Professional Documents
Culture Documents
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Contents
PAGE
1
2
The Universe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Planet Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Learning to learn All creatures great and small . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3
4
5
6
7
Living things . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Invertebrates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Vertebrates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
The plant and fungi kingdoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
The simplest living things . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Learning to learn Rock stars and instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
12
13
14
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Learning to learn
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3
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THE EARTH
How long does it take the Earth to rotate on its axis?
And how long does it take to orbit the Sun?
INVERTEBRATES
Can you name six invertebrates?
PLANTS
Plants are autotrophic: they make their own food.
What is the name of the process by which plants do this?
THE EARTHS ATMOSPHERE
Can you name three meteorological instruments?
What does each one measure?
THE HYDROSPHERE
Water is present on Earth in gaseous, liquid and
solid form. Name four different places where you
can find water in nature.
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MINERALS
Quartz is a mineral. Can you name any other minerals?
Can you say what each is used for?
1
UNIT
The Universe
STUDY A UNIT
Look at page 8, the first page of Unit 1
What is the title of the unit?
How many different sections are there on the page?
What are they about?
Key language
Describing
Planets are spherical bodies which orbit the Sun.
Asteroids are rocky objects which are irregular in shape.
Comparing
Dwarf planets are smaller than planets.
The Earth is larger than Mercury
Giving instructions
Study the constellations.
Research more about them on the Internet.
Content objectives
Symbols
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Lenses or mirrors?
Telescopes with lenses are called refracting telescopes.
Lenses bend the light.
The largest telescopes use mirrors instead of lenses
Telescopes with mirrors are called reflecting telescopes.
Mirrors reflect light.
Look through
this end. The
things you
observe seem
closer!
eyepiece: lens
to view the image
focus adjustment:
move this to make
the image clearer
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Optical telescopes consist of a long tube, with one end narrower than
the other. They can perceive light, just like eyes.
tube
OOPS!
Wrong end!
objective lens: the
lens closest to the
object being viewed
tripod: three-legged
stand to support the
telescope
Activities
1. Galileo Galilei invented the telescope. Why was this such an important
discovery? What did astronomers know about the stars before then?
2. Research. Have you heard of the Hubble telescope? When was it built?
Where is it? What pictures does it take?
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UNIT
The Universe
Content objectives
Key language
Describing
Comparing
Giving instructions
Study the constellations.
Research more about them on the Internet.
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Activities
1. Find ten words in the word search.
M P
I
L A N E T S
G R
L A A S A
L U A T S R P T
K N E
Geocentric theory
nd
Heliocentric theory
In 1542, Nicolas
Copernicus proposed
that the Sun was at the
centre of the Universe.
T T A E
Y S E N A H C
W O H B R X E
A T M S U N Y
Y M O O N L
G T
K E S W C P A E
2. Imagine an alien friend from
another galaxy wants to write to
you. Write your galactic address.
Galaxies are a vast collection of stars, dust and gases, held together by the
gravitational attraction between the components. They appear in groups called
galaxy clusters. Scientists think the vast spaces between the galaxies are empty.
Our galaxy, the Milky Way, belongs to the Local Group galaxy cluster.
Stars form when clouds of gases are pulled together by gravitational forces. They
are so hot inside that they emit heat and light. A galaxy can have up to five hundred
thousand million stars. An enormous cloud of gas and dust, a nebula, surrounds
the stars.
Planets are bodies which orbit some stars. They do not emit light; they receive light
from the star. They make up planetary systems. Our planetary system is the Solar
System. It is made up of eight planets and one star, the Sun, as well as moons,
comets and asteroids. The Solar System is located on a spiral arm of the Milky Way.
Natural satellites orbit some planets. The Earths natural satellite is the Moon.
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Activities
3. Express the distance of Mercury, Mars and Pluto
from the Sun in kilometres.
Mars
Mercury
Pluto
10
Source of light
Time to reach
the Earth
the Sun
8 mins. 20 sec
Centauri, the
nearest star
4 light-years
Betelgeuse
500 light-years
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Distance from
Sun (AU)
Period of
rotation
Period of
revolution
Mercury
0.39
58.65 days
88 days
Venus
0.72
243 days
224.6 days
Earth
1.00
23 h 56 mins
365.25 days
Mars
1.52
24 h 37 mins
1.88 years
Jupiter
5.20
9 h 55 mins
11.86 years
Saturn
9.54
10 h 40 mins
29.46 years
Uranus
19.19
17 h 14 mins
84.07 years
Neptune
30.06
16 h 7 mins
164.82 years
Activities
5. Which planet
Revolution. Celestial
bodies revolve around
other celestial bodies.
ecliptic plane
rotational axis of
the Moon
rotational axis
terre
strial
orbit
lunar orbit
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Mercury
Diameter: 4,880 km
Venus
Diameter: 12,104 km
Earth
Diameter: 12,740 km
Mars
Diameter: 6,794 km
The Earth is the only planet that has life on it. The other
planets are too hot or too cold.
Venus
Earth
Mars
Diameter (Earth = 1)
0.382
0.949
0.532
Diameter (km)
4,880
12,104
12,740
6,794
180 to 430 C
465 C
89 to 58 C
82 to 0 C
none
CO2
N2+O2
CO2
no
no
no
no
the smallest
and closest to
the Sun
rotates in
opposite
direction
the only
planet
with life
very thin
atmosphere
Average surface
temperature (C)
Atmosphere
Satellites
Rings
Interesting
characteristics
Ceres
12
N2 O2 = nitrogen oxygen
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Uranus
Diameter: 51,118 km
Saturn
Diameter: 120,536 km
Jupiter
Diameter: 142,984 km
Neptune
Diameter: 49,492 km
OUTER PLANETS
Activities
9. Which planet
Jupiter
Saturn
Uranus
Neptune
11.209
9.44
4.007
3.883
142,984
120,536
51,118
49,492
150 C
170 C
200 C
210 C
H2He
H2He
H2He
H2He
63
59
27
13
yes
yes
yes
yes
largest planet,
most satellites
system of rings
rotational axis is
almost horizontal
greatest distance
from the Sun
H2 hydrogen
He helium
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Pluto
Mercury
Mars
Earth
comet
Neptune
Saturn
Jupiter
Venus
Uranus
Asteroid belt
The Solar System. Observe the elliptic paths of the planets orbits around the Sun. Notice that the orbit of Pluto, a dwarf planet,
is more inclined.
Activities
11. Compare the main characteristics of the inner and outer planets.
12. Describe an inner or outer planet. Your partner will identify it.
14
the Earth.
satellites.
The atmosphere
is made up of
carbon dioxide.
helium.
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Hands on
Prepare a constellation poster
Constellations are imaginary patterns of bright stars.
All societies have invented constellations. The
Ancient Greeks invented the constellations we call
the twelve signs of the zodiac.
There are 88 official constellations. However, most
of them do not really look like the mythical figures
they represent.
The night sky looks different in the Northern and
Southern Hemispheres. The position of the
constellations changes with the seasons because
of the movement of the Earth.
Cassiopeia
Orion
Ursa major
Gemini
Activities
13. Look up the constellation for your sign
of the zodiac.
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Activities
21. Talk about astronomical distances with a partner.
16. Make a drawing of the Solar System and label it: the
Sun, the inner planets, the outer planets, Pluto and
the asteroid belt.
17. Make a timetable of your daily activities on these
planets. Give an approximate duration for each.
Earth. Rotation: 24 hours
Mercury. Rotation: 58.65 Earth days
Jupiter. Rotation: 9.841 Earth hours
Distance
space station
300 km
weather satellite
36,000 km
the Moon
384,000 km
the Sun
150,000,000 km
Pluto
6,000,000,000 km
Alpha Centauri
4 light-years
Duration on
Activities
Earth
Mercury
Jupiter
d
e
f
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THE UNIVERSE
Early
concepts
Components
Units of
measurement
Astronomical unit (AU): the distance between the Earth and the Sun, about
150 million kilometres.
Light-year. The distance that light travels in one year: about 9.5 trillion kilometres.
The Solar
System
Projects
INVESTIGATE: Could Mars support life?
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UNIT
Planet Earth
Content objectives
Key language
Describing
18
Comparing
The days get shorter.
Ocean trenches are the deepest areas.
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Activities
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North Pole
plane
of the Earths
orbit
Suns rays
Northern
Hemisphere
Summer
Solar rays strike perpendicular to the Earths
surface and produce more heat.
ay
rotational axis
23.5
ht
Nig
South Pole
Southern
Hemisphere
The rotation of the Earth. It is day on the half of the Earth facing
the Sun. It is night on the half facing away from the Sun.
Spring equinox
21st March
Winter
solstice
21st December
Summer
solstice
21st June
Autumn
equinox
22nd September
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6
4
5
The same side of the Moon always faces the Earth. The red dot
indicates the dark or hidden side. It is never visible from Earth.
Activities
3. Draw a diagram to show the phase of the
Moon in the Northern Hemisphere today.
4. When is there a New Moon?
5. Draw a diagram of the phases of the
Moon in the Southern Hemisphere.
Last Quarter
First Quarter
Full Moon
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Hands on
Reproducing eclipses
If the Moon passes between the Sun and the Earth, and blocks
off the sunlight, a solar eclipse occurs.
If the Moon passes behind the Earth, so the Earth prevents sunlight
from reaching the Moon, a lunar eclipse occurs.
Materials
the Sun
the Moon
the Earth
1. Reproduce a solar eclipse. Position the planets: the Moon should block the Suns light
and project a shadow on the Earth.
2. Reproduce a lunar eclipse. Position the planets: the Earth should block the Suns
light and project a shadow on the Moon. Remember: a lunar eclipse can only take place
during a full moon.
penumbra
penumbra
Earth
Moon
Sun
Sun
Moon
Earth
Solar eclipse
Activities
6. Find out when the next solar and lunar eclipses will
take place.
