Mark Renzel H.

Mariano
Assignment
in
Communications

Digital

Time Division Multiplexing

Time-division multiplexing (TDM) is a
method of putting multiple data streams in a
single signal by separating the signal into
many segments, each having a very short
duration. Each individual data stream is
reassembled at the receiving end based on the
timing.
The circuit that combines signals at the
source (transmitting) end of a communications
link is known as a multiplexer. It accepts the
input from each individual end user, breaks
each signal into segments, and assigns the
segments to the composite signal in a rotating,
repeating sequence. The composite signal thus
contains data from multiple senders. At the
other end of the long-distance cable, the
individual signals are separated out by means
of a circuit called a demultiplexer, and routed
to the proper end users. A two-way
communications
circuit
requires
a
multiplexer/demultiplexer at each end of the
long-distance, high-bandwidth cable.
If many signals must be sent along a
single long-distance line, careful engineering is
required to ensure that the system will perform
properly. An asset of TDM is its flexibility. The
scheme allows for variation in the number of
signals being sent along the line, and
constantly adjusts the time intervals to make
optimum use of the available bandwidth. The
Internet
is
a
classic
example
of
a
communications network in which the volume
of traffic can change drastically from hour to
hour. In some systems, a different scheme,
known as frequency-division multiplexing
(FDM), is preferred.
Frequency Division Multiplexing
Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) is
a scheme in which numerous signals are
combined for transmission on a single
communications line or channel. Each signal is
assigned a different frequency (subchannel)
within the main channel. A typical analog
Internet connection via a twisted pair
telephone line requires approximately three
kilohertz (3 kHz) of bandwidth for accurate and
reliable data transfer. Twisted-pair lines are

common in households and small businesses.

But major telephone cables, operating between
large businesses, government agencies, and
municipalities, are capable of much larger
bandwidths.
Suppose a long-distance cable is
available with a bandwidth allotment of three
megahertz (3 MHz). This is 3,000 kHz, so in
theory, it is possible to place 1,000 signals,
each 3 kHz wide, into the long-distance
channel. The circuit

that does this is known as a multiplexer. It

accepts the input from each individual end
user, and generates a signal on a different
frequency for each of the inputs. This results in
a high-bandwidth, complex signal containing
data from all the end users. At the other end of
the long-distance cable, the individual signals
are separated out by means of a circuit called a
demultiplexer, and routed to the proper end
users. A two-way communications circuit
requires a multiplexer/demultiplexer at each
end of the long-distance, high-bandwidth cable.
When FDM is used in a communications
network, each input signal is sent and received
at maximum speed at all times. This is its chief
asset. However, if many signals must be sent
along a single long-distance line, the necessary
bandwidth is large, and careful engineering is
required to ensure that the system will perform
properly. In some systems, a different scheme,
known as time-division multiplexing, is used
instead.
Wavelength Division Multiplexing
Wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) is a
method of combining multiple signals on laser
beams at various infared (IR) wavelengths for
transmission along fiber optic media. Each
laser is modulated by an independent set of
signals. Wavelength-sensitive filters, the IR
analog of visible-light color filters, are used at
the receiving end.
WDM
is
similar
to
frequency-division
multiplexing (FDM). But instead of taking place
at radio frequencies (RF), WDM is done in the
IR portion of the electromagnetic spectrum.
Each IR channel carries several RF signals

combined by means of FDM or time-division

multiplexing (TDM). Each multiplexed IR
channel is separated, or demultiplexed, into
the original signals at the destination. Using
FDM or TDM in each IR channel in combination
with WDM or several IR channels, data in
different formats and at different speeds can
be transmitted simultaneously on a single fiber.
The use of WDM can multiply the
effective
bandwidth
of
a
fiber
optic
communications system by a large factor, but
its cost must be weighed against the
alternative of using multiple fibers bundled into
a cable. A fiber optic repeater device called the
erbium amplifier can make WDM a costeffective long-term solution.

In the T1 system, voice or other analog signals

are sampled 8,000 times a second and each
sample is digitized into an 8-bit word. With 24
channels being digitized at the same time, a
192-bit frame (24 channels each with an 8-bit
word) is thus being transmitted 8,000 times a
second. Each frame is separated from the next
by a single bit, making a 193-bit block. The 192
bit frame multiplied by 8,000 and the
additional 8,000 framing bits make up the T1's
1.544 Mbps data rate. The signaling bits are
the least significant bits in each frame.

American Digital Carrier System

T-Carrier System
The T-carrier system, introduced by the Bell
System in the U.S. in the 1960s, was the first
successful system that supported digitized
voice transmission. The original transmission
rate (1.544 Mbps) in the T1 line is in common
use today in Internet service provider (ISP)
connections to the Internet. Another level, the
T3 line, providing 44.736 Mbps, is also
commonly used by Internet service providers.
The T-carrier system is entirely digital, using
pulse code modulation (PCM) and time-division
multiplexing (TDM). The system uses four wires
and provides duplex capability (two wires for
receiving and two for sending at the same
time). The T1 digital stream consists of 24 64Kbps channels that are multiplexed. (The
standardized 64 Kbps channel is based on the
bandwidth required for a voice conversation.)
The four wires were originally a pair of twisted
pair copper wires, but can now also include
coaxial cable, optical fiber, digital microwave,
and other media. A number of variations on the
number and use of channels are possible.
A T1 line in which each channel serves a
different application is known as integrated T1
or channelized T1. Another commonly installed
service is a fractional T1, which is the rental of
some portion of the 24 channels in a T1 line,
with the other channels going unused.

European Digital Carrier System

E-Carrier System
E1 (or E-1) is a European digital transmission
format devised by the ITU-TS and given the
name by the Conference of European Postal
and Telecommunication Administration (CEPT).
It's the equivalent of the North American Tcarrier system format. E2 through E5 are
carriers in increasing multiples of the E1
format.
The E1 signal format carries data at a rate of
2.048 million bits per second and can carry 32
channels of 64 Kbps each. E1 carries at a
somewhat higher data rate than T-1 (which
carries 1.544 million bits per second) because,
unlike T-1, it does not do bit-robbing and all
eight bits per channel are used to code the
signal. E1 and T-1 can be interconnected for
international use.
E2 (E-2) is a line that carries four multiplexed
E1 signals with a data rate of 8.448 million bits
per second.
E3 (E-3) carries 16 E1 signals with a data rate
of 34.368 million bits per second.

E4 (E-4) carries four E3 channels with a data

rate of 139.264 million bits per second.

E5 (E-5) carries four E4 channels with a data

rate of 565.148 million bits per second.