CHAPTER 3

MOLECULES OF LIFE

CONTENT
Carbohydrates, sugars, short-chain carbohydrates,
complex carbohydrates
Fats,
oil, fatty acids, phospholipids, waxes,
cholesterols, steroids
Proteins, amino acids, enzymes; nucleotides, nucleic
acids, DNA, RNA
Minerals
Water

The hierarchy of biological organizations

WHY LEARNING THIS CHAPTER IS IMPORTANT?

Knowledge about molecules can tell you a lot about
life.
It can guide you into the past, present, and futurefrom ancient myth, to health or disease.
Knowledge on molecules interactions lead to the
understanding of life processes.

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPOUNDS

There are two different types of compound:

Organic and Inorganic (?major criteria).

Organic compounds are more likely to be found in

organisms.
Inorganic compounds are created by forces within the
Earth, e.g. minerals.

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPOUNDS

Observe the photo and differentiate between the

organic and inorganic compound.

INTRODUCTION TO MOLECULES OF LIFE

The Molecules of Life are the organic compounds
that contain carbon and at least one hydrogen atom.
Most organic compounds have one or more functional
groups (R group) covalently bonded to carbon
atoms (form the backbone of most organic
compounds).
Carbohydrates, fats, proteins, and nucleic acids molecules are needed for energy, structural materials,
metabolic workers, and carriers of genetic information.

Carbons importance for life starts with its

versatile bonding behavior:
Able to form covalent bonds with up to 4 other
atoms.
Serve as backbone for most of organic compounds.
Provide bases for the attachment of functional
groups.
It arrangement give variation to the shapes of
organic compounds.
Molecules structural features allow scientists to
predict their functions.

ABLE TO FORM COVALENT BONDS WITH UP TO 4

OTHER ATOMS: MOLECULAR SHAPE MODEL

Methane
(CH4)

CARBON ATOMS

In molecules with two carbon atoms, where each

carbon has four single bonds, is shaped like two
overlapping tetrahedrons. For example in ethane
(C2H6).

CARBON ATOMS

In molecules with two carbon atoms, where the two

carbon atoms is joined by double bond, is shaped are
in the same plane as the carbons. For example in
ethene (ethylene) (C2H4).

SERVE AS BACKBONE FOR MOST OF ORGANIC

COMPOUNDS: THE CARBON SKELETON
Carbon chain form the skeletons of most organic
molecules.
The skeletons vary in length, maybe straight,
branched or arranged in closed ring.

VARIATION OF CARBON SKELETON

VARIATION OF CARBON SKELETON

THE CARBON SKELETON

Some carbon skeleton have double bonds and vary in

number and locations.

Hydrocarbons are the simplest of the organic

compound, made from hydrogen and carbon.
The basic building block is one carbon with two
hydrogens attached, except at the ends where three
hydrogens are attached.

ISOMERS
Isomers are compounds with the same molecular
formulas, but different structures.
Classified into three groups:
Structural isomers
Geometric isomers
Enantiomers

ISOMERS

FUNCTIONAL GROUPS (R GROUPS)

Atoms or clusters of atoms that covalently bond
to carbon in organic molecules.
The number, kind, and arrangement of these groups
give rise to specific properties such as polarity and
acidity.
Exp: Carbonyl groups, make organic molecules
highly reactive with other compounds.

POLYMERS
Most macromolecules are polymers
Produced by linking monomers

WHAT CELLS DO TO ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

Organic compounds are needed for metabolism.

During metabolism, cells acquire and use energy as
they split, construct and rearrange organic
compounds.
Metabolism activities:
Maintain
cells viability (alive, grow and
reproduce).

WHAT CELLS DO TO ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

5 common classes of reactions that involve in

metabolism activities:

REACTIONS
Condensation:

2 molecules covalently bond into a larger one.