Visit this site:
http://sunearth.gsfc.nasa.gov/eclipse/eclipse.html
7. How must you protect your eyes when observing a
solar eclipse?
22
umbra
Lunar eclipse
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The geosphere
The geosphere consists of three concentric layers: the crust,
mantle and core. The crust and the upper mantle make up
the lithosphere.
The crust is the outer layer of
rock. The most abundant
minerals are silicates.
The continental crust
makes up the
continents. Granite
is the most
common rock.
The oceanic
crust makes up
the ocean floor.
It was created
by intense
volcanic activity
at mid-oceanic
ridges. Basalt, a
volcanic rock, is the
most common rock.
mantle
outer
core
(liquid)
inner
core
(solid)
Activity
continental crust
(thickness varies from 7 to 70 km)
oceanic crust
(thickness varies
from 7 to 10 km)
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mountain range
submarine volcano
mid-oceanic ridge
continental shelf
abyss
abyssal plain
24
oceanic trench
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Activities
9. Say a relief feature. Your partner
says if it is continental or ocean
floor.
10. Which continental feature is under
the sea?
11. Describe the four different spheres
that make up the Earth. List
examples of features in each
sphere.
The hydrosphere
The hydrosphere is all the water on, under and above
the Earth.
The hydrosphere is made up almost exclusively of liquid
water, but also snow and ice. Other materials in the
hydrosphere are the mineral salts in water. Sea water is very
rich in mineral salts, but fresh water has few salts.
The biosphere
The biosphere includes all the living things which inhabit
the Earth. Living things influence the physical and chemical
changes in the Earth. For example:
In the Earths crust: Animals live in the ground and plants
take mineral salts from the soil. Plant roots can break up
rocks.
In the atmosphere: Microorganisms which live in the soil
produce nitrogen. Oxygen is produced during
photosynthesis by plants, algae and some bacteria. Many
living things cause evaporation.
In the hydrosphere: Living things contain water. Plants
take water from the ground. Many organisms live in aquatic
environments.
Coral produces
exoskeletons which
accumulate to form a
rocky shelf.
This atolon in Tahiti is
made up of living
things.
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Activities
12. Draw the Earth. Include an arrow pointing in the
direction in which it revolves. When does the Sun
rise where you live?
13. Draw the Earth and its orbit. Show four positions.
8
7
3
5
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Rotation. The Earth rotates on its axis. The axis is tilted 23.5. This
rotation creates day and night.
Revolution. The Earth revolves around the Sun. Its orbit is elliptical.
These two movements and the Earths tilt cause the seasons. Other
consequences are the differences in the length of day and night.
The Moon takes almost 28 days to orbit the Earth. It takes the same length
of time to rotate once on its axis.
Lunar phases: New Moon, First Quarter, Full Moon and Last Quarter.
Solar eclipse: the Moon blocks the light from the Sun.
Lunar eclipse: the Earth blocks the light from the Sun so it does not
reach the Moon.
The gravitational attraction or pull of the Moon on the oceans causes the tides.
THE EARTH
Movements
Special characteristics
of Earth
Projects
EXPERIMENT: Think about the geosphere.
Shake together a mixture of gravel, cork and water. Allow this to settle. Observe the separation in layers by density.
Compare with the diagram of the geosphere on page 23. Identify the crust, mantle and core represented
in your experiment.
WEB TASK: Find out about artificial satellites.
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fr
e
og
le p
ha n t f lo
we
ra
nt
bu
tte
r f lymon
y
ke
tre
3. Now put them into three different groups. Explain why you chose them.
28
o
em
s s f e r n f ungi
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eyepiece
tube
nosepiece
arm
objective
lenses
coarse
focusing
knob
cover slip
stage
iris
diaphram
fine
focusing
knob
base
light source
Optical microscope
__ __GL__N__
PR__T__Z__ __
B__CT__R__ __
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UNIT
Living things
Content objectives
Key language
Expressing facts
30
Expressing purpose
Photosynthesis enables plants to obtain energy.
Water is used to transport substances.
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1. What is biodiversity?
Biodiversity is the variety of life on Earth in all its
forms. Biodiversity is the result of a slow process
called evolution. Evolution began with the first
life forms and still continues today. Species change,
and adapt to the environment.
Scientists believe there may be more than thirty
million species. Approximately two million species
have been classified.
Destruction
of habitats
caused by
deforestation,
the construction
of roads,
dams, etc.
Uncontrolled
hunting and
fishing
endangers
many species:
for example the
Iberian lynx
(Lynx pardinus)
is in danger of
extinction.
Introduction of
exotic species
can destroy
local species.
For example,
the river crab.
Activities
1. True or false? Biodiversity refers to all living things.
2. Why does biodiversity vary throughout the world?
3. Match each photo with a factor that reduces
biodiversity.
a. pollution
b. destruction of habitats
c. uncontrolled hunting
d. introduction of exotic species
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32
Why are all the flowers following the Sun? What function are
they carrying out?
Activities
4. Complete:
Heterotrophs feed on ... .
Autotrophs obtain ... .
Sexual reproduction involves ... .
Asexual reproduction involves ... .
5. Test your partner. Ask questions:
Which processes enable living things to ...
... create new living things?
... adapt to their environment?
... obtain the energy they need?
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Inorganic substances
Inorganic substances do not contain carbon. They
are present in living things and non-living things.
The principle inorganic substances are:
Mineral salts have various functions: they make
up different structures, like shells, bones and
teeth. They are present in internal fluids, like
tears, sweat and blood.
Organic substances
Organic substances are unique to living things. Carbon is their
principal element. Organic substances present in living things are:
Biomolecules
Glucides
Example
Use/Function
glucose
cellulose
Lipids
fatty acids
cholesterol
Proteins
haemoglobin
antibodies
keratin
Nucleic
acid
DNA
RNA
Activities
to provide energy
to make structures
to provide energy
to make structures
to transport oxygen
to fight microorganisms that cause disease
to make structures: hair, nails
to control cell function and heredity
Animals
water 60 %
water 74 %
lipids
0.8 %
mineral
salts 3.2 %
proteins
3.2 %
glucides
19 %
lipids
20 %
glucides
0.6 %
mineral
salts 3.4 %
proteins
16 %
substances are ;
substances have
7. Ask questions about
organic and inorganic
substances. For example:
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nucleus
cytoplasm
cytoplasm
organelles
organelles
genetic
material
cell
membrane
cell
membrane
Eukaryotic cell
Prokaryotic cell
34
Activity
9. Read the chart, then make sentences
to describe the cells: Eukaryotic cells are
found in animals.
Eukaryotic
cells
Prokaryotic
cells
found in
animals
bacteria
size
big
small
nucleus
yes
no
complexity
complex
simple
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Animal cell
Cell membrane. Like a
skin around the cell. It
keeps the cell together
and controls what passes
in and out.
Nucleus. Contains
genetic material.
Cytoplasm.
Contains
the organelles:
mitochondria,
vacuoles
Vacuoles.
Like bags, surrounded
by membranes where
substances, mainly
water, accumulate.
Mitochondria.
Where energy
is obtained from
nutrients.
Cell wall.
A thick, rigid wall
made of cellulose.
Chloroplasts.
These store a green
pigment,
chlorophyll,
which absorbs
the Suns energy
to elaborate
organic matter
during photosynthesis.
Activities
10. Make a Venn diagram: show the similarities and differences
between animal and plant cells.
11. Draw and label an animal cell with all its parts.
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Hands on
Making a hypothesis. Using a microscope to study cells
A hypothesis is a proposal. It is used as a basis
for reasoning. Scientists use experiments and
observation to test the validity of a hypothesis.
Hypotheses show the relationship between two
or more facts. For example: we know that cell walls
in plant cells are made of cellulose.
phyllodes
Activities
12. Label each plant cell indicating its magnification.
13. Imagine that your hypothesis were incorrect. What result would make this obvious?
14. Imagine you have an unidentified sample. Hypothesis: If this is a living thing, it will be made up of cells.
Is this hypothesis correct? Can you use it to differentiate between living and non-living things?
What would you do to classify the sample as living or non-living?
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Multicellular organisation
Activities
15. Describe one of the specialised cells.
Your partner identifies it. For example:
A: It has no nucleus. B: A red blood cell.
16. What is the difference between tissues, organs
and systems?
Example: ... are made up of...
muscle cell
Cells
Tissue
muscle
tissue
Organ
muscle
Muscular
system
muscular
system
Sperm cells
consist mainly of
haemoglobin to
transport oxygen
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Protoctist Kingdom
Plant Kingdom
Kingdom
Moneran
Type of cells
Tissues
No tissues
Eukaryotic
Heterotrophic
Plant
Animal
38
Autotrophic / Heterotrophic
Prokaryotic
Protoctist
Fungi
Animal Kingdom
Activity
Fungi Kingdom
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CLASSIFICATION
YOU
BECAUSE YOU...
Kingdom
Animal
Phylum
Chordate
Sub phylum
Veterbrate
Class
Mammal
Order
Primate
Family
Hominid
Walk upright
Genus
Homo
Species
Homo sapiens
9. What is a species?
A species is the first level of classification for living things. A species
is a set of living things which are physically similar. They reproduce
and usually have fertile descendants.
Animals from the same species have similar appearances.
However, there can be differences in structure, size and colouring
between the male and the female. This difference is called
dimorphism.
Activities
18. Make a list of animals that
show sexual dimorphism.
19. Describe the differences
between the male and
female of some animals.
donkey
female
horse - mare
mule
39
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Activities
20. Study the illustrations. Which represent living
things? Which characteristics support your
decision?
A
G
F
E
Function
Glucides
Proteins
40
Lipids
Which
kingdoms
are made up of
have
autotrophs / eukaryotes?
no tissues?
unicellular and multicellar
living things?
