholdgods(186).The
resonancesofsuchadescriptionofmasculinityforBritainsimperialambitionsare
clear,yetitisnotTelemachuswhoholdsthereadersattentionbutUlysses,withhis
appetiteforexplorationandexperienceundercutbymelancholyawarenessofthe
approachingend.ReturningtotheOdysseyandotherOdysseantexts,weretainthese
impressionsaspartofoursenseoftheheroasheisconstantlyrereadandreworked
bypoetsandcritics.

A.A.MarkleyarguesinastudyofTennysonsclassicalreadingandwriting

thatTennysonsambitiousreworkingsofclassicalmaterialcontributedtoalifelong
projectofattemptingtoprovidemodernBritainwithanewachievementin
literaturealiteraturecomparabletothegreatworksofantiquity(4).Traditional
epicwasatestthat...moremajorpoetsthannotapproachedwithfearand
trembling(Tucker2).Ratherthanattemptingamodernepic,poetschoseto
approachtheepictraditionobliquely,producingepicizingpoemsofimmense
address(Tucker332),suchasCloughsBothie,TennysonsThePrincessandIdyllsof
theKing,MatthewArnoldsSohrabandRustumandBalderDead,andBarrett
BrowningsAuroraLeigh(seealsoJenkynsIdeaofEpic).

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Inaccountsofthereceptionoftheclassics,literarystudiesintersectwithcultural

history,genderandsexuality,thehistoryofeducation,art,sociology,translation
studies,philology,anthropology,archaeologyandhistoryofscience.TheRomanpoet
Lucretiushasrecentlyattractedcriticsinterestedinconflictsbetweenreligionand
science.Arnold,Tennyson,Hardy,EliotandBarrettBrowningwereamongthose
whosawinthepoetamoderntypeofmelancholy,enablingthemtoexpress
uncertaintyorconvictionaboutthechallengetotraditionalreligionfollowing
developmentsinscientificthought(VanceVictoriansandAncientRome834,979).
MackenzienotesthatArnoldintendedtowriteatragedyaboutLucretius:thwarted
bythepublicationofTennysonsdramaticmonologue,hereworkedtheLucretian
materialintoEmpedoclesonEtna(163;Markley1408).Thereceptionofthescientific
epicDeRerumNaturafitswellwithcurrentinterdisciplinarypreoccupations:the
poemfiguresprominentlywithindebatesontherelationbetweenmaterialist
scienceontheonehandandreligionontheother(Holmes268).AsanEpicurean
philosopher,Lucretiuswascriticisedasadecadenthedonistwhosescientific
naturalismanticipatedDarwinstheories.DefendersofEpicurus,suchasJohnStuart
Mill,orPaterinMariustheEpicurean,representedhisethicsnotasadefenceof
mindlesssensualindulgencebutasanasceticphilosophyinterchangeablewith
moreorthodoxethicalpositions(Dawson1016,1123).

EssaysonVictorianresponsestoLatinliteratureappearindiachronicstudiessuchas

theeditedcollectionsRomanPresences,OvidRenewedandHoraceMadeNew;receptionhas

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becomeadominantconcerninCambridgeCompanionstoclassicalauthors,suchasStephen
HarrisonssurveyofnineteenthandtwentiethcenturyreceptionsofHorace.
AlthoughGreekwasamorereliablemarkerofsocialorintellectualsuperiority,
phrasesfromLatinpoetrywerepartofthecurrencyofpubliclife,recalledwith
comparativeeasebecauseauthorssuchasHoraceweredrummedintoschoolboys
(Hurst1114).TheAugustanpoetsofferedaccesstotheworldofGreeklettersand
GreekcivilitybywritingversionsofGreekpoetryinLatin(VanceHorace176).
Theirobviouslyallusivepoetrymightbereadasaninvitationtoparticipatein
creatingnewintertextualrelationships.InnaminghiselegyforBaudelaireAve
atqueVale,afteralineinCatullusselegyforhisbrother,Swinburneplaceshimself
intheprofoundlyallusivegenreofelegy(Sacks).WithechoesofCatullus,Propertius
andTibullus,InMemoriamestablishesTennysonandHallamintherolesofsuffering
poetanddistant,sometimescruelbeloved(Markley759).ThomasA.Haywardhas
shownthattheLatinepigraphsinCloughsTheBothieofToberNaVuolicharenot
merelycreatingtheatmosphereofaclassicalreadingpartybutoutliningthe
narrativeofthepoem.