Cleavage/ hydrolysis

A molecule split into 2 smaller ones, as by hydrolysis

Functional group
transfer

1 molecule gives up a R group entirely, a different

molecule accepts it

Electron transfer

1 or more electrons taken from one molecule are

donated to another molecule

Rearrangement:

organizing of internal bonds converts one type organic

compound to another

WHAT CELLS DO TO ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

In cells, compounds are built up and broken down in
small steps by enzymes, which are proteins which
cause specific chemical reactions to occur. Each
enzyme causes one step in a metabolic pathway to
occur.
An example: condensing 2 sugars together by removing
a water (H2O) from two alcohol (-OH) functional
groups:
This reaction can also be reversed by adding water to
the bond. This is called hydrolysis, breaking apart a
bond by adding water.

FOUR BASIC TYPES OF ORGANIC MOLECULES

Most organic molecules in the cell
are:
1. Carbohydrates (sugars and
starches)
2. Lipids (fats)
3. Proteins
4. Nucleic acids (DNA and
RNA)
These molecules are usually in the
form of polymers, long chains of
similar subunits (monomers),
usually as macromolecules.

CARBOHYDRATES

CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrates (sugars) are the most abundant
biological molecules.
Carbohydrates make up the bulk of human diets.
Use for structural materials and energy.
Most consist of C, H, and O in a 1:2:1 ratio.
Three main types of carbohydrates are:
Monosaccharide (simple sugars)
Oligosaccharides (short-chain carbohydrates)
Polysaccharides (complex carbohydrates)
Carbohydrates may combine with other organic
compounds:
CHO and proteins form glycoproteins (?)
CHO and lipids form glycolipid (?)

MONOSACCHARIDES (SIMPLE SUGARS)

One sugar unit
Are the simplest carbohydrates
Monosaccharides have at least two hydroxyl groups
and one ketone or aldehyde group bonded to carbon
backbone.
Monosaccharides have the chemical formula Cx(H2O)y,
where x ranging between (3) triose, (4) tetrose, (5)
pentose, (6) hexose, (7) heptose.
Most are water soluble, easily transported in fluids,
and taste sweet.
Glucose is the most abundant monosaccharides, which
is used by cells for energy and as a structural building
block.
Other sugars are part of the nucleotide monomers of
RNA (ribose) and DNA (deoxyribose).

(a) Triose sugars (3-carbon sugars)

Hydroxyl group
(-OH)

Carboxyl group
(C=O)

Glyceraldehyde (C3H6O3)
(an aldehyde)

Dihydroxyacetone (C3H6O3)
(a ketone)

(b) Pentose sugars (5-carbon sugars)

Ribose (C5H10O5)
(the sugar
component of RNA)

Deoxyribose (C5H10O4)
(the sugar
component of DNA)

(c) Hexose sugars (6-carbon sugars)

Glucose (C6H12O6)
(an aldehyde)

Fructose (C6H12O6)
(an ketone)

Galactose (C6H12O6)
(an aldehyde)

FORMS OF GLUCOSE

FORMS OF GLUCOSE
Glucose is constantly bending and forming itself
into two different ring configurations millions of
times a second, when exist in water.
Oxygen at the end of the straight chain attaches itself
to the carbon on opposite end.
The hydrogen jumps off the oxygen and turns the
double-bond oxygen (=O into OH [hydroxide]).
Sometimes this OH will end up oriented downward
(alpha-glucose), and other times the OH will be
oriented upward (beta-glucose).

FORMS OF GLUCOSE

Alpha-glucose
(ring form)

Formation of glucose ring

Beta-glucose
(ring form)

OLIGOSACCHARIDES
(SHORT-CHAIN SUGARS)
Oligosaccharides are covalently bonded short chains
of sugar monomers.
Disaccharide
Two sugars
2 monosaccharide rings joined by a glycosidic
linkage
Most of the sweet things we eat are disaccharides:
table sugar is sucrose, glucose joined to
fructose.
Oligosaccharides are often bonded to lipids or proteins
that have roles in cell membrane functions and
immunity.

DEHYDRATION REACTION IN THE SYNTHESIS OF

MALTOSE

DISACCHARIDES

Sucrose, which is the table sugar is formed by

monomers of glucose and fructose by dehydration
reaction.