Neuron
Group
Male
Female
lion
mammal
long mane
no mane
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LIVING THINGS
Composition
Cells
Classification
and
biodiversity
Projects
INVESTIGATE: an organisation trying to save the biodiversity of the planet. Give examples of actions taken.
WEB TASK: Learn how you can protect the biodiversity.
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UNIT
Invertebrates
Content objectives
Key language
Making generalisations
42
Expressing contrast
Some are carnivores, but others are herbivores.
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Activities
1. What part of a sponge body does the
name porifera refer to?
2. Copy the drawing of the sponge. Use
arrows to label the flow of water. Show
the entry points and the exit point.
3. Talk about cnidaria.
Which
are
have
can
tentacles?
carnivorous?
radial symmetry?
an opening at the top?
a body like a tube?
float?
water exits
osculum
water
enters
Porifera
Sponges belong to this group. Most live in the sea. Their
bodies are full of pores and channels, so water circulates
in and out of them. They feed by filtration. Water enters
though the central cavity, deposits nutrients, and leaves
through a hole called the osculum. Sponges do not move
around; they are attached to rocks or coral.
Cnidaria
There are three different groups of cnidaria: jellyfish, corals
and sea anemones. Their main characteristics are:
radial symmetry.
a soft body, with only one opening, the mouth, which is
surrounded by tentacles.
a gastrovascular cavity, something like a stomach,
connected to the mouth.
Nutrition. Cnidaria are carnivorous: they use their
tentacles to capture prey.
Interaction. Most cnidaria live in the sea. Jellyfish can
float; corals and sea anemones live fixed to the sea bed.
Reproduction. In their lifetime, cnidaria usually pass
through both the polyp and the medusa stages:
Polyps reproduce asexually by budding.
Jellyfish (medusae) reproduce sexually: there are male
and female specimens.
channels
pores
Cross-section of a porifera
tentacles
polyp
jellyfish
Cnidaria
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PLATYHELMINTHES
ANNELIDS
BODY
BODY
NEMATODES
segments
BODY
Soft, cylindrical bodies.
No segments or rings.
No respiratory system.
HABITAT
HABITAT
Water or soil.
Some are parasites.
head
Earthworm
digestive tube
body wall
coelom
setae or hairs
REPRODUCTION
REPRODUCTION
Heterosexual:
There are male and
females specimens.
HABITAT
Water. Some are parasites, for example,
leeches.
Activities
4. Make your own table.
Annelids
Main
characteristics
Habitat
Which
Example
44
in water?
are
hermaphrodites?
breathe
through gills?
live
parasites?
REPRODUCTION
Some annelids are hermaphrodites.
Earthworms have larger segments
called clitellum where the eggs are
deposited.
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shell
stomach
body mass
lung
eyes
head
mouth
foot
Garden snail
Mollusc functions
Respiration. Aquatic molluscs breathe through gills.
Terrestrial molluscs breathe through lungs.
Nutrition. Some are carnivores. Others are herbivores.
Reproduction. Most are hermaphrodite and
oviparous. The larva hatches, goes through
metamorphosis and produces an adult individual.
Gastropods: slug
Bivalves: mussel
Activities
7. Make your own table for
molluscs. Use page 44 as a
model.
8. Match the photos to the
words.
no shell eyes foot
garden snail bivalve
mouth spiral shell
Cephalopods: squid
45
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head
antennae
wings
abdomen
compound eye
mouth
legs
Wasp
Arthropod functions
Nutrition. Arthropods can be carnivorous, herbivorous
or scavengers.
Respiration. They breathe through trachea (terrestrial
arthropods) or gills (aquatic arthropods).
Reproduction. Most have male and female sexes which
are distinguishable. They are oviparous. Fertilisation is
internal. Some hatch as larvae and undergo metamorphosis.
As they grow, arthropods shed the old exoskeleton and
grow a new one. This is called moulting. Moulting takes
place various times throughout an arthropods lifetime. In
other words, arthropod growth is discontinuous.
Activities
9. Make your own table for
arthropods: see page 44.
10. Make generalisations about
arthropods. Use pages 46 - 7.
Some are ... . Most are ... .
Some have ... , but others ... .
1 The female lays eggs. A larva, called a caterpillar, hatches. 2 After a short period of development, the caterpillar
changes into a pupa (chrysalis stage). 3 After more changes, the chrysalis breaks open and the butterfly comes out.
46
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Examples
Body / Appendages
Habitat
Crustaceans
lobster, crab
usually 10 legs
aquatic
Myriapods
centipede, scolopendra
terrestrial
Arachnids
spider, scorpion
8 legs
terrestrial
Insects
abdomen
cephalothorax
legs
pedipalp
chelicerae
Insect. Ants have a strong mouth for chewing and six legs.
47
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arm
ambulacral
apparatus
Starfish
ambulacral
feet
Echinoderm functions
Movement. The ambulacral apparatus, a series
of internal tubes filled with water, enables
movement. The tubes form ambulacral feet with
suckers.
Respiration. Most echinoderms breathe through
their skin, using the ambulacral apparatus. Some
have simple gills.
Nutrition. They are carnivorous and feed mainly
on small crustaceans and molluscs.
Reproduction. Most echinoderms have male
and female sexes, but some are hermaphrodite.
Fertilisation is external. The larvae can swim and
undergo metamorphosis to change into adults.
Activities
11. Can you trace the radial symmetry
on the photos?
12. Make your own table for echinoderms:
see page 44.
13. How does a starfish feel? And a sea
urchin?
Echinoedea:
sea urchins
48
Stelleroidea:
starfish
Crinoidea:
sea lilies
Holothuroidea:
sea cucumbers
Ophiuroidea:
ophiura
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Hands on
Carrying out an experiment
The exoskeleton of an insect is covered with a fine layer
of grease or wax. This makes it impermeable. The wax
protects insects which live in water, such as the skater
(Gerris lacustris). The skater floats on the water surface.
If its legs get wet, it cannot take off.
Skaters can walk on water without sinking.
It floats initially.
Model
with wax
It floats after
2 minutes.
Model
without
wax
It floats after
10 minutes.
Insect without
waxed legs
Insect with
waxed legs
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Activities
16. The nautilus lives in a spiral-shaped shell. Inside,
the shell is divided into compartments. The animal
lives in the largest one. The other compartments
are filled with gas, so the shell floats.
Nautilus
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Porifera
The body resembles a sack full of pores and channels. Water circulates
through it.
Porifera live attached to a surface. They feed by filtration.
INVERTEBRATES
Cnidaria
They have a soft body and a mouth surrounded by tentacles. There are two
body types: polyps which live attached to a surface, alone or in colonies, and
jellyfish which float in the sea.
They are carnivorous.
Worms
They have a soft body and no skeleton.
The main groups are:
Platyhelminthes: long, flat, soft bodies.
Nematodes: soft, cylindrical bodies, not divided into segments
Annelids: soft, cylindrical body divided into segments
Molluscs
They have a soft body divided into three parts: head, body mass and foot.
Many have a shell.
They breathe through gills (aquatic species) or through lungs (terrestrial
species).
They go through metamorphosis.
Arthropods
They have jointed legs and an external skeleton. Their bodies are divided into
three parts: head, thorax and abdomen.
They breathe through trachea (terrestrial arthropods) or gills (aquatic
arthropods).
They change their outer covering (moult), and some undergo metamorphosis.
Echinoderms
They have an internal skeleton made up of plaques under their skin.
They breathe through their skin, using the ambulacral apparatus. Some
echinoderms have simple gills. All are carnivorous.
They undergo metamorphosis.
Projects
RESEARCH: Find out what crustaceans local fish markets sell. Make a list.
WEB TASK: Find out what some spiders eat.
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UNIT
Vertebrates
Content objectives
Key language
Expressing purpose
Expressing contrast
52
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brain
spinal
column
trunk
articulated limbs
Horse
Jellyfish
tail
Spider
Activities
1. Study the photos and
classify the animals:
vertebrate or invertebrate.
2. Compare the spider
and the lion: legs, body,
covering...
3. Show the bilateral
symmetry of two animals
with lines.
Lion
Kangaroo
Tortoise
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hair
spinal column
ears
trunk
neck
articulated limbs
Alsatian dog
Activities
54
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barbs
rachis
spinal
column
calamus
Feather
legs
keel
beak
Sea gull
Activities
6. Make your table for birds:
see page 54.
neck
55
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spinal column
skin with scales
legs
Green iguana
Activities
9. Make your table for
reptiles: see page 54.
10. What is a carapace like?
How does it protect the
tortoise?
56
chameleon
tortoise
crocodile
Crocodilians. Alligators
and crocodiles
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tail
moist skin
spinal
column
Tiger
salamander
legs
Activities
11. Test your classmates. Complete the text to ask
questions.
Example: What do tadpoles use to breathe?
What do ...
use to
breathe?
keep moist?
57
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scales
dorsal fin
anal
fin
spinal column
operculum
pelvic fin
Activities
15. Make your table for fish: see
page 54.
16. Which type of fin enables fish
to move forward most?
58
carp
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Hands on
Scientific diagrams
Scientific diagrams often depict living things.
A scientific diagram does not have to be a perfect
work of art, but it must...
be realistic.
have the correct proportions.
have realistic colours (if it is coloured).
be labelled.
Follow these steps to make a diagram of a fish.
head
lateral line
dorsal fin
caudal fin
eye
operculum
pectoral fin
pelvic fin
Activities
17. Study the scales on a fish. Make a scientific drawing of their shape and position.
18. Touch a fish from the caudal fin to the head. What does it feel like?
59
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Activities
19. Which of these are characteristic of animals?
a.
b.
c.
d.
b.
a.
c.
27. Bats are the only mammals that can fly. Compare
bat wings and bird wings. What similarities and
differences are there?