Apartfromthesestudiesofpoeticinfluence,theVictorianreceptionofRomehas

attractedlessattentionthanHellenism.WhytheGreeksandnottheRomansinVictorian
Britain?askedTurnerin1989,inlinewithawidespreadperceptionthatdominantRoman
influencesintheAugustaneighteenthcenturygivewaytoanineteenthcentury
fascinationwithGreece.JonathanSachsarguesagainstthiszerosumgamewherethe

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morerelevantGreeceisseentobeforcontemporarylife,thelessrelevantRomemustbe
(9).HeexaminesthereceptionofGreeceandRome(andoftherelationshipbetweenthe
twocivilisations)intheRomanticperiod,particularlyforpoliticalpurposes:the
deploymentofclassicalexamplesinframingcontemporaryunderstandingsofsuchcentral
aspectsofmodernityasdemocracy,popularrevolt,empire,andtyranny(2).Inthe
Victorianera,RomemightbeassociatedwiththeFrenchRevolutionandlaterexamplesof
republicannationalism,thesuccessfuladministrationofanempirebyselfsacrificingand
patrioticheroes,orthedecadencewhichledtothatempiresdecline.Theseandother
historicalperspectivesarerepresentedinVancesTheVictoriansandAncientRome(1997)and
inaccountsofVictorianclassicalpainters(Landow;LiversidgeandEdwards;Barrow).

AsRomebecamecomparativelyaccessibletothetouristwhileGreeceremained

distantandfantastic,LatinwasundeniablyeasiertoaccessthanGreek.The
strangenessofthealphabet,indecipherabletoanuninitiatedreader,madeGreek
alluringlycomplex.Latinwasassociatedratherwithdrudgery:theschoolcurriculum
wasbasedontherotelearningofLatingrammarandsyntax,followedby(fora
moreselectgroup)aninitiationintotheculturalauthorityofHellenism(Stray
ClassicsTransformed21).ForthosewhodidnotlearnLatin,Romanhistoryand
mythologyarewidelyreproducedinVictorianpoetry,paintings,drama,schooltextsand
childrensbooks.HistoricalnovelistsemployRomansettingstodramatisetheconversionof
pagancharacterstoChristianity.ThepopularityofBulwerLyttonsnovelTheLastDays

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ofPompeii(1834)isreflectedinthecreationofaPompeianCourtattheCrystalPalace
(Hales).

Thelackofaformalclassicaleducationwasnotnecessarilytobelamented.

Victorianfictionvividlyrenderstheincongruityoftherichclassicalinheritanceand
thedulleducationalmodelfocusedontherotelearningofgrammaticalrulesfrom
textbookssuchastheEtonLatinGrammarandthereductionofpoetrytosyntactical
examples.DickensandEliotarefascinatedbytheprocessofclassicaleducation,yetopenly
scepticalaboutitseffectivenessforuncomprehendingPaulDombeysandTomTullivers.
ThebiographiesofVictorianwritersdemonstratethatthosewhodidnotstudythe
classicallanguagesatschoolanduniversitycould(laboriouslybutperhapsintheendnoless
successfully)learnfromtextbooks,studybycorrespondenceorgethelpfromamentor.Such
methodsofclassicaleducationwereparticularlyusedbywomenbeforesolitary
learninginthehomewasreplacedbyformaleducationingirlsschoolsand
womenscollegesinthesecondhalfofthenineteenthcentury,buttheyalsoaccount
foratleastpartoftheclassicallearningofRobertBrowning,ThomasHardyand
AnthonyTrollope.

