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Sequence:
If a set of real numbers , , ,
occur according to some definite rule, then it is called
a sequence denoted by { } = { , , , } if n is finite
Or {
}={
,,
, . } if n is infinite.
Series:
+
+ +
Infinite Series:
If the number of terms in the series is infinitely large, then it is called infinite series and is
denoted by
= +
+ +
+ and the sum of its first n terms be denoted
by =
=
+
+ + .
Convergence:
An infinite series
Example:1 + + + ..
=1+ +
+ ..+
= 2, finite.
tends to either
Example:
= 1 + 2 + 3 + ..
=
( + 1)
2
lim
Therefore
is said to be divergent.
is divergent.
Oscillatory Series:
If lim
tends to more than one limit either finite or infinite, then the infinite series
is said to be oscillatory series.
Example:1.
= 1 1 + 1 1 + ..:
=
= 1 + (3) + (3) + ..
1,
0,
=
lim
1 (1) 3
1+3
,
,
=1+ +
+ +
Converges if | | < 1
Diverges if 1
Oscillates finitely if = 1 and oscillates infinitely if
< 1
Proof:
Let
.
=1+ +
i.e. 1 <
+ +
<1
=
lim
1
1
=
1
1
i.e. lim
=
lim
1
1
=
= 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + . +1 =
i.e.
lim
= .
Therefore the
1
1
=
lim
1 (1)
1+
,
,
= 1 1 + 1 1 + .
lim
1,
0,
=1+
+ +
+ .is
Convergent if > 1
Divergent if 1
Proof:
Let ( ) =
( )
=
= 1,
Thus
( )
converges if
+1
,
+1>0
1
,
+1 <0
1
When
,
1
,
1
=[
<1
>1
] =
1.
Theorem:
Let
= 0.
Proof:
If
= .
)(
++
=
+ +
lim
= lim
lim
=0
lim
Note:
Converse need not be always true. i.e. Even if lim
convergent.
Example 1:
= lim
=0
Example 2
=[
)] =
Example 2
Test the series for convergence,
Solution: Let
= . Then 2
=
=
Therefore
1
2
is convergent.
Comparison test:
1. Let
and be two positive term series. If
a.
is convergent
b.
,
Then
need not be
= 1 + + + + . . ..
Hence lim
of .
= 0, then
is also convergent.
2. Let
and be two positive term series. If
c.
is divergent
d.
,
Then
is also divergent.
Solution:
Let
and
=
log n n
1
1
log n n
u n vn
But
= is a p-series with
Therefore
= 1.
is divergent.
By comparison test
is also divergent.
Example 2
Test the series for convergence,
Solution:
Let
and
2 n 2n 1
1
1
n
n
2
2 1
vn u n
But
Therefore
By comparision test
is also convergent.
= < 1.
Statement:If
and
Then
behave alike.
and
That is if
If
converges then
diverges then
also converge.
also diverge.
Examples 3.
Test the series for convergence,
. .
. .
. .
+ .
:
2 1
( + 1)( + 2)
=
Choose
But
Therefore
then lim
with
= 2 > 1.
=2
is also convergent.
Examples 4.
Solution:
=
+1
+1
=
Let
= ( = 1)
lim
But
is also divergent.
Examples 5.
Test the series for convergence,
Solution:
1
2
+1
( 0).
u n n 3 1 3 n
a 3 b 3 (a b)(a 2 ab b 2 )
ab
a 3 b3
a 2 ab b 2
n3 1 n3
u n n 3 1 3 n
1 3 (n 3 1) 3 n n 2
1
1
n 1 3
n
Let
=
lim
But
with
=
1
1 3
1 3 1
n
= 2 > 1.
1
3
is also convergent.
Example 6.
Test the series for convergence,
Solve
Solution:
1
1
n 1
n
n
n 1 1
un
3
n 2 1 n 3 1 2 3 1
n n
Let
=
lim
But
Solution:
tan
. Then lim
=1
=1
= > 1.
=1
is also convergent.
Example 7
Test the series for convergence,
with
tan
But
is also convergent.
Example 8
Solution:
1+
=
Let
But
. Then lim
1
1
+
2
6
1
1
+
2
6
is also convergent.
Exercises
Test for convergence of the series
1.
2. 1 +
3.
. .
. .
. .
+ ..
4.
5. (
6.
INFINITE SERIES
lim
u n 1
=
un
then the series is convergent if < 1 , is divergent if > 1 and the test fails if = 1.