22. The blue whale lives in the sea, and spends a lot of
time beneath the water.
a. Why do whales have to come to the surface?
b. Why dont marine mammals have ears?
a
23. What kind of bird eats each type of food?
I. Meat
II. Insects in the water
III. Grain
IV. Insects in wood
b
24. Write a table and complete it with the
characteristics of each vertebrate group.
Vertical: Mammals, Birds, Reptiles, Amphibians, Fish
Horizontal: Type of limb, Skin covering, Homeotherm/
Poikilotherm, Respiration, Nutrition, Reproduction
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Mammals
VERTEBRATES
Birds
Reptiles
Amphibians
Fish
Fish are fusiform. The limbs are called fins. Fish are covered
with scales.
Fish are poikilotherms. They use their gills to breathe. Most
fish are oviparous. Most fish are carnivores.
Projects
HYPOTHESIS: Feathers keep birds dry. Test this hypothesis. Place some feathers in water; observe them, and
revise your hypothesis.
WEB TASK: Find out if the Iberian lynx makes a good pet.
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UNIT
The plant
and fungi kingdoms
Content objectives
Key language
Comparing
62
Describing a process
When minerals dissolve in water, raw sap is produced.
Making generalisations
Most gymnosperms are evergreens.
Many angiosperms are deciduous.
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Activity
1. Classify the plants as in the
example.
Are they vascular?
No
Yes
Mosses
Ferns, gymnosperms,
angiosperms
No
Yes
No
Yes
Mosses
Ferns
Gymnosperms: pine
Angiosperms: roses
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capsule
spores
swimming
sperm
fertilisation
zygote
germinating
spore
mature gametophytes
Mosses
Ferns
frond
capsule
filament
root
rhizome
sorus
phyllodes
spores
rhizoid
Moss
64
Fern
spores
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Gymnosperms
Angiosperms
flowers
leaves
Activities
fruit
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topside
Leaves
Photosynthesis takes place in leaves. The leaves take in
and expel gases from the atmosphere. They eliminate
excess water in the form of water vapour. This process is
called transpiration.
underside
petiole
stomata
apical
bud
leaves
node
Stems
Plant stems are usually above ground. The stem keeps the
plant upright and supports it. It also carries substances to
other parts of the plant. Some stems, for example, the
potato, accumulate reserves of water and food.
stem
main root
secundary
roots
Roots
root
cap
root
hairs
root
cap
Venus flytrap
66
Activities
4. Where do vegetables
come from? Make a poster
showing the vegetables you
eat. Classify them as: leaf,
stem, root, rhizome, etc.
5. Draw a plant. Label
the main parts.
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Hands on
Observation and classification of leaves
What is a classification system?
A classification system is an organised way of grouping
objects into similar categories. Scientists use criteria
(rules) to sort the objects into categories.
Each category in the classification is labelled. An
effective system has multiple levels of increasing detail.
Creating a leaf classification system
not needle
shape
needle shape
Group A
parallel
veins
not parallel
veins
1. Collect samples.
Collect as many different samples of leaves as
possible. Remember, pine needles are leaves!
Group B
simple leaves
compound leaves
smooth
edge
Group C
not smooth
opposite
edge
arrangement
Group D
Group E
alternate
arrangement
Group F
Activities
67
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Taking a
cutting of a
geranium
plant
corolla (petals)
pendule
stigma
pollen
grains
calyx
(sepals)
style
anther
ovary
filament
ovules
68
Stamen
Pistil
Flower
Activities
8. Study the flower diagram on this page. Identify the reproductive
and protective parts of the flower.
9. Research ways that pollen can be carried from flower to flower.
Make a list, and give an example of a plant to illustrate each one.
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The plant
flowers
A new plant
grows from
each seed
pollen
grain
After
dispersal,
the seed
germinates
seed
pollen
tube
fruit
ovules
Formation
of the seed
and fruit
Fertilisation takes place
inside the ovary
Activities
In stage 1, pollination
Where does (fruit and seed
formation) take place?
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sunlight
carbon
dioxide
oxygen
water
vapour
elaborated sap
is distributed
raw sap
travels up
oxygen
in
F
respiration
out
carbon
dioxide
oxygen
in
F
respiration
out
Activities
12. Draw a diagram of a plant.
Indicate the phases of
nutrition for each part.
13. Observe these drawings.
a. What does each drawing
represent? Day or night?
b. Do plants breathe and carry
out photosynthesis all day?
Explain your answers.
A
O2
CO2
carbon
dioxide
F photosynthesis
CO2
70
O2
oxygen
O2
CO2
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cap
spores
stalk
mycellium
hyphae
Toadstool
Activities
14. Compare fungi and plants. How are they different?
How are they the same?
15. Talk about fungi:
Which fungi are edible? useful?
parasites? multi-cellular? poisonous?
gills
ring
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Activities
17. Can a plant move around? And make movements?
Explain your answer, giving examples.
Vascular
or nonvascular?
Roots,
stems,
leaves?
Reproduction
Mosses
Ferns
b. lettuce
e. artichoke
c. carrot
f. red pepper
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PLANTS
Functions
Non-flowering
plants
FUNGI
Flowering
Plants
Projects
INVESTIGATE: How is bread made? How was penicillin discovered? What sort of fungi are involved?
WEB TASK: Where can you find the tallest tree in the world?
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UNIT
The simplest
living things
Content objectives
Key language
Expressing facts
Describing
74
Giving instructions
Label each jar. Observe the samples.
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genetic
material
cytoplasm
Bacteria nutrition
Most bacteria are heterotrophs: they do not produce
their own food.
bacteria
capsule
cell wall
plasmatic membrane
Bacteria cell structure
Activities
1. Draw a bacteria cell and label it: cell wall,
cell membrane, cytoplasm.
Bacteria reproduction
Nutrition
Parasites
Saprophytes
Symbionts
Coccus. Spherical
Bacillus. Rod-shaped
Spirillum. Helical
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blood
cell
flagellum
cilia
Flagellates
Movement: using a
flagellum or tail.
Nutrition: some are
parasites.
Fact: Trypanosoma causes
sleeping sickness.
76
Ciliates
Movement: using cilia:
hair-like organs.
Nutrition: Some are
parasites.
Fact: Paramecium is shaped
like a slipper. It has two
nuclei.
pseudopods
Rhizopods
Movement: using
pseudopods: projections
of cell cytoplasm.
Nutrition: Some are
parasites, others are not.
Fact: Entamoeba histolytica
causes dystentery.
plasmodium
Sporozoa
No movement.
Nutrition: All are parasites.
Fact: Plasmodium causes
malaria.
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Green algae
Colour: mainly green
Habitat: on the surface of salt water
or fresh water
Example: Euglena, Ulva
Brown algae
Colour: green, yellowish pigment
Habitat: salt water, on rocky coasts
and on the surface of water.
Example: Diatomeas, Sargazos
Red algae
Colour: green and red
Habitat: deep in warm, still ocean
water
Example: Coralina
Activities
3. Compare protoctists and monera. Examples:
Many acuatic
animals feed on
zooplankton and
phytoplankton.
Example:
the blue whale
... live in ... . ... are autotrophs, but ... are ... .
4. Describe how each group of protozoa move.
Example: ... move using... . ...do not move.
5. What do algae have in common with plants?
6. Compare protozoa and algae. Draw a Venn
diagram.
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cell membrane
Infected cell
78
Activities
7. Which vital function do
viruses share with other
living things?
8. Draw and label a virus.
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respiratory
system
contact
with
the skin
digestive
system
Symptoms are the effects that a disease has on the body, and
can be observed.
Vectors are insects that carry a disease from one person to another.
Mosquitos (Anopheles) can carry Plasmodium which causes malaria,
if they bite an infected person.
Microorganism
Cold
virus
AIDS
virus
Pneumonia
bacteria
Transmitted
through
the air
Symptoms
sexual
contact
stuffed up nose,
sneezing, high
temperature,
coughing
general
sexual and blood
weakness,
contact
weakened defences
the air
fever, coughing,
pulmonary
infection
How microorganisms enter the body
Salmonellosis
bacteria
spoiled food
high temperature,
nausea, vomiting,
diarrhoea
contaminated
water
nausea, vomiting,
stomachache,
severe diarrhoea
Activities
Cholera
protozoan
Malaria
protozoan
Athletes foot
microscopic
fungus
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Hands on
Taking and classifying samples. Observing microorganisms
Scientists obtain data from nature by collecting samples. They do this for different reasons:
To compare. For example, on farms, blood
samples are taken from animals. These are
compared to check the animals health.
Compare two water samples. Then classify
the microscopic living things in the water.
puddle water
bowl
Navicula
Paramecium
Colpidium
Phyllodinea
Vorticella
Scenedesmus
Euglena
Cosmarium
Activities
11. Did you see any microorganisms in the tap
water? Did that surprise you? Why or why not?
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Vaccines
A vaccine contains dead or weakened microorganisms from a specific
illness. These microorganisms cannot produce the illness, but they
can protect against it.
Antibiotics
Antibiotics are produced by certain bacteria and fungi. They prevent
the microorganisms that cause illnesses from growing. Antibiotics are
curative measures and must always be prescribed by a doctor. They
cannot fight illnesses caused by viruses.
Decomposer microorganisms
transform dead animals and plants
into inorganic substances. Some
are harmful.
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Activities
17. Look at the drawings of a bacteria and a virus.
a. Label them. What characteristics helped you?
b. What do these organisms have in common?
a
b
c
f
e
g
d
HIV virus
(0,11 mm)
Intestinal bacteria
(1 m)
Paramecium
(20 m)
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MICROORGANISMS
Protoctist
Kingdom
VIRUSES
Microorganisms
Beneficial microorganisms:
Decomposer microorganisms
Plankton
Intestinal flora
Some are used to make food
Some are used to obtain antibiotics and other medicines.