Howeverextensivelytheyreadclassicaltexts,thosewholearnedLatinorGreekat

homeremainedawarethattheylackedtheintensivetrainingoftheiruniversity
educatedcontemporaries.Theautodidactwhoacquiressufficientlearningtobe
worthyofadmissiontotheancientuniversities,provingthatheorshecouldrival
menwithaclassicaleducation,isanineteenthcenturyfantasyfigurenotably

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embodiedinHardysJudetheObscure.AlthoughHardysheroisaman,hisfailureto
achievetherequiredlevelofscholarshipandtheharshadmonitionshereceivesfor
hisambitionrepresentfearssharedbymiddleclasswomenandworkingmenas
outsidersseekingtoentertheprivilegedworldoftheuniversity.Autodidacts
considereditworthwhiletoreadgreatbooks,includingclassicaltexts,becausethey
offeredartisticexcellence,psychologicalinsights,andpenetratingphilosophytothe
governingclassesandthereforethepoliticsofequalitymustbeginbyredistributing
thisknowledgetothegovernedclasses(Rose7).Forsuchreaders,ahardwon
understandingthecontentofclassicaltextstookprecedenceoverthephilologicalconcernsof
scholars.LikeDorotheaBrookeinGeorgeEliotsMiddlemarch,theywereattractedbythe
reputationofancientauthorsassourcesofwisdomandtruth,evenifthemenwhowere
alreadyabletoreadthetextsdidnotseemtoembodythosevalues.

Translationswereanimportantmeansofaccesstothecontentofancient

literature.IntheVictorianperiodthebackgroundofthoseproducingtranslations
becamemuchwider,andthereweremoreopportunitiesforthoseoutsidethe
traditionalaristocraticorscholarlyfieldstopublishtheirwork(Hardwick
TranslatingWords25).WiththenotableexceptionsofJowett(Plato)andJebb
(Sophocles),professionalclassicistsregardedtheirchieftaskastheestablishmentof
authenticGreekandLatintexts,sothattheendeavourofinterpretationand
commentarywaslargelylefttoamateurscholarsincludingGladstone,Matthew
ArnoldandSamuelButler(TurnerContestingCulturalAuthority2867;Dougher).

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AuthorswhoproducedtranslationsoradaptationsofclassicaltextsincludeElizabeth
BarrettandRobertBrowning,Tennyson,Swinburne,EdwardFitzGeraldandAugusta
Webster.Acompetitivecultureoftranslationisexemplifiedinaprivatedebate
betweenGladstoneandTennysonoverthewaytotranslateHomer(Joseph),aswell
asinArnoldsmorepublicandacrimoniouspronouncementsinOnTranslating
Homer(18601).ReviewarticlesinperiodicalssuchasBlackwoodsEdinburghMagazine
sometimescomparedmultipleversionsofthesamepassage,givingthenonclassical
readersomesenseofwhatwasatstakeinthetranslationofaparticulartext.Sucharticles
wereavaluableresourceforthenonclassicalreader.ShanynFiskedemonstratesthat
BlackwoodsarticlesonHomer(byThomasDeQuinceyandJohnWilson)shapedCharlotte
Brontsthinkingaboutthenatureofliterarycompositionandhertreatmentof
homeandhomesicknessinVillette(74,97111).