If the test fails, one should apply comparison test or the Raabes test, as given below:
If
Raabes Test:
lim
1 = (
> 1 , is divergent if
etc.
+ )
22
32
42
+
+
+ .
2!
3!
4!
12
22
32
3
n2
+
+
+
+ whose nth term is u n =
.
1!
2!
3!
4!
n!
(n 1) 2
n 1!
u n 1
(n 1) 2
(n 1) 2 n!
n!
n 1
=
=
.
= 2
2
2
un
n 1! n
n
( n 1)(n! )
n
.
.
Therefore lim
u n 1
n 1
1 1
= lim 2 = lim 2 = 0 < 1
n
un
n n n n
x2
x3
x
+
+
+ .
1. 2
2.3 3.4
>> un =
xn
n(n 1)
Therefore u n+1 =
Now
x n 1
( n 1)(n 1 1)
x n 1
(n 1)(n 2)
u n 1
x n 1
n( n 1)
n
=
.
=
x
n
un
(n 1)(n 2)
n2
x
Therefore lim
u n 1
1
n
= lim
x = lim
x=x
n n 2
n (1 2 / n)
un
convergent if x 1
Therefore by DAlemberts ratio test un is
divergent if x 1
And the test fails if x = 1
But when x = 1, un =
1
1n
1
=
= 2
n(n 1)
n(n 1) n n
x2
x3
x
+
+
+ .
2
5
10
>> Omitting the first term, the given series can be written in the form
x3
xn
x1
x2
+
+
+
so
that
u
=
n
n2 1
12 1 2 2 1 3 2 1
Therefore u n+1 =
x n1
n2 1
n 2 (1 1 / n 2 )
.
x
=
.x
lim
n n 2 (1 2 / n 2 / n 2 )
n 2 2n 2 n 2 2n 2
u n1
=x
un
convergent if x 1
Hence by ratio test u n is
divergent if x 1
and the test fails if x = 1.
But when x = 1, un =
1n
1
1
= 2
is of order 2 (p = 2 > 1)
2
n 1 n 1
n
2 1
x2
3 2
x4
4 3
>> omitting the first term, the general term of the series is given by un =
Therefore u n+1 =
x 2 ( n 1)
( n 1 2) ( n 1) 1
x 2n2
( n 3) n 2
u n 1
( n 2) n 1
x 2n 2
=
un
x 2n
( n 3) n 2
n2
n3
lim
n 1 2
x =
n2
u n 1
= lim
n
un
( n 2)( n 1)
( n 3)
x2
n(1 2 / n) n (1 1 / n)
n(1 3 / n )
. x2 = x2
x 2n
( n 2) n 1
convergent if x 2 1
Hence by ratio test u n is
divergent if x 2 1
and the fails if x2 = 1.
When x2 = 1, u n =
(1) n
( n 2) n 1
( n 2) n 1
x3
x5
x7
3
3.5
+
+
+
.
+ (x > 0)
2.3 2.4
5
2.4.6
7
1 x3
1.3 x 5
1.3.5 x 7
.
+
.
+
.
+ .
2 3
2.4 5
2.4.6 7
un+1 =
1.3.5...(2n 1) x 2 n 1
.
2.4.6...2n
2n 1
1.3.5...[2(n 1) 1]
x 2( n1) 1
.
2.4.6...2(n 1)
2(n 1) 1
1.3.5...(2n 1)
x 2 n 3
.
2.4.6....(2n 1) 2n 3
1.3.5...(2n 1)(2n 1) x 2 n 3
.
2.4.6....(2n)(2n 2)
2n 3
Therefore
That is,
u n 1
1.3.5...(2n 1)(2n 1) x 2 n 3
2.4.6...2n
2n 1
=
.
. 2 n 1
un
2.4.6....(2n)(2n 2) 2n 3 1.3.5...(2n 1) x
u n 1
(2 n 1)(2n 1) x 2
=
un
(2n 2)(2 n 3)
Therefore lim
u n 1
n( 2 1 / n) n( 2 1 / n) x 2
= lim
= x2
n
un
n( 2 2 / n) n( 2 3 / n)
convergent if x 2 1
Hence by ratio test, u n is
divergent if x 2 1
And the test fails if x2 = 1
When x2 = 1,
u n 1
(2n 1)(2n 1)
=
and we shall apply Raabes test.
un
(2n 2)(2n 3)
( 2n 2)( 2n 3)
lim n n 1 = lim n
1
n
( 2n 1) 2
u n 1
n
( 4n 2 10 n 6) ( 4n 2 4n 1)
= lim n
n
( 2n 1) 2
6n 5
= lim n
2
n
( 2 n 1)
n 2 (6 5 / n ) 6
3
= lim 2
= >1
n n ( 2 1 / n) 2 4
2
2 n 1 2 n
2
6 2 14 3
1+ x+
x +
x + + n 1
x + .