Projects
EXPERIMENT: Put moist bread in a plastic box. Observe the changes after a few days. What causes them?
WEB TASK: Find out about friendly and unfriendly microbes.
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Rock stars...
Stereoscopic microscopes illuminate solid objects from above. They are used to obtain
magnified, three-dimensional images. They are very useful for studying rocks.
Images from a
stereoscopic microscope
eyepiece
tube
fine focusing
knob
B
light source
coarse
focusing knob
stage
arm (limb)
stand
limestone
granite
2. Describe each rock sample. For example:
Granite
84
is
sandstone
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and instruments
There are many different meteorological instruments used to study the Earths atmosphere
and weather. For example:
A thermometer
measures
temperature.
A hygrometer
measures humidity
in the air.
A rain gauge
or pluviometer
measures rainfall.
3. Look at these photos. What do you think the weather is like in each place?
A rain forest
A deciduous wood
4 Temperature: medium
Precipitation: abundant
Humidity: high
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UNIT
The Earths
atmosphere
86
Content objectives
Key language
Expressing amounts
Comparing
The ionosphere is the highest and the thickest
layer.
The higher the altitude, the lower the density
of air.
The higher a place is, the colder and wetter it will be.
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Oxygen (O2).
Colourless.
Almost all living
creatures breathe it.
21 % of air.
Other gases: 1 %
Argon (Ar).
Ozone (O3)
Water vapour
Carbon dioxide (CO2)
Necessary for
photosynthesis
Activity
1. Why does oxygen in the
atmosphere make it suitable
for life? And carbon
dioxide? And water?
500 km
A LT I T U D E
80 km
Mesosphere. About 40 km thick.
It contains clouds of ice and dust.
300 km
40 km
200 km
Ozonosphere
10 km
100 km
80 km
40 km
10 km
0 km
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Atmospheric pressure
Air has weight. The pressure it exerts on a surface is called
atmospheric pressure. It is caused by gravity, and is measured
in millibars (mb).
In the 17th century, the Italian scientist, Torricelli, proved that
atmospheric pressure decreases with altitude. Therefore, at sea
level, the pressure is higher than at the top of a mountain.
996
0
1 00
High pressure area. Air moves from a land mass towards the
sea. There are no clouds and the sun shines.
1008
1 016
1 000
12
10
992
10
04
988
980 984
Activities
996
88
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Activities
4. Look at the four factors that
affect climate. Can you define
how these affect the climate in
your part of the country?
5. What will the weather probably
be like if you are looking at
cirrus clouds? And if you are
looking at cumulonimbus
clouds?
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4. What is meteorology?
1 024
1 008
H
1 024
1 00 0
1 016
1 016
1 008
1 016
1 02 4
Meteostat photo
Meteorological map
A barometer measures
atmospheric pressure.
Activities
A rain gauge /
pluviometer
measures the
amount of rainfall
per square metre.
A hygrometer measures
the humidity in the air.
An anemometer
measures wind
speed.
90
barometer
Measures/
Shows
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Hands on
Observing the weather
Make and use an anemometer to measure wind speed
An anemometer measures wind speed. Remember that wind is simply moving air.
Materials
Activities
8. How cloudy is it when the air pressure is lowest / highest?
9. What kind of wind is associated with rain?
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Acid rain
Global warming
In the last century, our atmosphere has warmed
between 0.5 and 0.9 C on average. Some scientists
Pollutant
Consequences
gases used in
aerosols, air
conditioners
CFC gases
particles released
from burning coal
and other fuels
soot
carbon
dioxide
(CO2)
burning gasoline
sulphur
and nitrate
dioxides
Air contamination
from industry
Acid rain damages this statue.
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sunlight enters
the ground
and air get
hotter
Greenhouse
made of glass
The Sun
heats the air
atmosphere
traps the heat
Activities
10. Talk about pollutants.
Where
What damage
does it
do they
come
from?
cause?
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Activities
12. Study the map and answer the questions.
a. Is cloud and precipitation more likely in Spain
or in the UK?
Time
14:00
16:00
18:00
Atmospheric
1 020 mb 1 016 mb 1 010 mb 1 007 mb
pressure
a. its proportion
21. Label the maps: weather map or isobar contour
map.
b. its origin
c. if it has a role in an important process.
94
Description
of the layer
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Climate
Human
impact
1 024
H
1 024
1 016
1 008
1 02 4
1 016
Changes
in the
atmosphere
THE ATMOSPHERE
Origin
1 016
Composition
and
structure
Projects
PROJECT: Weather maps. Collect the weather maps from a newspaper during one whole week. Stick them
onto a chart. Write the weather each day next to each map.
WEBTASK: You are planning a trip to London. What is the weather like today?
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UNIT
The hydrosphere
Content objectives
Key language
Expressing amounts
Describing
Expressing direction
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WATER
Salt water 97 %
FRESH WATER
Fresh water 3 %
0.3%
fresh water
68.7% ice
and snow
30.1%
ground water
Activities
1. How much water is there for human
consumption on Earth? Explain.
2. Represent the pie chart information in two bar
graphs.
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PACIFIC OCEAN
Anomalous dilation. When water freezes, it dilates or increases in volume. As a result, the volume of ice is greater than the
same mass of water in liquid form.
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others 2%
sulphates 11%
Activities
3. Look up the following terms: solvent, evaporation, cohesion, anomalous dilation and adhesion.
4. Think about cohesion and adhesion. Why are these properties so important for living things?
5. Is there more oxygen dissolved in sea water near the surface or in the deep, darker zones? Explain.
6. Why do you think sea water in warm areas contains more salt than sea water in cold areas?
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wetlands
lake
lagoon
Streams or torrents are water courses fed by rain. The flow of water
varies a lot from season to season.
Wetlands are areas of marshlands and swamps where the ground is
inundated all year round.
Glaciers are formed from the accumulation of snow on mountain tops.
Rivers are permanent water courses. The River Nile is the longest
river in the world.
Groundwater is water located beneath the ground surface.
Lakes are bodies of water of different sizes surrounded by land.
Example: Lake Victoria, Africa.
River valley
100
Groundwater in a cave
Activities
7. Copy the diagram and label
the bodies of fresh water.
Which bodies of fresh
water can you find where
you live?
8. Look out your window. Draw
and label the water cycle
processes you observe.
Lake
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condensation in
the form of clouds
water vapour
precipitation
clouds
ent of
m
e
v
mo
precipitation
evaporation
surface runoff
evaporation
surface rocks
evaporation
evapotranspiration
infiltration
groundwater
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Prevention
Chemical pollution
102
Activity
9. Use information from this page to
make a water poster. Example: Take
showers. Dont throw rubbish on the
beach. It pollutes the water.
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Hands on
Studying the effects of temperature on condensation
60 C
18 C
6 C
0 C
Controlling variables
in an experiment
To see how temperature affects the
condensation of water vapour, compare
masses of air at different temperatures.
Keep all other variables equal.
Procedure
1. Place four identical glasses on a table. Label them 4. Observe the table. What can you conclude from
A, B, C and D. Place a thermometer in each one.
Water
condensation
outside the
glass.
Temperature
Appearance
60 C
No condensation
18 C
No condensation
6 C
Small drops
0 C
Activity
10. Breathe on each glass to make the surrounding air more humid. Does the amount of condensation
increase in each case? Which controlled variable have you now modified?
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Activities
11. This diagram shows the distribution of fresh water
in the hydrosphere. Label the corresponding
sections.
A
Percentage
of the total
Salt water
rivers, lakes,
Continental
water
groundwater
ice and snow
surface fresh
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THE HYDROSPHERE
Properties
of water
Movements
of ocean
waters
The water
cycle
Uses of water
Projects
POSTER: Draw a frozen lake. Show the living things that exist under the ice. Add labels and text:
These animals live...
WEB TASK: Calculate the amount of water you use in one week for showers or baths.
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UNIT
10 Minerals
What do you remember?
Look at the gold mine and gold sample in the photograph.
Where is gold is found?
Is gold a solid, liquid or gas?
Is it natural or man-made?
Do you think there is a lot of gold available on Earth?
Content objectives
Key language
Comparing
Describing
Classify minerals
Classifying
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inorganic
not from living things
calcite
All minerals are solid substances. Water and mercury have most
of the characteristics of minerals, except they are liquid at room
temperature. They are called mineraloids, not minerals.
Pyrite. Like all
minerals it
is a naturally
occurring,
inorganic, solid
substance.
Pyrite has
a definite
chemical
composition:
iron sulfide.
amber
Activities
1. Look at the photos. Answer these questions
for each one:
a. Is it a solid?
b. Does it occur naturally, or does someone make it?
c. Is it made from living things?
d. Is it organic or inorganic?
2. Are they minerals or not? Answer using the table.
is
is not
a mineral because
it is
it is not
gold
diamond
natural.
inorganic.
solid.
water
animal
bone
plastic
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smoky quartz
agate
milky quartz
The chemical composition and the main physical properties are the same
for all quartz. Smoky quartz, agate and milky quartz are varieties of quartz.
The colours are different because of impurities in the samples.
108
Activities
3. Study the photos of quartz.
What colours can you see?
Why can quartz be several
colours?
4. Research other varieties of
quartz. What colours are they?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e)
f)
Amethyst
Jasper
Citrine
Creolite
Rose quartz
Rock crystal
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Activities
5. Match each photo, A D above,
with its environmental impact, 1 4.
6. What minerals are used to make
these things?
wedding rings cement glass
table salt
7. Research.
a. Find out about other things
which are made of minerals.
b. What metals are obtained
from minerals?
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Silicates
Oxygen and silicon combined together produce silicates. Silicates are
the most abundant minerals on Earth.
Percentage
Oxygen (O)
47 %
Silicon (Si)
28 %
Aluminium (Al)
7.9 %
Iron (Fe)
5.0 %
Calcium (Ca)
3.6 %
Rest
8.5 %
Activities
8. Use the information from
the table of the most
abundant elements to make
a bar graph.