RobertBrowningstranslationsandadaptationsofGreektragedy,particularly

hisAgamemnon,haverecentlyattractedattentionfortheiridiosyncraticuseof
language.IfEnglishpoeticdictionaspiredtoemulateGreekintheuseoffeatures
suchascompoundepithets(Haynes),Browningtooktheattempttoreproducein
EnglishtheeffectofreadingGreekstillfurther.Histranslationseemstoreverse
sourcelanguageandtargetlanguageandundoestheoppositionbetweenthetwo
languagesaltogether,asitmovesintoaninterlingualrealm(PrinsViolence
BridlingSpeech1512;seealsoMatthewReynolds;Turtle).KathleenRileys
discussionofBrowningspoemAristophanesApology(1875)relatestheembedded

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translationofEuripidesHeraklestoElizabethBarrettsadmirationofthetragedians
humanity.RileyexploresVictorianreadersmixedresponsestoAristophanesApology
andconcludesheraccountofthepoemwithareadingwhichemphasisesthe
effectivenessofBrowningsversificationinitsrecreationoftheoriginaldramatic
impact,capturingthesuspenseandnervousmovementoftheoriginalpassage
(199).

TranslationsofGreektextsbywomenhavebeenthefocusofmuchrecent

study.ElizabethBarrett(Browning)wrotetwoversionsofPrometheusBound:thefirst
fairlyliteralandthesecond,writtenaftermuchdiscussionwithRobertBrowning,
permeatedwithChristiannotionsofsin,atonement,martyrdomandselflessness
(Wallace332;seealsoFalkEBBandherPrometheuses;PrinsDiffranceof
Translation;Drummond).Shealsotranslatedsentimentalanderoticversesfora
friendsprojectedClassicalAlbum,includingthepartingofHectorand
AndromachefromHomersIliadandoneofTheocritusIdyls(Wallace3336).
AugustaWebstersclose,linebylinetranslationsofPrometheusBound(1866)and
Medea(1868)impressedcontemporarycriticswiththeirfidelitytotheGreekplays.
WebsterarticulatedherideasabouttranslationinareviewofBrowningsversionof
Agamemnon:althoughsheadmiredhisdoggedfidelitytothetext,shefeltthatthe
obscurityofhislanguageexceededeventhatofAeschylus.

Theplaceofwomen(particularlyofwomenwriters)inVictorianHellenismisa

rapidlydevelopingareaofinterest.IntheworkofJenkynsandTurner,thenotable

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HellenistsElizabethBarrettBrowning,GeorgeEliotandJaneEllenHarrisonwere
grantedanexceptionalstatusasfemaleclassicistsinthenineteenthcentury.Rowena
FowlersaccountoftherichnessofwomensliteraryresponsestoancientGreece
(OnNotKnowingGreek),placedthesewritersinaliterarytraditioninwhich
womenwritersidentifywiththeirfemalepredecessorsandpeersindrawingonthe
classics.Aswellasexploringtheobstaclestoscholarshipfacedbywomen,Fowler
notestheirsatiricalresistancetothekindofpompousmaleclassicistdeftlyskewered
byWoolfinJacobsRoom(337)andtherepresentationoftheclassicsbyCharlotte
Brontasweaponswithwhichmentormentandoppresswomen(345).Recent
studieshavecontinuedtoexamineBarrettBrowning,EliotandHarrisonaspre
eminentintheVictorianreceptionofGreekculture,andhavealsoshownthattheir
outstandingattainmentsinclassicalstudiesinspiredotherwomenparticularly
womenwithliteraryambitionstostudyLatinandGreek(Hurst).Theincreasing
numberofwomenwritersreassessedinthelightoftheirreadingsofclassicaltexts
andmythsincludesEmilyPfeiffer,FlorenceNightingale,A.MaryF.Robinson,
VernonLeeandMichaelField(Olverson;MonrosGaspar;PrinsLadiesGreek;
Evangelista;Thain).Nevertheless,thelackofaformalclassicaleducationlefteven
themostaccomplishedfemaleclassicistswithanxietiesabouttheinadequacyand
amateurismoftheirscholarship,avulnerabilityrecognisedbyBarrettBrowningin
themuchquotedphrasefromAuroraLeigh,ladysGreek(Fiske7).