5
9
17
2 1
>> un =
2 n 1 2 n
x.
2 n 1 1
Therefore u n+1 =
2 n 2 2 n+1
x
2 n2 1
u n 1
2 n 2 2 n+1 2 n 1 1 1
= n2
x n 1
.
un
2 1
2 2 xn
u n 1
2 n 2 (1 2 / 2 n 2 )
2 n1 (1 1 / 2 n1 )
= n2
.x.
un
2 (1 1 / 2 n 2 )
2 n1 (1 2 / 2 n1 )
(1 1 / 2 n 1 )
(1 1 / 2 n 1 )
.x
.
(1 1 / 2 n 2 )
(1 1 / 2 n )
Therefore lim
u n 1
(1 0)
(1 0)
=
.x.
= x.
un
(1 0)
(1 0)
convergent if x 1
Therefore by ratio test un is
and the test fails if x = 1.
divergent if x 1
When x = 1, u n =
2 n 1 2
2 n 1 1
2 n 1 (1 1 / 2 n )
=1
2 n1 (1 1 / 2 n1 )
1+
2!
3!
4!
+ 3 + 4 +
2
3
2
4
>> the first term of the given series can be written as 1!/11 so that we have,
un =
(n 1)!
( n 1)(n! )
n!
n!
and un+1 =
=
=
n
n 1
n 1
n
(n 1)
(n 1)
(n 1) n
Therefore
lim
u n 1
n!
nn
nn
nn
=
.
=
=
un
(n 1) n n!
(n 1) n
n n (1 1 / n) n
u n 1
1
1
= lim
= <1
n
n
un
e
(1 1 / n)
= (
),
= 1.
Remark: Root test is useful when the terms of the series are of the form
We can note : (i) lim
(ii) lim
(1 + 1 )
(iii) ) lim
=1
(1 + )
1
Example : Test for convergence 1
n
n 1
1
>> un = 1
n3 / 2
1/n
Therefore (u n) = 1
1
= 1
lim (u n)
n
= lim
1/n
n 1/ 2
1
n
Therefore as n ,
3/2
1
= 1
1
= lim 1
n
n
1
1
n3 / 2
1/ n
1
< 1.
e
n also
= [ ( )]
( )
>> un = 1
n
n2
Therefore (u n)
n2
1/n
3
= 1
n
1/ n
= 1
n
-3
lim (un)1/n = lim 1
=e .
n
n
4
Therefore lim 1 = ex
n
n
1
< 1, therefore e = 2.7
e3
1
Example : Find the nature of the series 1
n
n 1
1
>> un = 1
Therefore (u n)
1/n
n3 / 2
= 1
1
= 1
lim (un)
n
1/n
n 1/ 2
3/2
1
= 1
1
= lim 1
n
n
1/ n
n3/ 2
= lim
1
1
1
< 1, since as n ,
e
n also
>> un = 1
n
Therefore (u n)
n2
n2
1/n
= 1
n
3
n
1/ n
= 1
n
lim (un)
n
1/n
3
x
-3
x
= lim 1
= e , since lim 1 = e
n
n
n
n
1
< 1, since e = 2.7.
e3
ALTERNATING SERIES
A series in which the terms are alternatively positive or negative is called an alternating
series.
i.e., u1 u2 u3 u4 ... 1
n 1
un
n 1
LEBINITZS SERIES
n 1
un converges if
n 1
(i)
(ii)
lim u n 0
n
Solution:
Here un =
then u n+1 =
1
1
1
1
+
+
6 13 20 27
1
7n 1
1
1
=
7(n 1) 1 7 n 6
therefore, un u n+1 =
1
1
7 n 1 7n 6
(7n 6) (7n 1)
7
=
>0
(7n 1)(7n 6)
(7n 1)(7n 6)
1
1
1
= lim
=0
n
7n 1
n ( 7 1 / n)
1
1
1
1
1
- 1
+ 1
- 1
+
log 2
log 3
log 4
log 5
Solution: Here un = 1 -
1
1
log( n 2) log( n 1)
Therefore, un u n+1 =
1
1
then un+1 = 1 log( n 1)
log( n 2)
log( n 1) log(n 2)
< 0.
log( n 2) log(n 1)
Since (n + 1) < (n + 2)
un - u n+1< 0 u n< u n+1
1
further lim u n = lim 1 -
= 1 0 = 1 0.
n
n
log( n 1)
Both the conditions of the Leibnitz test are not satisfied. So, we conclude that the series
oscillates between - and + .