9. Summarise the information
on silicates in a chart.
Mineral
Found in
Colour
Uses
Olivine.
Olive green
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Non-silicates
Non-silicates are all the minerals that are not silicates.
They are minerals that do not contain silicon.
Common non-silicates are classified into groups as:
Native elements. These are minerals made up of a single
element. For example, gold, silver, copper, and sulphur.
Oxides. This group of non-silicates are made up of oxygen
and one other element. For example, oligiste
is a source of iron ore from which
iron is extracted.
Activities
10. What is the difference between silicates and non-silicates?
11. List the minerals on these pages as silicate or non-silicate.
12. Match each term with its composition:
a. oxide
1. metal chloride / fluoride
b. sulphide
2. oxygen another element
c. carbonate
3. sulphur metal
d. halide
4. carbon oxygen metal
13. Diamonds are 100 % carbon. Which group of minerals
do they belong to?
Native gold
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Activities
14. Study the Mohs Scale of
Hardness and describe each
mineral.
Talc is
harder than
apatite.
softer than
G
G
1
Talc
112
2
Gypsum
3
Calcite
4
Fluorite
5
Apatite
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Hands on
Using a mineral identification key. Classifying minerals
metallic
non-metallic
light
dark
c. Test the hardness. Use the Mohs Scale of Hardness and these tools.
Each mineral can scratch only those minerals below it on the Mohs Scale.
The harder the mineral, the harder the tool needed to scratch it.
fingernail
copper coin
steel nail
glass
2. Study the minerals in this unit, then copy and complete the chart.
Mineral
Colour
Lustre
Hardness
Mica
Olivine
dark green
Calcite
Pyrite
Talc
Quartz
FG
6
Orthoclase
7
Quartz
8
Topaz
9
Corundum
10
Diamond
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Activities
B
B
Use
table salt
talc
fluorite
At school
In the shops
Jewellery
Construction
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10
MINERALS
Mineral
classification
Properties
Extraction
and uses
Projects
EXPERIMENT AND REPORT: You cannot scratch quartz with a nail. Can quartz scratch the nail?
PROJECT: Mineral Exhibit. Use the information from the table on page 113. Prepare a file card for each mineral.
WEB TASK: What is your birthstone? What are some of its properties?
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UNIT
11 Rocks
What do you remember?
What are rocks made up of?
Are all rocks solid, or can a rock exist in liquid state at normal temperature?
Can you name some things that granite and marble are used for?
Content objectives
Key language
Expressing a purpose
116
Describing a process
Plutonic rocks form as magma cools slowly under
the ground.
Volcanic rocks form as lava cools rapidly on the surface.
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A
Stonehenge, in England,
is made of sandstone.
E
Many statues and monuments
are made of marble.
B
The Roman aqueduct in
Segovia is made of granite.
C
Many buildings are decorated
with stone.
F
Clay is used to make plates
and pottery.
Refineries process oil into fuel. Plastics are made from oil.
Activities
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Rock
clay minerals
clay
halite
salt
calcite
calcite / limestone
quartz
quartzite
Activities
4. What are the three types of rock? Define them in
your notebook.
5. What is the difference between minerals and
rocks? Check your answer by looking at Unit 10.
mantle
crust
external core
internal core
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Chemical
Formed by
Properties
Conglomerate
Fragments of rock
and some sand
Round or angular
fragments
Sandstone
Clay
Different colours.
Smells like wet earth
when wet
Limestone
(Many types)
Chemical reactions.
All contain calcium
carbonate.
Reacts to acids
by producing bubbles
Gypsum
Evaporation of the
water in deposits
Rock salt
Very soft.
Can be scratched with
a fingernail
Tastes salty
Coal
Remains of land
vegetation
Soft, black.
Burns easily
Oil
Organic
Detrital
Common
sedimentary rocks
Activities
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Activities
8. Where can you find
examples of rock erosion
in your country? Choose
an example and say what
natural phenomena
caused the erosion.
9. How are fossils formed?
Make a series of drawings
to show the process.
Deposition
of sediments
Compaction
Cementation. The rock fragments are stuck together with the salt
crystal which formed when the water was eliminated.
Each layer of sediments is transformed into a layer of sedimentary
rock. This layer is called a stratum (plural: strata).
Similarities
Differences
Pressure
fragment
mineral deposits
Cementation
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122
Activities
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Activities
15. Do igneous or metamorphic
rocks contain fossils?
Why or why not?
These rocks do not melt, but the minerals inside them are
changed by heat and pressure. The rocks become hard and
compact. Metamorphic rocks rarely have fossils.
The formation of metamorphic rocks
sedimentary
rock
Foliated
Non-foliated
Classification
of metamorphic rocks
Common
metamorphic rocks
metamorphic
rock
Appearance
igneous
rock
magma
Properties
Slate
Usually black,
slightly shiny
because of the
presence of mica
Marble
Many different
colours. Often with
veins
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and
pre
ss
ur
e
magma
me
Sedimentary rocks
124
g
lin
coo
co
mp
ac
t ing
ing
el t
wea
t
he
r
hea
t
re
su
es
pr
nd
g
lt in
ing
Metamorphic rocks
sediments
ta
me
weat
her
ing
he
a
g
l t in
we
a th
erin
g
Igneous rocks
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Hands on
Investigating weathering and sedimentation
1. Chemical weathering
Chemical weathering occurs when rock
components react chemically with a substance
and are broken down.
Prediction. Vinegar is an acid. What do you think
will happen if you put it on the rock sample?
Materials
a piece of chalk or limestone
a glass jar
a balloon
some vinegar
Procedure
Procedure
Observation
Observation
Figure 1
Figure 2
Activities
17. Collect rock samples in your area.
Which ones are sedimentary rocks?
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Activities
19. Copy and label the diagram to show the stages of
erosion / weathering.
24. Clay and granite are rocks. Clay is soft and fragile.
Granite is strong and hard. Can you explain why?
25. Study the photographs. Identify the rocks: marble
or granite. Which is made up of only one mineral?
F
F
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11
Rocks are formed by minerals. If the composition of the rock consists of only one mineral, the rock is called
monomineralic. Rocks are classified into three types according to how they are formed:
Sedimentary rocks. Formed by the accumulation of compacted sediment.
Igneous rocks. Made of magma which has cooled.
Metamorphic rocks. Formed by high pressure and temperature. They are always in a solid state.
The rock cycle is the combination of processes that rock and sediments undergo on the Earths surface and
in its crust.
Some of the main uses of rock are: construction materials, decoration, containers, fuels, the chemical industry.
Igneous
rocks
ROCKS
Sedimentary
rocks
Metamorphic
rock
Projects
INVESTIGATE: Can some rock float? Drop a piece of pumice in water.
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Its elementary!
Currently, more than 110 different chemical elements have been identified. Over 90 elements are found in
nature. The rest are created only in laboratories as artificial elements. All these elements are classified in the
Periodic Table of Elements according to their properties.
H
F
name
of the
element
atomic
number
Hydrogen
Black - solid
Blue - liquid
Red - gas
Purple - artificial
Be
Hydrogen
4
Li
Be
Lithium
Beryllium
Hydrogen is used
as rocket fuel.
Li
Hydrogen, hydrogen everywhere!
About 90 % of the atoms in the Universe are
hydrogen, about 9 % are helium, and all the
other elements account for less than 1 %.
128
Lithium is used
for batteries.
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He
Ne
He
Helium
5
10
Ne
Boron
Carbon
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Fluorine
Neon
Fluorine is present in
toothpaste. It helps
prevent dental cavities.
Activity
1. Turn to the Periodic Table, page 152. Choose another element and research its uses.
As a class, make a poster of different elements and their uses in everyday life.
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UNIT
12 Matter and
its properties
Content objectives
Key language
Comparing
Measuring
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1. What is matter?
Everything that takes up space and has mass is matter.
Therefore, everything around us is matter.
General properties. These are the properties common
to all matter: mass, volume, weight and density.
Specific properties. These are the characteristics that
differentiate one kind of matter from another. They are
colour, shape, size, texture, hardness, etc. They can be
used to identify and describe matter.
Air is matter
A
The books you read and the pencils you write with are matter.
The water you drink and the air you breathe are matter.
Unit
Symbol
Length
Mass
Time
Temperature
metre
kilogram
second
kelvin
kg
Activities
1. What are the general properties of all
matter?
2. You cant see air. Explain why is it
matter.
3. How long is this book? And how
wide? Which unit of measurement
would you use in the International
System of Units?
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2. What is length?
Multiples and submultiples of a metre
Equivalent
millimetre (mm)
1,000 mm 1 mk
centimetre (cm)
100 cm 1 m
metre (m)
1m
1,000 m 1 km
kilometre (km)
Equivalent
square millimetre
(mm2)
square centimetre
(cm2)
10,000 cm2 1 m2
1m2
square kilometre
(km2)
1,000,000 m2 1km2
Unit name
height
base
Surface area
Irregular-shaped objects.
Divide the irregular shape into
regular ones, and calculate the
area of each one. Then, add
these areas together to
calculate the total (estimation).
132
Radius
Surface area r 2
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4. What is volume?
Volume
of the object
Initial volume
Final volume
Volume of
the gas
Capacity
The volume of a liquid can be calculated by measuring
the capacity of its container.
Equivalence in litres
Litre (L)
1L
Decilitre (dL)
0.1 L
Centilitre (cL)
0.01 L
Millilitre (mL)
0.001 L
Capacity
1,000 L
1L
1 mL
1 dm
1 cm
1 mm
0.001 mL
Activities
4. What is the capacity of a container
with a volume of 3.4 cm3?
5. How many 250 mL bottles do you need
to fill a tank with a capacity of 10 L?