19

ThetragediesAugustaWebsterchosetotranslatePrometheusBoundand

Medeadramatisethesocialproblemswhichdominatedherownera:issuesof
obligation,community,freedom,tyrannyandoppressionofwoman(Hardwick
Women,TranslationandEmpowerment183).Sherespondedcreativelytoclassical
texts:havingtranslatedMedea,withaparticularforcefulnessinthespeechinwhich
theheroinelamentsthewrongsofwomen,WebsterwentontoexploreMedeas
grievancesagainstJasoninthedramaticmonologueMedeainAthens.Websterand
AmyLevyemphasiseJasonscrueldesertionandMedeasfearoflosingherchildren,and
drawattentiontothepersistenceofsexualdoublestandards(Sutphin;Hurst;Fiske).In
AdamBede,DanielDerondaandFelixHolt,GeorgeEliotsuggestsparallelsbetween
Medeaandhercharacters,offeringcomplexandnotentirelyunsympathetic
renderingsofthetragicheroine,aspartofherlargerprojectofreworkingGreekmyth
inthemodernformofthenovel(King;Jenkyns,Victorians;Easterling;Travis).Onthe
stage,Medea(inburlesquesandtragedies)putthecaseforanextensionofwomens
legalrightsrelatingtodivorceandinfantcustodywhenpopularentertainmentsbased
onthemythhighlightedmarriedwomenslackofautonomy.MedeaandClytemnestra
cateredtothepublicfascinationwithfemalemurdererswhichwastoemergein
sensationnovelssuchasLadyAudleysSecret(HallandMacintosh391429;seealsoFiske
2463).

OurunderstandingofVictorianHellenismisincompleteifitislimitedtosuch

notedculturaleventsastheAntigonesettomusicbyMendelssohnwhichinspiredGeorge

20

EliotsessayTheAntigoneanditsMoral(HallandMacintosh317332)orthe1880
performanceofAgamemnonatOxford,whichreflectedacontemporaryfascinationwith
SchliemannsarchaeologicaldiscoveriesandRobertBrowningsrecenttranslationoftheplay
(4516).RecentresearchbyEdithHallandFionaMacintoshintotheperformanceofancient
dramaintheVictoriantheatrehasbroughttolightamuchmorecomplexandlivelypopular
culturewhichdrawsonclassicaldrama.Burlesquesappealedtoworkingandlower
middleclasspeople,ofbothsexesandsatisfiedDickenssconventionalmidnineteenth
centurytasteforfarce,sentimentalityandmelodrama(3503).Tragedy,comedyandepicall
receivedtheburlesquetreatment,beingrewritteninabsurdrhymingverse,withversionsof
popularsong,dances,lavishspectacleandtransvestism(35871).Suchtheatrical
extravaganzasreachedaudienceslargelycomposedofpeoplewhowouldneverread
HomerorEuripidesintheoriginallanguageorevenstumblethroughtheEtonLatin
Grammar.ThestudyoftheVictorianreceptionoftheclassicshasbeengreatly
enrichedbyinvestigationsofthefascinatingvarietyofsourcesofclassicalculture
availabletothosewhocouldnotreadtheancientlanguages,andmuchremainstobe
discovered.

21

Endnotes
1. EarlierbooksonclassicalinfluencesortheclassicaltraditioninEnglishliterature
whichcovertheVictorianperiodincludeBush;Highet;Thomson;M.L.Clarke;
Ogilvie.StudiesofVictorianauthorsincludeMatthewArnold(Anderson,
DeLaura);GeorgeEliot(Rendall;Wiesenfarth);Tennyson(Pattison;Redpath).
2. ForthereceptionofGreeceandRomeinnineteenthcenturyAmerica,see
Winterer,CultureofClassicismandMirrorofAntiquity.
3. FortheGreekandLatinrequirementsforenteringtheIndianCivilService,see
Vasunia.

22

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