Keong BP

OLIGOSACCHARIDES
(SHORT-CHAIN SUGARS)
Composition of Carbohydrate Sugars

Type of Carbohydrate

Molecular Contents

Monosaccharides

Glucose (basic sugar unit)

1 molecule of glucose

Fructose (fruit sugar)

1 molecule of fructose

Galactose (derived from lactose) 1 molecule of galactose

Disaccharides
Sucrose (table sugar)

1 molecule of glucose + 1
molecule of fructose

Maltose (malt sugar)

2 molecules of glucose

Lactose (milk sugar)

1 molecule of galactose + 1
molecule of glucose

POLYSACCHARIDES (COMPLEX SUGARS)

o

Polysaccharides are straight or branched

chains of many sugar monomers.
Chains
of ~100-1000 sugar monomers of
same/different types covalently linked together
with glycosidic bonds.
Common important biological molecules
Common polysaccharides made from glucose
monomers are:
o 1. Starch (amylose, amylopectin)
o 2. Glycogen
o 3. Cellulose
o All consists of glucose monomers, but they differ in
their chemical properties.
o Differences in covalent bonding patterns that link
their glucose units.

1. STARCH
A stored form of glucose in plant.
Consists of two types of molecules: the linear /
helical amylose and the branched amylopectin.
Depending on the plant, starch generally contains 20 to
25% amylose and 75 to 80% amylopectin.
To make starch, plant use -glucose, with the -OH
pointed down.
Exist as large spiral-shaped molecule
Hydrophobic molecules (it resists hydrolysis, thats why
starch is used to store chemical energy in the waterbased environment in cells.

1. STARCH - AMYLOPECTIN

Starch - Amylopectin

Spiral form

2. GLYCOGEN
A stored form of glucose common in animal
tissues (equilvalent to starch in plants).
Glycogen is especially abundant in the liver and
muscles of highly active animals, including fishes and
humans,
Also exist in spiral shape.

AMYLOPLAST
Amyloplasts are non-pigmented organelles found
in some plant cells.
They are responsible for the synthesis and storage of
starch granules, through the polymerization of glucose.
Amyloplasts also convert this starch back into sugar
when the plant needs energy.
Large numbers of amyloplasts can be found in fruit and
in underground storage tissues of some plants, such as
in potato tubers.
Amyloplasts are starch grains.

AMYLOPLAST
Amyloplasts

3. CELLULOSE
Tightly bundled chains of glucose (~500 glucose)
produced in plants,
To make cellulose, plants use -glucose, with the -OH
pointed out.
Used to form structural elements in cell walls.

Cellulose

2. CELLULOSE

2. CELLULOSE

Cellulose vs Starch
Why cellulose is far tougher or stronger than starch?
o

Both are made up from glucose monomers.

But they have different covalent bonding patterns.

vs

STARCH VS CELLULOSE
In starch, sugar monomers are linked together by
glycosidic bonds.
o In cellulose, chains of glucose units stretch side by
side and hydrogen bond form at hydroxyl (-OH)
group.
o Many hydrogen bonds stabilize the chain in
tight bundles that form long fibers.
o Very few organisms produce enzymes that can
digest this insoluble material.
o

STARCH VS CELLULOSE

CHEMICALLY

MODIFIED

CARBOHYDRATES

CONTAIN OTHER GROUPS

o

Example: Chitin
Is a modified polysaccharide that has nitrogencontaining groups attached to many glucose
monomers.
Chitin strengthens the exoskeleton in many animals
like crabs and insects.
In most fungi, chitin reinforces the cell wall.
N-acetyl
glucosamine

SUMMARY:

THE FUNCTIONS OF CARBOHYDRATES IN ORGANISMS

Starch: Energy storage in

plant.
Cellulose:
Structural
supports & strengthens in
plant.
Glycogen: Energy storage
in animal.
Chitin:
Structural
supports & strengthens in
animal.

We should pause a moment to marvel at the diversity

that plants do with two simple molecules (CO2 and
water). With these, plants make sugars, starch, and
cellulose. Consequently, sugars are used to make oils and
fats (lipids).