Perfume is sold in small bottles because it is very expensive.
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5. What is mass?
Mass is the amount of matter in a body. Mass is a base unit. Mass
is measured in kilograms (kg). Scales are used to measure mass.
Multiples and submultiples of a kilogram
Unit and symbol
Equivalence in kilograms
ton (t)
1,000 kg
kilogram (kg)
1 kg
1kg 1,000 g
gram (g)
decigram (dg)
1g
centigram (cg)
1g 100 cg
milligram (mg)
1 g 1,000 mg
10 dg
Traditional scales compare mass with a standard weight. To do this, place the body to be weighed in a
saucer (A). Add weights to the other saucer (B) until they are balanced (C).
Activities
6. A gold chain was weighed using the following weights:
one 100 g weight
two 1 g weights
Can you calculate the mass of the chain in grams and milligrams?
7. A box of biscuits weighing 1 kg costs 3 .
A box weighing 250 g costs 1 .
Read and calculate:
The 1 kg box of biscuits is
times bigger than the 250 g box.
How much money do you save if you buy the big box?
134
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6. What is density?
Density is the relationship between the mass and the volume
of a body, that is, how concentrated the mass is in a specific volume.
Density is measured in kg/m3 or g/cm3.
Iron has a higher density than wood. These two blocks, one of iron,
and one of wood, have the same volume. The block of iron has
more mass, or amount of matter, so it is harder to move. The block
of iron feels heavy for its size.
The mass of one litre of oil is 900 g.
easy to move
hard to move
mass
volume
Activities
x
x
Substance
Density (g/cm3)
Water
1.0
Oil
0.9
Petrol
0.7
Lead
11.3
Iron
7.9
Mercury
13.5
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kelvin
Celsius
Fahrenheit
Unit (symbol)
kelvin (K)
degree
Celsius (C)
degree
Fahrenheit (F)
373.15
100
212
273.15
32
Absolute zero
0.
273.15
459.67
Activities
136
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Hands on
Analysing results. Using graphs.
A graph can be used to analyse the data from an
experiment. A graph also shows the relationship
between two variables.
thermometer
water
Time (min)
Temperature (C)
00
018
01
018
03
032
05
046
07
060
09
074
11
088
13
100
15
100
Temperature (C)
80
60
40
20
0
0
11
13
15
Time (min)
Activities
13. Describe the graph. Why do you think the line begins and ends horizontally?
14. Do the same experiment with 300 mL of water.
a. Stir the water so the temperature is the same in all parts of the glass.
b. Measure the temperature of the water every two minutes.
c. Make a table and draw a graph.
d. Compare the two graphs. Are there any differences?
e. Does the amount of water affect the time it takes to heat up?
137
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Activities
24. Look at the picture. Which of the two substances
is denser? Why?
B
A
Mass (kg)
Volume (m2)
Cedar wood
57,000
100
Water
Lead
Aluminum
96 alcohol
570
1
22,600
Gold
Mercury
Density
(kg/m3)
1,000
2
3
54,400
5,400
19,300
800
Temper- Surface
Volume
ature
area
Unit
Symbol
138
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MATTER
Base
quantities
Derived
quantities
12
Projects
EXPERIMENT: Think up an experiment to prove the hypothesis: A digital watch measures
b. Procedures.
c. Conclusions.
WEB TASK: How warm is 50 degrees Fahrenheit? How big is a 30 inch TV screen?
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UNIT
13 Everything is matter
What do you remember?
What are icebergs and glaciers made of?
What state of matter is ice?
Can water exist in more than one state?
Is sea water made up of one substance or several?
What is fresh water made of?
Content objectives
Key language
Describing a process
Making generalisations
Describing
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Shape
Volume
Solids
Liquids
Gases
Hold shape
Shape of container
Shape of container
Fixed volume
Fixed volume
Solids expand
Liquids expand
if heated, or contract if cooled*
if heated or contract if cooled.
Volume of container
Gases expand to
occupy all available space.
Fluidity
Density
Compressibility
Difficult to compress
Easy to compress
Activities
Solids
The particles are very
close together, held by
strong forces of
attraction.
They vibrate
but do not
change
position.
Liquids
The particles are close together,
held by weak forces
of attraction.
They have some
freedom of
movement.
They can flow
and slide easily.
Gases
The particles are far apart and
move quickly in all
directions. The
particles have no
force of attraction.
They collide
with each other.
141
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fusion
vaporisation
solidification
condensation
Solid to liquid
When a solid is heated, the particles gain more energy
and move more. The forces of attraction between the
particles are weakened.
At a certain temperature, the particles have enough
energy to break free from their positions. When a solid
changes into a liquid, the process is called melting or
fusion.
The reverse process, when a liquid is cooled and changes
to a solid, is called solidification.
The temperature of a substance at fusion and
solidification is always the same one.
Liquid to gas
Activities
4. Study the diagram. Which arrows
(red or blue) indicate changes of state
produced by heating? Which arrows
correspond to changes produced
by cooling?
liquid
142
solid
fu
sio
n
so
lid
ifi
ca
tio
n
va
po
ris
at
co
io
nd
n
en
sa
gas
tio
n
sublimation
regressive sublimation
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Homogeneous mixtures
In homogeneous mixtures, you cannot distinguish each
component with the naked eye. They have a uniform
composition. For example, sea water, air, and vinegar.
Activities
What is a solution?
Mixture
air
Components
Homogeneous /
Heterogeneous
steel
granite
various minerals
Solute.
The dissolved
substance
Solution
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oxygen
Activities
8.
9.
144
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Hands on
Checking a hypothesis. Separating mixtures
Using the filtration method
The filtration method is good for separating an
insoluble solid from a liquid. (An insoluble substance
does not dissolve in water.)
You are going to separate a mixture of water and
sand using this method.
The liquid passes through the filter, but the solid
particles cannot go through.
Materials
water
a beaker
a funnel
some filter paper
a container for the mixture of water and sand
Activities
10. Does sand dissolve in water?
Is a mixture of sand and water homogeneous or
heterogeneous?
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Activities
Plastic
Glass
impermeable
light, flexible
resistant
Fibreglass
Fibre optics
excellent
conductor of light
light
flexible and
strong
elastic
multiple uses
146
Carbon fibre
resistant
does not rust
multiple uses
cables for
telephones,
computers
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organic matter 30 %
paper 25 %
textiles 10 %
plastics 7 %
glass 10 %
metals 8 %
other 10 %
DO
Activities
Organic
vegetables
leaves
Toxic
medicines
paints
Recyclable
bottles
newspapers
domestic
consumption
co
m
po
st
pl
as
tic
m
et
al
waste
collection
rubbish
dump
raw materials
processing
and
manufacturing
pa
pe
r
ss
ce
ro
p
g
lin
yc
c
re
toxic waste
incineration
147
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Activities
17. Read and classify: solid, liquid or gas.
a. oxygen
b. water
c. granite
d. hydrogen
e. oil
f. steam
g. salt
h. iron
Volume
Flows / does
not flow
Solids
a.
b.
c.
d.
Liquids
B
Gases
Its a
148
chemical
physical
is the same.
changes.
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Physical
states
13
Liquid
G
fu
si
so
on
lid
ifi
ca
tio
n
n
io
at
ris
n
po
tio
va
sa
en
nd
co
sublimation
EVERYTHING IS MATTER
Solid
Gas
regressive sublimation
Particle
theory
Mixtures
Pure
substances
Projects
INVESTIGATE: Research other methods for separating mixtures. Display the results in a poster.
Use diagrams and explanations.
WEB TASK: What is the fourth state of matter? Investigate.
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UNIT
Content objectives
Key language
Describing
Indicating location
Comparing
150
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Pgina 151
electrons
protons
nucleus
neutrons
Carbon atom
Nitrogen atom
6 protons
7 protons
Activities
1. In what ways are some atoms different from others?
2. Why is most of the structure of an atom empty?
3. Draw a carbon atom and label nucleus, protons,
neutrons and electrons.
151
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Black - solid
Blue - liquid
Red - gas
Purple - artificial
For example, the symbol for hydrogen is H and for magnesium it is Mg.
atomic
number
10
11
Mg
name
of the
element
13
12
Magnesium
14
In the Periodic Table, the elements are grouped according to their atomic
number. Elements with similar chemical properties are in the same column.
15
16
atomic
symbol
17
He
Hydrogen
Helium
10
Ne
Lithium
Beryllium
Boron
Carbon
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Fluorine
Neon
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
Na
Mg
Al
Si
Cl
Ar
Sodium
Magnesium
Aluminium
Silicon
Phosphorus
Sulphur
Chlorine
Argon
20
21
22
23
Ca
Sc
Ti
Potassium
Calcium
Scandium
Titanium
37
38
39
40
24
41
42
Zr
Nb
Rubidium
Strontium
Yttrium
Zirconium
Niobium
57
72
Cr
Sr
56
25
26
Mn
Rb
55
73
43
Mo
Tc
27
75
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
Fe
Co
Ni
Cu
Zn
Ga
Ge
As
Se
Br
Kr
Iron
Cobalt
Nickel
Copper
Zinc
Gallium
Germanium
Arsenic
Selenium
Bromine
Krypton
44
Ru
28
76
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
Rh
Pd
Ag
Cd
In
Sn
Sb
Te
Xe
Rhodium
Palladium
Silver
Cadmium
Indium
Tin
Antimony
Tellurium
Iodine
Xenon
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
Cs
Ba
La
Hf
Ta
Re
Os
Ir
Pt
Au
Hg
Tl
Pb
Bi
Po
At
Rn
Cesium
Barium
Lanthanum
Hafnium
Tantalum
Tungsten
Rhenium
Osmium
Iridium
Platinum
Gold
Mercury
Thallium
Lead
Bismuth
Polonium
Astatine
Radon
87
19
Be
11
Li
18
88
89
104
105
106
Fr
Ra
Ac
Francium
Radium
Rf
58
LANTHANIDE
SERIES
ACTINIDE
SERIES
59
Ce
Cerium
90
Db
Sg
60
Pr
107
Hs
Bohrium
Hassium
61
Nd
108
Bh
62
Pm Sm
92
93
Th
Pa
Thorium
Protactinium
Uranium
Np
94
Pu
109
Mt
110
Ds
111
Rg
63
Eu
64
Gd
Europium Gadolinium
95
96
Am Cm
Curium
65
Tb
Terbium
97
Bk
66
67
Dy
68
Ho
Dysprosium Holmium
98
99
Cf
69
Yb
Lu
Erbium
Thulium
Ytterbium
Lutetium
Fm
101
Md
102
No
4. Find platinum, gold and mercury in the periodic table. How many protons does each element have?
5. Can you find any other metals in the Periodic Table?
7. Say the letters of a symbol. Your partner says the element.
152
103
Lr
Activities
71
Tm
100
Es
70
Er
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Compound molecule
Water (H2O)
Simple molecule
Oxygen (O2)
O2 is an oxygen
molecule made
up of two
oxygen atoms.