Problems:
Test the convergence of the following series
1
1
1
....
2
3
4
1
1
1
1
....
ii
log 2 log 3 log 4 log 5
i 1
(iii )
n 1
n 1
n 1
n 1
1 x n
n 2 n n 1
iv
v
for 0 x 1
1
1 n2
An alternating series
a 1
n 1
n 1
n 1
An alternating series
a 1
n
n 1
n 1
n 1
(i)
(ii)
a 1
is divergent
n 1
n 1
un is convergent
n 1
Theorem: An absolutely convergent series is convergent. The converse need not be true.
an 1
Proof: Let
n 1
n 1
n 1
is
convergent.
We know, a1 a2 a3 a4 ... a1 a2 a3 a4 ...
By comparison test,
is convergent.
n 1
(ii)
a n2
1 a
2
n
; (iii)
an
1 an
Solution: (i) Since an converges, we have an 0 as n . Hence for some positive integer
N, |an| < 1 for all n N. This gives an2 |an| for all n N. As |an| is convergent it follows
an2 converges.
(as an2 is a positive termed series, convergence and absolute convergence are identical).
(ii) As 1 + an2 1 for all n, we get
the convergence of
(iii)
an2
a n2
1 a
2
n
an2
a n2
1 a n2
| an |
| an |
an
=
<
.
| 1 a n | 1 | a n |
1 an
As |an| converges, |an| 0 as n . Hence for some positive integer N, we have |a n| <
for all n N.
This gives
an
< 2|an| for all n N.
1 an
an
converges.
1 an
That is,
an
converges absolutely.
1 an
1 1
1
1
3 1 2 3 1 2 3 3 1 2 3 4 ...
3
2 3
4
5
then un un 1
n 1
1 2 ... n 1 n1 n 1 n 1 u
n
3
2
2 n 1
n 1
1
n2 n 1
0
2 n 1 2 n 2 2
Since is
is convergent.
1 n
1
. Take vn
2
2 n 1
n
Also, an
Then lim
an 1
0
vn 2
divergent, therefore
is also divergent.
POWER SERIES
A series of the form a0 a1 x a2 x 2 ... an x n ... (i ) where the ai s are
independent of x, is called a power series in x. Such a series may converge for some or all
values of x.
INTERVAL OF CONVERGENCE
In the power series (i) we have un an x n
Therefore, lim
a
un 1
lim n 1 x
n
un
an
a
1
If lim n 1 l , then by ratio test, the series (i) converges when x and diverges for
n
a
l
n
other values.
1
1
x within which it converges and diverges
l
l
for values of x outside the interval. Such interval is called the interval of convergence of the
power series.
Q. Find the interval of convergence of the series x
Solution: Here un 1
Therefore, lim
n 1
x 2 x3 x 4 x5
.... .
2 3 4 5
n 1
xn
n x
and un 1 1
n
n 1
un 1
n
lim
x x
n
un
n 1
By Ratio test the given series converges x 1 for and diverges for x 1 .
1 1 1
When x=1 the series reduces to 1 ... , which is an alternating series and is
2 3 4
convergent.
1 1 1
When x=-1 the series becomes 1 ... , which is divergent (by comparison with
2 3 4
(1)
n 1
xn
2n 1
Therefore u n+1 =
lim
xn
2n 1
(1) n x n1
2n 3
(1) n x n1 2n 1
u N 1
= lim
n
un
2n 3 (1) n 1 x n
= lim (1)
2n 1
x
2n 3
= lim (1)
n( 2 1 / n)
x =|x|
n( 2 3 / n)
1
2n 1
1
9
, u n+1 =
2n 3
1
2n 3
=0
1
n
1
n
1/ 2
1
3
1
5
1
2n 1
and is of
Since the alternating series is convergent and the absolute series is divergent when x = 1, the
series is conditionally convergent when x = 1.
If x = -1, the series becomes
1
3
1
5
1
7
- .
1
1
= -
2. Prove that
n 1
ii
n 2
n 1
....
2
3
4
x 2 x3 x 4
ii
x
....
2 2 32 4 2
x
x2
x3 x4
iii
....
1.2 2.3 3.4 4.5
i x
iv 3x 34 x 4 39 x9 .... 3n
x n ...
n 1
******
n 1
n n