A water molecule
is H2O: two
hydrogen atoms
joined with one
oxygen atom.
Activities
8. Look at the periodic table. How many noble
gases are there? What are their atomic
symbols?
9. Compare the main characteristics of atoms,
molecules and crystals. Make a table.
10. Draw pictures to illustrate an atom, an
element and a molecule.
Compound crystal
Common salt is made from
sodium and chloride atoms
bonded together.
153
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Pgina 154
two
oxygen atoms
O2
number of atoms
H2O
number of atoms
oxygen
atom
hydrogen
atoms
NaCl
chlorine
atom
proportion of each
F
sodium
atom
Sodium chloride
molecule
(Na Cl)
Activities
11. Copy the table and complete.
Name
154
Chemical formula
iron oxide
Fe2 O3
silver oxide
Ag2 O
aluminum oxide
Al2 O3
Atoms:
name and number
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Universe
hydrogen 83.9 %
helium 15.9 %
Living things
hydrogen 63 %
others 0.6 %
oxygen 25.5 %
nitrogen 1.4 %
oxygen 47 %
carbon 9.5 %
Earths crust
silicon 28 %
aluminium
7.9 %
others
1.69 %
iron
4.5 %
calcium 3.5 %
sodium 2.5 %
potassium 2.5 %
carbon 0.19 %
hydrogen 0.22 %
magnesium 2.2 %
Activities
13. Compare the pie charts.
a. Which is the most homogeneous? In which
is there more diversity?
b. Ask questions about the charts: for example,
Where is there more hydrogen? In the
Universe or the Earths crust?
Is there any silicon in living things?
14. Carbon is not the most abundant element in
living things. Which element is?
155
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156
Activities
15. Which element can you find in: fireworks,
sea shells, aeroplanes, and blood?
16. Classify the elements on this page in a table.
Metal
Non metal
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Hands on
Writing a fact file: Elements
Research an element from the Periodic Table.
Then, write up your fact file. Follow this outline to
help you.
1. Chemical composition.
Choose an element. What is its atomic symbol?
Draw the atom. What is its chemical formula?
4. Why it is important.
Is it important in living things, or in the
Earths crust?
Give some facts and examples.
2. Description.
Write a physical description of the substance. Is it
solid, liquid or gas? Is it a metal or a non-metal?
Calcium atom
157
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Activities
25. Study the diagrams. Different atoms are shown
in different colours.
Compound
Copper (Cu)
Sulphur
dioxide (SO2)
Sulphuric
acid (H2SO4)
Helium (He)
Elements in nature
Nitrogen (N2)
In sea water
Chlorine
water (H20)
Si
non-metal
It is in quartz.
It forms silicates.
158
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Substances
and formulas
Elements in
nature
14
Universe
Living
things
Earths
crust
Projects
for living things. Why?
159
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Vocabulary
1
The Universe
asteroids
Planet Earth
160
Living things
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Invertebrates
Vertebrates
161
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ciliates
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The hydrosphere
groundwater
sporozoa
Minerals
Rocks
162
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13
Everything is matter
163
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Key language
CLASSIFYING
Non-silicates
There are
five groups.
of non-silicates
minerals
Five.
Into two groups.
are there?
classified?
COMPARING
Planets are
The closest star
bigger than
to Earth is the Sun.
Are planets
bigger than
of
on
Where
Ferns
Flowering plants
the oceans.
the planet are under the oceans.
are
Ferns.
The higher
The higher
a place is,
the altitude,
Where is it colder?
Talc
is softer than
apatite.
Is
talc
harder than
the colder
the lower
it will be.
the density of the air.
the colder
apatite?
That box is
elements
Which are
elements?
it will be.
No, it isnt.
in the Universe.
DESCRIBING
The Sun
Asteroids
consists mainly of
are
exists
are
164
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DESCRIBING
A bacteria
an organised nucleus.
Does
a bacteria
Water
Water
is
absorbs heat.
a powerful solvent.
What
Petroleum
Mica
is
can be scratched
Is
How hard
petroleum a mineral?
is talc?
A pure substance
a rock.
with a fingernail.
No, its a rock.
It has a hardness of 1 on the Mohs scale.
has
Calcium
is
When
are
ovules
Igneous rocks
How
are
is produced.
are fertilised.
fertilised?
igneons rocks
When paper
When you mix
formed?
is burned,
sand and water,
it changes into
you get
ashes.
a heterogeneous mixture.
When does sublimation occur? When a solid changes directly into a gas.
EXPRESSING FACTS
Living things
Inorganic substances
What
Do
do living things
inorganic substances contain
carbon.
do?
carbon?
contains
do not produce
They reproduce.
No, they dont.
unicellular organisms.
their own food.
EXPRESSING AMOUNTS
The Earths atmosphere
is about 800 km
high.
About 800 km
high.
165
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EXPRESSING AMOUNTS
68.7% of fresh water
is found
in lakes.
due to
because of
temperature variations.
the water on its surface.
look blue?
As a result,
As a result of
metamorphosis
EXPRESSING CONTRAST
Some arthropods
Most gastropods
are
have
carnivores,
a shell,
but
but
However,
EXPRESSING DIRECTION
Water filters
Waves transport sand
into
along the coast and
the ground.
out to sea.
EXPRESSING PURPOSE
Water is necessary
Living things need glucose
to transport
to get
To transport
To get
substances.
energy.
to keep
them warm.
are used
Study
Research
166
the constellations.
more about them on the Internet.
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GIVING INSTRUCTIONS
Label
each jar.
Observe
the samples.
INDICATING LOCATION
Magnesium
is found in
minerals.
Where
is
magnesium
found?
In minerals.
MAKING GENERALISATIONS
Most sponges
Some molluscs
live
have
in the sea.
no shell.
Where
do
most sponges
All
Most
plants
gymnosperms
Do
have
are
Most rocks
Solutions
contain
can be
live?
roots.
evergreens.
Are
a mixture of minerals.
solid, liquid or gaseous.
are there?
Three.
are made up of
several organs.
What
are systems
made up of?
Some bodies
What
are divided
are
their bodies
Some rocks
Sedimentary rocks
How
are
rocks
How
is
into segments.
like?
irregular shapes.
in strata.
classified?
can be calculated
is used
surface area
A series of segments.
measured?
Into
MEASURING
The court
Density is measured
measures 18 by 15 metres.
in kilograms per cubic metre (Kg/m3).
Minus 273.15C.
In kilograms per cubic metre.
167
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Essential Natural Science 1 is a collective work, conceived, designed and created by the Secondary Education
department at Santillana, under the supervision of ENRIQUE JUAN REDAL, ANTONIO BRANDI and MICHELE C. GUERRINI
Content writers: Concha Barreiro, Marcos Blanco, Antonio Delgado, Beln Garrido, Pilar de Luis,
Miguel ngel Madrid, Ignacio Melndez, Margarita Montes and Cristina Zarzuelo
Content consultants: Kevin Salvage and Carmen Rengel
Language specialists: Mara Jos Snchez (Key language), Mara Rosa Batlle, Giselle Dubois, Paul House,
Kate Marriage, Beatriz Papaseit and Ana Mara Pons
English editors: Sheila Tourle, Sheila Klaiber, Kirsten Ruiz-McOmish, Rebecca Adlard and Patricia Gmez
Student CD:
Vocabulary organiser: Antonio Delgado
Web tasks: Jeannette West
Art director: Jos Crespo
Design coordinator: Rosa Marn
Design Team:
Cover: Martn Len-Barreto
Interior: Manuel Garca, Alfredo Mateo
Coordinator, design development: Javier Tejeda
Design development: Jos Luis Garca and Ral de Andrs
Technical director: ngel Garca Encinar
Technical coordinator: Marisa Valbuena
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Artwork coordinator: Carlos Aguilera
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Photographs:
A. Toimil; A. Toril; A. Vias; Algar; C. Dez; C. Jimnez; C. Roca; C. Surez; C. Valderrbano e I. Hernndez; D. Lezama; D. Lpez; F. de Santiago;
F. Gracia; F. Ontan; F. Orte; F. Po; G. Rodrguez; GARCA-PELAYO/Juancho; I. Rovira; I. Sabater; J. C. Martnez; J. C. Muoz/Instituto Geolgico y Minero de Espaa;
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The publishers would like to express their gratitude to the following teachers for their insightful comments and useful suggestions
throughout the preparation of Essential Natural Science.
Carlos lvarez Santos, Silvia Durn, Jos Ramn Noya, Maureen Vidal Gafford
Richmond Publishing
58 St Aldates
Oxford OX1 1ST
PRINTED IN SPAIN
Printed in Spain
ISBN: 978-84-294-2222-1
CP: 877306
D.L.: